CASSELUS 



POPULAR GARDENING. 



EDITED BY 

D. T. FISH, 

ASSISTED IN THE PRESENT VOLUME BY 

Mr. JAMES BRITTEN, F.L.S., British Miiseum. Mr. WILLIAM HUGH GOWER, Nurseries, 
Mr. WILLIAM COLEMAN, The Gardens, Tootijtg. 

Eastnor Castle, Ledbury. Mr. JAMES HUDSON, The Gardens, Gunners- 

Mr. RICHARD DEAN, Ealing, W. bury House, Acton, W. 

Mr. WILLIAM EARLEY, Ilford, Essex. \ Dr. MAXWELL T. MASTERS, F.R.S. 

Mr. WILLIAM WILD SMITH, The Gardens, Heckfield Place, Winchfield, Hants. 



Mit() nutnerottfi |lluBtrattonB. 



Vol. I. 

6 66 

CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited: 

LONDON, PARIS, NEW YORK 6- MELBOURNE. 
[all rights reserved.] 



Pe,t. Office Lilte. 




INDEX OF CONTENTS. 



COMMON GAEDEN FLOWEES : page 
Introduction— The Daisy— The Forget-me-not ... 57 

Arabis— Aubrietias— Alyssnm 82 

Adonis— Candytuft 185 

Gillyflower Stocks— Wallflowers - Snow-iu-Summer 

—Thrift 199 

Lily of the Valley — Solomon's Seal — Bachelor's 
Buttons — Fair Maids of France— Meadow Eue 
— Columbine — Dianthus — Delphiniums, or 

Larkspurs 289 

The Antirrhinum, or Snapdragon— Hydrangea— 
The Pseony — Tree Pseonies — Michaelmas 
Daisies 368 



THE CUCUMBEE : 

Preparing Materials— Sowing Seed— Planting Out 
— General Culture — Cucumber-growing by Ex- 
press 351 

FEENS : 

Introdiiction— Maidenhair Ferns 48 

Gold and Silver Ferns — Nephrodium — Davallia ... 147 

Asplenium— The Onychiums 265 

FLOEISTS' FLOWEES : 

Introduction— The Auricula 14 

Balsams— Begonias— Carnations and Picotees— 

Cloves 120 

The Calceolaria -The Chrysanthemum 251 

The Cineraria— Cockscombs— The Cyclamen ... 381 



GAEDEN POTS AND POTTING : p.^ge 
The Pot Trade— Materials— Sizes and Shapes- 
Various Miscellaneous Kinds of Pots 3 

Potting Plants — Dibbhng-in — Flooding Home— 
Pricking-off — Potting-off— Shifting— Composts 
The One-shift Treatment 112 



GAEDEN WALKS AND EOADS : 

The Foundation of Eoads— The Surface —Construc- 
tion — Width — Carriage-sweeps 

Garden Walks— Kitchen Garden Walks— Working 
Walks or AUeys— Abolition of Walks in 
Kitchen Gardens— Cheap Walks— Maintenance 
of Walks— Grass Walks, Eoads, and Eides— 
Edgings, Terra-cotta and Living Edgings 
—Objections to the Latter 

Lines of Beauty in Walks and Eoads— Straight 
Lines and Curves— Laying Out— Entrances- 
Avenues— Edgings— Garden AValks— Lines of 
Divergence — Privacy 

GEE EN-HOUSE PLANTS : 

Introductory — Abutilon — Acacia — Acroph j^llum — 
-. ■ . Adenandra— Agapanthus — Agave 

Aloe — Aotus — Aphelexis— Ai-alia— Araucaria 

Azalea — Banksia — Beaufortia — Bignonia — Boro- 
nia — Bossicea — Eouvardia — Burtonia — Callis- 
tachys— Callistemon 

Camellia— Campsidium— Canarina—Cantua— Cera- 
tostema— Chamoerops— Cheirobtemon— Choro- 
zema— Citrus — Clethra 



76 



258 



62 
159 



273 



360 



THE FLOWEE GAEDEN: 

Position— Style— Formation 44 

Summer Bedding — Colours— Designs for Summer 

Bedding 100 

Propagation and Wintering of Summer Bedding 



Plants — Violas — Calceolarias — Gnaphalium 
and Thymes — Echeverias — Altemantheras — 
Verbenas, Mesembryanthemum, and Lobelia— 
Eoots and Tubers— Cannas— Coloured Foliage 

Bedders 154 

Carpet Bedding— Position and Extent— Preparing 

the Beds— Plans 218 

Sub-tropical Bedding — Character rf Plants- 
Arrangement and Form of Beds— Lists of 

Plants and Hints on Culture 222 

Succulent Bedding — Arrangements— Lists — Gene- 
ral Culture 312 

The Mixed Style- Its Merits— Arrangements- 
Lists of Suitable Plants— Annuals and Bien- 
nials ... 348 



GEOUND OPEEATIONS: 

Levelling— Mistakes— Methods ... 10 

Trenching— Mistakes in Trenching— The Only 

Profitable Kind— Tools and Methods- Time? 

for Trenching ... 96 

Drainage— Keeps Land both Dry and ]\Io:st 

and Warm — Enriches and Deepens Soils ... 142 
Drainage (continued)— 'Line of Drains— Distance— 

Depth— Fall— Sizes— Materials and Forms— 

Outlets— Draining Tools— Laying the Drains... 237 
Digging— Advantages of Digging— Laying out the 

Work— Changing Hands— Dilferent Kinds of 

Digging— The Fork 270 

HAEDENING-OFF OF PLANTS 217 

HEEBS AND SMALL SALADS : 

Introductory — Angelica — Anise — Balm — Basil — 
Borage — Capsicum — Caraway — Chamomile — 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



HEEBS AND SMALL SALADS [continued) : page 
Chervil— Chicory— Chive - Coriander — Cress — 
Dandelion— Dill— Fennel— Horse-radish— Hys- 
sop — Ice Plant — Lavender — Marjoram 51 

Mustard— Onions— Parsley — Purslane — Eadish — 
Bampion— Kosemary— Sage— Savory— Skirret 
—Sorrel— Thyme 136 

THE KITCHEN GARDEN : 

Site — Size— Soil — Artichokes — Asparagus — Beans, 

Broad 25 

Shape — Furnishing — Culture — Manure — Beans, 

Kidney and Runner— Beet— Broccoli 106 

Artificial Waterings— Summer Culture -Season- 
able Work — Exhausted Crops — Brussels 
Sprouts— Borecole— Cabbage— Cabbage Cole- 
worts —Savoy— Cardoon— Carrot— Cauliflov/er 165 

Celery — Celeriac — Egg-plant — Endive — Leek- 
Lettuce 205 

Onions — Parsnips — Peas — Rhubarb 373 

THE LIFE-HISTORY OF PLANTS : 

Growth — Seeds— Buds— Reserve Organs 20 

Germination — The Radicle — The Caulicle — The 

Seed-leaves — Practical Inferences ... ... 85 

Growth of Buds— Nature of Buds— How they are 
Nourished — Their Individuality— Varieties — 
Bud Scales 195 

Bulbs —Varieties in Bulbs — Corms— Tubers — Prac- 
tical Inferences 295 

MUSHROOMS AND THEIR CULTURE: 

Formation of the Beds— Indoor and Outdoor— The 
Proper Heat— The Spawn— Portable Culture 
in Pots or Small Boxes— Mushroom Growth 
Everywhere 243 

THE ROSE AND ITS CULTURE : 

The Botanical Characteristics of the Rose 34 

Rose Stocks— Briar Stocks — Preparation of Briar 
Stocks— Planting— Briar Roots, Cuttings, and 
Seedlings - Other Rose Stocks— Special Stocks 

lor Special Rcses 70 

Propagation of Roses— By Seeds— Sports— Budding 
Roses— Preparation, Process, and After-treat- 
ment — Budding without Stocks 176 



THE ROSE AND ITS CULTURE (contined) : page 
Propagation of Roses [continued) — By Cuttings — 
Dormant and Growing Shoots — Cold and Warm 
Methods — Spring Cuttings — Grafting— Diffe- 
rent Modes of Grafting— Layers— Suckers— 

Root-division 210 

Planting Roses— Time to Plant— Place— Soil- 
Plans for Rose Gardens and Beds— The Pro- 
cess of Planting— Arrangement of the Plants 314 

SUBURBAN GARDENING : 

Suburban Difficulties— Preparation— Plans— Ter- 
races and Rows of Houses — The Forecourt — 
The Back Garden— Plans— Planting 1.31 

Supply and Management of Small Gardens- 
Propagation- Sowing Seeds — Buying Plants — 
Watering— Care of the Soil— The Lawn ... 225 

Detached Villa Gardens — Fruit-trees— Unsuitable 
Subjects — Acclimatised Plants — Times for 
Planting or Removal — Hedges — Planning— 
The Kitchen Garden— Maintenance— Fruit- 
Vegetables 281 

The Greenhouse and Conservatory in Suburban 
Gardens — Vine Culture - Plants for the Green- 
Louse — Shrubs and Trees — Climbers— Coniferga 
—Roses— Plants— Fruits— Vegetables 324 

THE VINE AND ITS FRUIT: 

Introductory — Large Vines and Bunches — Houses 

for Grape-growing — Artificial Heating 91 

Vine Borders— Drainage— Soil— Heated Borders- 
Water— Covering— Renovating— Mulching ... 172 

Propagation— Cuttings - Layering— Eyes— Eyes in 
Turf— Grafting— Inarching— Budding— Green- 
budding — Planting Vines — Select Lists of 
Grapes 229 

Management of Newly-planted Vines — The First 
Year — The Second Year— Pruning — Third and 
Fruiting Year 301 

General Management — Setting the Fruit — Thin- 
ning — Moisture and Watering — Ventilation — 
Pruning and Training 306 

Keeping Grapes through Winter in Bottles and 
Troughs — Packing Grapes —Exhibiting — Fruit- 
ing Vines in Pots — Pot Vines for Table Deco- 
ration—Varieties of Grapes 338 



CASSELL'S 

Popular Gardening. 



I N T E D U C T 1 N 




HE design of this work is, briefly, to bring a knowledge of the best 
gardening practice, and of the principles on which it is based, within 
easy reach of the people at large. It may be said that there 
is no lack of works on gardening already ; and this is undoubtedly 
true. Some of these, however, are scarce ; others are expensive ; and 
most of them are now more or less superseded by the rapid advance 
made in the knowledge and practice of gardening within the last 
few years. Horticulture has, in fact, lately advanced with such leaps 
and bounds that its literature has hardly kept pace with the im- 
provements made in its practice. It may also be not unfairly said 
that the majority of works on horticulture have been written for 
the few rather than for the many. For one interested in gardening 
ten years ago, however, a hundred or a thousand are interested to- 
day ; and this large public will, it is hoped, cordially welcome an 
attempt to place the knowledge and practice of the highest authorities within their reach. 

The rapid rise and progress of commercial horticulture, the demand for open spaces, 
the multiplication and improvement of public parks, the enormous imports of foreign 
fruit and vegetables, the marvellous increase in the home culture of flowers, fruit, and 
seeds — all these things point to an unlimited extension of garden pursuits in the near 
future. When the imperial importance of horticulture as a powerful factor in augmenting 
the food supplies, promoting the comfort, elevating the character, and improving the sani- 
tary state of the nation, becomes better known and more generally appreciated, few will 
rest content until they possess a garden of some sort. And few need any longer stand 
aside from the pursuit of horticulture, as too difiicult or too costly for them. Thoroughly 
understood and properly practised, it is neither one nor the other ; while no pursuit 
yields quicker returns, or richer revenues of pleasure, profit, and relaxation for the money 
and time invested in it. 

While aiming, therefore, to make this work a safe and sufficient guide for the most 
experienced, it is hoped to avoid a glaring fault of many current treatises on gardening, 
viz., an assumption of the possession of too much knowledge on the part of their 
readers. Beginning at the very beginning of our subject, as regards the earth, and those 
plants which clothe it with plenty and adorn it with beauty, it will be our aim to teach, 
by a series of easy articles or lessons, how the former may be ameliorated and enriched, 
and the latter multiplied and improved. 



2 



IXTKODUCTIOX. 



Tlie machinery of the plant, its outward conformation, internal organisation, and 
method of working, as well as the circumstances by which it is influenced, will recei\'e 
proper explanation. In this department the object will be to call attention to those 
points in vegetable anatomy and physiolog}^ which have a direct bearing on the practice 
of gardening. We shall endeaAOur to give the cultivator such a general insight into 
the structure and working of the plant-machine, as shall enable him to regulate his 
practice intelligently, and independently of mechanical routine. It is also hoped that 
the information so provided will be of service, by furnishing suggestions for dealing with 
novel combinations of circumstances, or matters outside the range of former experience ; 
and thus most effectually enable the cultivator to further the progress of his art, and 
— in some way or the other — leave it better than he found it. 

The fullest and latest information will be given on such subjects as the formation 
and maintenance of artificial climates, by the erection and warming of glass-houses or 
other structures ; the formation and furnishing of the Vegetable, Flower, and Fruit 
Gardens ; and the propagation by every known means of all the plants of the garden. The 
CULTURE OF Flowers and Decorative Plants will be treated from various points of view. 
The general formation of the Flower Garden, with methods of keei)ing up an attractive 
display throughout the changing seasons, will be dealt Avith. The plants themselves will 
also be described in detail, with their special methods of culture and propagation ; the green- 
house and parterre receiving equal attention. Roses will receive copious treatm(.*nt in a 
series of special articles devoted to their propagation, culture, pruning, training, use in 
garden landscape, selective and descriptive lists of the choicest varieties — old and new — for 
gardens large and small, the clothing of walls, culture in pots and under glass, and planting 
in out-of-the-way places. In a word, we hope to teach every reader how to form, furnish, 
and cultivate his garden in the best Avay, at the least cost, and to the most profitable and 
pleasant purpose. 

Without wholly endorsing the suggestive saying, that the smaller the garden the greater 
is the skill needed to manage it aright, we are so keenly alive to the trials and discourage- 
ments of small gardeners, that we purpose to specially afford as full and safe guidance and 
as much encouragement to those Avhose gardens may be found in tlie front and back yards, 
area, or house, as to others who may grow acres of fruit or flowers under glass or in the 
open. Suburban gardening will have a series of articles to itself, as also will Window 
gardening, and other forms of horticulture in or about the home. 

Writers of special knowledge and proved ability in every department and phase of 
gcxrdening have undertaken to treat these various subjects ; and wherever illustrations can 
assist, either to give an adequate idea of flower or plant, to explain the details of pruning, 
grafting, or other operations, to elucidate a system, or to make clear the structures or 
appliances described, they will be freely employed. Neither labour nor expense will be 
spared to make the following pages a full and safe guide for gardens of all sizes, and for all 
sorts and conditions of gardeners. 



GAEDEN-POTS AND POTTING. 



3 



GAEDEN-POTS AOT) POTTING. 



GARDEN-POTS. 

IT is impossible to over-estimate the \ital im- 
portance of these appliances and operations in the 
prosecution and progress of horticulture. Supposing 
the supply of garden-pots and the ability to use them 
withdi-awn! horticulture would not merely stand 
still, but speedily relapse into a state of chaos and 
retrogression. From seed to finished produce, pots 
minister to the wants of plants, and nurture them 
carefully through all the preliminary stages and 
processes fi-om start to finish. Pots virtually endow 
plants with locomotive powers, making them safely 
portable at all times and seasons, and in all places ; 
thus enabling cultivators to concentrate the gems of 
the vegetable kingdom into any given area. By 
their exclusive and retentive forces, they also pro- 
vide specially suitable food for any number of plants, 
and furnish a separate larder for each when neces- 
sary. Pots of proper quality, skilfully used, hold 
their food-stores almost as securely and safely for 
the roots, as iron safes with Chubb-locks hold the 
property of their owners. 

But it is not needful to dwell on the usefulness of 
pots : they are \dtal necessities to the pursuit of 
modem horticulture. The demand for them has be- 
come so ui'gent and extensive as to have created and 
sustained a ^'irtually new trade of enormous dimen- 
sions — that of the special manufacture of garden- 
pots. 

The G-arden-pot Trade. — Doubtless for many 
years, in the majority of general potteries, garden- 
pots have been made. Many of these, from the very 
circumstances of the case, were more or less inferior. 
No special preparation of clay or earth was considered 
necessary, and, as the quantities turned out were 
limited, few or no special hands were kept for that 
purpose. 

All this is completely changed now. One fii^m 
alone — certainly one of the largest in the trade — 
to whose courtesy we are indebted for some of the 
facts of this chapter, turns out garden-pots at the 
rate of a million and a quarter or a million and a 
half a year. Probably other makers almost equal 
this enormous average, while there are hundreds of 
provincial potteries spread broadcast over the country 
where garden-pots are made and distributed; so 
that thirty millions a year would probably be a low 
estimate of the actual number produced. Few facts 
could give a more vi\id. picture of the enormous 
extent and growing power of modem horticulture 
than the reading of such figures ; or better still, 
were that possible, a bird's-eye \iew of those piled- 
up mountains of millions of garden-pots. jNIere 



figures give poor and meagre notions of facts. For 
example, the number of gallons of bitter beer or 
stout consumed can hardly be estimated by figures. 
But enter the stores of full, and the yards of piled- 
up empty casks, and the magnitude of the consump- 
tion grows more and more manifest. Fortunately 
for most of the makers of the finer qualities of 
garden-pots, their reserve stores are seldom very 
large. The demands in the form of orders are so 
urgent and constant, as almost to outrun supplies. 
Hardly have the pots been drawn from the kilns 
before they are whipped off by road, rail, or river to 
all parts of the three kingdoms ; and the potters are 
such adepts in the art of packing, that as a rule 
not more breakages will be found after a journey 
of three hundred miles than take place in one of 
thi-ee. 

Tke pots are not only distributed throughout 
Great Britain and Ireland, but to other parts of 
Europe, to Africa, and New Zealand. Consignments 
of fifty thousand pots at one time are not unknown 
to the trade, and some of the great nurserymen use 
from a hundred and fifty thousand to a quarter of a 
million pots a year. Orders from a hundred thousand 
down to forty thousand are comparatively common, 
and, of course, from these large numbers downwards, 
orders become thick as blackberries. Hence the gross 
output of garden-pots a year cannot well be less than 
that which has been stated. To the question, "WTiere 
do they all go ? no very satisfactory answer can be 
given. Of course, growers for sale, who after all 
are by far the largest consumers of pots, sell their 
pots with the j^lants, and as trade grows, and plants 
increase, the demand for pots increases with it. 
Hence firms that wanted one hundred thousand 
last year, are likely to need one hundred and twenty 
thousand next, and so in degree in private gar- 
dens ; hence the demand for pots is sure to increase 
and extend. The late agricultural depression, which 
has lasted through several years, checked to some 
extent the yearly increase of garden-pots. But it 
has been reported recently that the trade is rapidly 
recovering, and is likely to exceed all former dimen- 
sions. 

Material and Quality.— AVer e a horticultural 
Eip Van Winkle to wake now, nothing would 
astonish him so much as the enormous number 
of garden-pots, and their improvement in shape, 
texture, and quality. They are as unlike as 
anything can well be to the older pots of English 
manufacture, and the inferior ware often re- 
ceived with plants from the Continent. The more 
the worse, unfortunately applies to not a few of our 
manufactured products. But the more the bettor, is 
emphatically applicable to our modem garden-pots. 



4 



CASSELL'S POPrLAB GARDENING. 



Extended insatiable consumption has not only stimu- 
lated production, but improved the methods and 
products. At one time almost any clay that made 
fail' bricks or serviceable drain-tiles was held to be 
good enough for garden-pots. Hence not a few of 
them were coarse, clumsy, heavy, almost as hea%y 
as bricks — very little better, in fact, for cultural 
purj)oses, or conveyance to distant parts. Modem 
garden-pots are hght, strong, clean, and durable. 
Their quality is almost all that can be desired, while 
prices have fallen rather than risen with their 
improvement. 

Several causes have contributed to this result. 
Most of the leading potters are men who not only 
put their capital but their hearts into theii' business. 
They have a laudable pride in the quality of their 
wares. Competition in garden pottery, and the offer 
of medals, or other prizes, at the Manchester, 
metropolitan, and other great horticultural shows, 
for the best garden-pots, has also done a good deal 
to improve it. A manufactory at Weston-super-Mare 
has been the fortunate winner of most of the j)remier 
prizes at these competitions. Some attribute this 
to the superior quality of the clay at the above 
place. No doubt this led to the establishment of 
the manufacture of garden-pots in that locality, 
about half a century ago. But as much, or more, 
depends upon due intermixture, and proper woi'king 
of the clay, as upon its original quality or character. 
That, however, is of the best quality for the making 
of garden or other pots, terra-cotta or other vases, 
window boxes, baskets, &c. 

One hundred parts of the di-y clay consist of : — 



Silica 57-29 

Alumina ........ 13"55 

Ferric oxide -i'SO 

Manganese oxide . . . . . • 0"^6 

Carbonate of Lime 8-84 

Magnesia 2"27 

Potash . 3-62 

Loss in Calcination (cMefly water and )_ jq-qq 

Carbonic acid) ) 



100-99 

A layer of this clay overlies clay of inferior 
quality and other strata, to a depth of about six 
feet. Good as it is by nature, the potter immediately 
sets about its further improvement by art, and the 
preparatory stages of the process are very similar to 
those adopted in the formation or further improve- 
ment of surface mould. Time, admixture, exposure, 
are the slow but sure influences that bring the clay' 
into workable form, and mellow it into higher 
quality. To bring these more actively and power- 
fully to bear upon it, the clay is dug out and spread 
over the surface to the depth of a yard or so. In 
this state it is left fully exposed to every vicissitude 



of our climate ; rain, wind, sun, and frost being 
the most powerful agents in improving the quality 
of the mass. After the first layer is suflSiciently 
weathered, a second, third, or more layers may 
be added un^til the clay-heap reaches to any con- 
venient height. The longer the clay can be ex- 
posed thus, the better as a rule its quality. Before 
use, this heap of weathered clay is turned over, and 
thoroughly mixed and incorporated in the process. 
It is then passed through a mill, which completes the 
mixing and the tempering of the clay, converting the 
whole into a plastic mass of as nearly as possible 
uniform qualit3\ From the j^ug-mill it is carried 
to the throwing sheds, where it is worked almost 
as bread is before being placed in the oven ; the 
workmen being assisted in completely working the 
clay by cutting it asunder with wires, and dashing it 
together again, until it becomes .sufficiently pliable 
and homogeneous to be converted into garden- 
pots. 

These particulars refer only to the best clay ; 
when stones abound in the clay, or it contains an 
excess of silica, the one must be screened and the 
other washed out before the clay reaches this stage. 
AVIien the amalgamation of all the parts of the clay 
is completed, and its homogeneity is perfected, it is 
then divided into bolls or balls, in a similar way to 
the division of dough into roll or loaf pieces. These 
vary in size, according as the pots are to be large or 
small, and practice enables the workmen to separate 
the clay into the exact-sized ball needed for any 
sized pot, with scarcely an atom of loss or excess. 
Before reaching this stage, however, it was the 
practice at one time to di%ide the clay into portions 
termed casts. These were all of equal size, and 
thus one cast of clay might make eighty pots 
or one only, according to the size. Hence eighty, 
sixty, forty-eight, thirty-two, twenty-four, sixteen, 
twelve, eight, six, foiu', two, or one pot, out of a 
cast or measure of clay, became popular and useful 
measures of sizes. Until very recently the numbers 
in the cast were the only index to measure in the 
ordering of pots. As the amount of clay was the 
same, the same wages — until the larger sizes were 
reached— were paid for making eighty pots, twenty- 
four, or twelve, and the same price was charged to 
the purchaser. This system of selling pots is now 
generally abolished, and a sliding scale of prices is 
established, ranging fi'om a farthing to five-and- 
twenty shillings or more per pot, and from thi-ee- 
pence to eighteen shillings per dozen. But from 
the grinding, moulding, or throwing sheds, where 
the clay has been worked into quality, and divided 
into balls, it is cast to the thrower, who sits at 
his wheel, and moulds the finished pots out of the 
baUs as i£ by magic, by the aid of his fingers. This 



GAEDEN-POTS. 



is one of the most primitive and astonishing* of all 
the processes in the art of pot-making. The potter's 
wheel has undergone little or no improvement since 
the Israelites made pots, douhtless as well as hricks, 
on such hard lines in Egypt ; and any one that looks 
at the speed and perfection with which, under the 
spell of the eye and hand of the potter, it does its 
work, cannot wonder that in a world of change 
this rude piece of mechanism remains the same 
throughout the ages. As the pots are made, they 
are ranged by fifties, more or less according to size, 
on a drying-hoard, and placed in drying-sheds until 
fit for baking. When they arrive at this state, they 
are made into nests, as it is teclinically called — that 
is, the difterent sizes are slipped into one another 
imtil the whole is filled with pots, and so jjlaced in 
the oven. This economises space to the utmost, and 
has also other advantages. When the kUn is filled, 
the door is built up, and rendered air-tight with clay. 
The fires are then lighted, and a strong heat kept up 
for two or three days of twenty-four houi's each. The 
fire is then allowed to die out, and the fire-place is 
hermetically sealed to allow the glowing mass, of pots 
to cool slowly and regularly, sudden changes of 
temperature having a tendency to fracture the pots 
at this stage. When cool the pots are withdrawn. 
In large establishments, where from fifty to sixty 
men and boys are employed, several kilns are in 
use ; as they can hardly be filled with pots, the pots 
be drawn, and filled again, within less than a 
week. 

As the making of garden-pots in quantity is a 
very modern manufacture, and information in re- 
lation to it is rare, and not readily accessible, it is 
hoped the details here given will prove useful and 
interesting to our readers. 

Cleanliness. — This merit was named in connec- 
tion with the other good qualities of strength, light- 
ness, and durability. The phrase, however, is hable 
to be misunderstood. All new garden-pots are clean, 
but what of the old ones ? Ah I there's the rub. Now 
the best garden -pots, such as those here described, 
will xvear clean ; that is, the texture and quality is 
such that they oifer no foothold for fungoid growths 
on their outer surface, nor adherence of earth to their 
inner sides. The best pots are more or less porous ; 
less, however, rather than more. This matter will 
be fm^ther adverted to in estimating the merits or 
demerits of glazed pots. Pots sufficiently porous 
to be seldom or never dry are decidecQy dirty pots ; 
the clamp invites and retains all sorts of atmospheric 
impurities, and living spores cling to, abide, and 
grow on their slimy surfaces. Similar processes go 
on inside ; and pots thus coated without and within 
with foreign excrescences and impurities are totally 



unable to maintain the plants imprisoned or 
poisoned in or through them in health and vigom-. 
A good pot, when dry, rings clear as a bell ; a 
bad one gives forth a dull sound, more like a soaked 
brick or a log of wood. No amateur should 
purchase old pots. They are not seldom poisoned 
with dirt, and infested with the germs of the most 
troublesome vermin, and are far too dear even if got 
for nothing. Purchase only of the best makers, as 
these cannot afford to make or sell bad pots. They 
either give them away should any occur by ac- 
cident, or smash them at the kiln's mouth. The 
maker who makes and sells fifteen or twenty thou- 
sand x^ots a Aveek, cannot afford to make them of 
inferior quality: it is the quality alone that creates 
and sustains the trade, and consequently that must 
be upheld at any sacrifice or cost. 

Sizes and Shapes. — If what has been ^aid 
about casts has been clearly understood, it will be seen 
that pots must be of many varied sizes, when the 
same clay that may be moulded into one will make 
eighty, or even a hundred. These extreme varia- 
tions of size are also necessary, as the seedling 
almost too small to handle finds a suitable home 
in a thimble-pot, while the orange-tree, camellia, 
oleander, or fuchsia, ten feet Jiigh and five through, 
is as much at home in a number four, two, or one- 
sized pot. The old names and sizes of pots were 
as follows; and as ihey are still used in some parts 
of the country it may be useful to give them here, 
as well as the newer nomenclature, which is based 
on m.easurement only : — 



OLD NAMES AND SIZES. 



Depth. 


Diameter. 


Niimher 
to Cast. 


Name. 




Inches. 


Inches. 






Inches. 


18 


20 


1 


Ones or 


20 


14 


18 


2 


Twos 


18 


13 


15 


4 


Fours ,, 


15 


12 


13 


6 


Sixes „ 


13 


11 


12 


8 


Eights 


12 


10 


11* 


12 


Twelves ,, 


11 


9 


9i 


16 


Sixteens ,, 


9 


8 


8i 


24 


Twenty-foiu's ,, 


8 


6 


6" 


32 


Thu-ty-twos ,, 


6 


5 


4i 


48 


Forty-eights ,, 


5 


3* 


3" 


60 


Sixties ,, 


3 


21 


2i 


80 


Eighties oi* 
Hundreds 


24 



The modern current hst of sizes is as follows. 
It gives the diameter only ; and these are inside 
measm-emehts about an eighth of an inch below the 
rim. These sizes and prices may be said to be the 
a^-erage of the trade generally, not only of one 
eminent manufacturer; and it may therefore prove 



6 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



useful to give them entire, with, their ordinary 
prices : — 

MODEEN NAMES AND SIZES. 





Clear In- 
side 
Diameter. 


Price 




Clear In- 
side 


Price 




per doz. 




Diameter. 


per doz. 


No. 


Inches. 


£ s. d. 


No. 


Inches. 


£ s. d. 


1 


If 


3 


13 


11 


7 


o 


2i 


3 


14 


12* 


10 6 


3 


21 


4 


15 


14 


14 


4 


3i 


5 


16 


15 


17 6 


5 


4 


6 


17 


16 


110 


6 


41 


9 








7 

8 
9 
10 

n 

12 


54 
6i 
7 
8 
9 
10 


10 
16 
2 
2 6 
3 6 


18 
19 
20 
21 


18 
20 
22 
24 


EACH. 

2 6 
4 6 
9 
12 6 


4 6 


23 
24 


26 
30 


17 6 
15 



As the railway freight on heavy goods so often 
proves a formidable item in their cost, the following- 
table of weight per 1,000, 500, 100, 12, and 6 pots 
respectively from No. 1 to No. 24, is given, and also 
the number of each required to make a ton. All that 
is needful in ordering pots from a distance is, simply 
to compare the number wanted with the table, note 
the weight, and ascertain the freight per hundred- 
weight or ton between the pottery and the nearest 
station, and add this to the net cost of the pots at 
the pottery, and so find the whole cost, and prevent 
any miscalculation :— 



TABLE OF WEIGHTS. 



No. 


Number 
of Pots. 


Weight, about 


Number of 
Pots to One Ton, 
about 






Tons. 


Cwts. 


Qrs. 




1 


1,000 





1 


1 


16,000 


2 


1,000 





1 


3 


12,000- 


3 


1,000 





3 





6,500 


4 


1,000 





4 





5,000 


5 


1,003 





6 


3 


3,000 


6 


1,000 





10 





2,000 


7 


1,000 





17 





1,200 


8 


1,000 


1 








1,000 


9 


500 





17 





600 


10 


500 


1 


4 





400 


11 


500 


1 


13 





300 


12 


500 


2 


5 





225 


13 


100 





12 





170 


14 


100 


1 








100 


15 


100 


1 


10 





66 


16 


100 


1 


12 





62 


17 


100 


2 








50 


18 


12 





5 


2 


46 


19 


12 





7 


2 


34 


20 


12 





10 





24 


21 


6 





6 





20 


23 


6 





7 





17 


24 


6 





9 





13 



It will be observed that from the one inch and 
three-quarters up to sixteen inches the sizes hardly 
advance an inch at a time. Such close-fitting sizes 
are practically useless as far as the shifting of plants 
from one to the other is concerned ; and in this 



respect the old sizes seem more sensible than the new, 
inasmuch as there is a greater difference between 
them. Beyond sixteen inches in diameter there is a 
difference of two inches between each of the sizes, 
and this is increased to fom^ inches in the final rise 
from twenty- six to thii'ty inches ; the latter being 
an enormous poc ver\^ seldom used. 

However, the nurserymen and florists have been ac- 
customed to these sizes, as have also the potters, and 
both classes are almost as con- ^ 
servative in such matters as the 
thi'ower's wheel, which persists in J ''i* 

going against the sun, and in 'i' 
turning off pots as it did, pro- 
bably, four or five thousand v^r _ 
years ago. Those who want 



greater difference in size can 
easily obtain it by leaping over 
one or .more intermediate sizes, 
and ordering Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 
11, and so on. 

An illustration of a nest of 
pots, aiTanged according to the 




above list, is given to make the 

sizes and forms of the common garden-pots more 

familiar to the general reader (Fig. 1). 

Long Toms. — The peculiar characteristic of 
this form, which has hitherto been chiefly confined 
to the smaller sizes, included between thumbs 
and five-inch or less, is that they are deeper than 
the -ordinary make in proportion to their diameter, 
and that they have no rims (Fig. 2). Being, how- 
ever, made of the very best clay, and with more 
than ordinary care, the pots, though also thinner 
than most others in theu* sides, are found to be 




stronger than the average make, though 
these are fortified with rims. How far 
it may be possible and safe in practice 
to abolish rims in the larger sizes, re- 
mains to be proved, and will doubtless 
be put to the test. The chief object 
gained by the abolition of rims is to 
economise space in the growth, storing, 



Long'Tom. packing of small plants. This 

difference in favour of rimless pots 
must be seen to be fully appreciated. With the 
smaller sizes the number of plants placed in the 
same area may be almost doubled by the abolition of 
the rims. This is of enormous importance when and 
where thousands and tens of thousands of these are 
raised and grown. 

These advantages, however, lose their force when 
applied to pots and plants of larger sizes. So soon 
as the diameter of the plant exceeds that of the pot, 
the fonner, not the latter, regulates tbe distance 



GARDEN-POTS. 



7 



between them. But for packing purposes, in which 
the heads of plants are often tied into less space 
for travelling- than their pots occupy, this gain of 
space by the abolition of rims would be very consi- 
derable. Of course, even then some packing material, 
such as moss, would have to be placed as an elastic 
and safe buffer between the pots. But almost the 
less of this the better for safe transport. In cases of 
breakages in transit it will generally be found to have 
arisen from an excess of packing material between 
the pots, and the nearer to a uniform hardness the 
entire base of the jjackage can be made, the better and 
the safer. Hence the packing material can hardly be 
too thin, as it is there that all the evils and destruc- 
tive effects of displacement of pots, and the sudden 
jerks, and other accidents of conveyance occur. The 
rims of pots also become mechanical obstructions to 
close packing, and hence it happens, as might have 
been expected, that a basket packed full of long toms, 
with a minimum amount of semi-elastic packing 
between them, will travel more safely than one filled 
with pots with rims, with double, treble, or four times 
the amount of packing between them. 

Rims are, however, useful for lifting the larger 
pots, and hence they are likely to be used for such ; 
cultivators having also got so accustomed to rims 
that not a few consider the rimless ones unsightly. 
But millions of pots are used for cultural and propa- 
gating purposes, the growing of small plants for sale 
or otherwise, the culture of bulbs, succession pines 
and plants, and for myriads of other operations in 
horticulture, in which the appearance of the pots is 
of no moment whatever. 

Not, however, that there is anything unsightly in 
long toms. On the contrary, as they are exceed- 
ingly well made, each pot being as like another as 
two j)eas of the same soi-t, a house filled with plants 
in them has a charmingly business-like and orderly 
appearance. As already stated, the plants can be 
packed so much more closely together, that from five 
hundi-ed to a thousand more plants may be packed in 
a very moderate-sized house or frame.* 

Long toms, like many other so-called and most 
useful inventions, are rather the revival of an old 
than the origination of a new idea. Many of the older 
bulb pots and pine pots of the olden times in horti- 
culture, were almost identical in form with modern 
long toms. Some of these even carried the depth 
in proportion to the width to greater length than 
in the long toms, and it was a notable feature that 
the deeper they were the less rims they had, as if 
the rims had been impressed into the service of 
making them deeper. 

The modern bulb pot (Fig. 3), which still survives, 
though it can hardly be said to be popular in Eng- 
land, gives a fair idea of those very lanky, and, it 





must be confessed, rather imperfect long toms of 
those ancient times, in which the 
arrival of a hundred pots caused 
greater excitement than the un- 
packing and safe storage of ten 
thousand does to-day. These bulb 
pots may be had in five or six 
difi:"erent sizes, from 4f inches in 
diameter to 8 inches, and are double 
the ijrice of garden-pots of the or- 
dinary form. They have the great Fig. 3. — Deep 
merit of holding a considerably Bultfp^i! '''' 
greater quantity of soil, and of 
enabling the jjlants, alike when growing and bloom- 
ing, to be placed more closely together. ' 

The Oxford — This is a most useful pot for train- 
ing purposes, brought prominently into notice and 
invented by Mr. Matthews. It 
is made exactly like other pots, 
with the addition that the rim 
is perforated (Fig. 4) . This is 
one of the most convenient and 
simple arrangements. for train- 
ing purposes. So many plants 
— such, for example, as Pelar- 
goniums, Chrysanthemums, and 
hosts of others — have to be tied 
down, that the practical im- 
portance of this simple contrivance can hardly be ex- 
aggerated. The perforated rim almost abolishes hoop 
training ; and will go a long way towards reducing 
the numbers, and for many plants will cause the 
total abolition of stakes. All that is needful is 
to slip the ties through the holes in the rim, care- 
fully draw down the longest shoots, and proceed 
to make use of these first shoots as holdfasts for 
the second, and so on till the whole are trained ; or, 
in cases where considerable tension is needful, the 
whole of the ties can proceed directly from the rims. 
In the larger sizes these perforated rims are equally 
useful for attaching trellises to. The price of 
the Oxford is one -half more than that of ordinary 
pots. 

The Alpine Pot. — This, in general terms, may 
be described as a double pot (Fig. 5). Its main pur- 
pose is to protect the roots from sudden and extreme 
changes of heat and cold, wet and drought; aiming, 
as far as may be, to maintain the roots moist 
and cool. This is of far more moment in the case 
of Alpine plants than of any other. For not a few 
of them in their native homes grow with their feet — ■ 
that is, their roots — in a bath of snow-water, while 
they lean their beauteous cheeks against the thick- 
ribbed ice. Bearing these natural conditions in mind. 



'Fig. 4. — Oxford, or 
Perforated Eiin Pot. 



8 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



it is little wonder that so many attempts to grow 
these childi-en of the mountain wastes and wilds in 
pots have proved miserably abortive. With the 
roots hugging- the sides of the pot, now scorched by 
heat and anon frozen with cold, now parched through 
drought and again drowning with a deluge of water — 
the plants, hardy and robust though 

Bthey be, give up the contest and per- 
ish. The Alpine pot protects the roots 
from these extreme variations and kill- 
ing vicissitudes of alternating condi- 
tions. It is virtually two pots — the 
Fig. 5.— Alpine inner made within the outer one. 
Pot. The plants are potted in the inner 

pot in the usual way ; and the open 
space between may then be filled with water, damp 
sand, or moss, either of which will guard the roots 
against all extremes as far as may be, and work 
towards that uniformity of temperature and of mois- 
ture most favourable to their well-doing. 

But .the tops of most Alpine plants are as sweet and 
tempting to slugs and other insect pests, as their roots 
are sensitive to sudden and severe changes. The 
Alpine pot combats these dangers as effectively as 
those of sudden and severe atmospheric changes. By 
filling the space between the pots with water, each 
plant is placed in the centre of a little island in- 
accessible to insect pests, and the cultivator Fiay rest 
secure that his Alpine favourites are safe. 

Only the best pot- ware, however, is fit for this 
mode of culture, and the surrounding of Alpine plants 
or pots with a cordon of water as a panoply of safety 
alike for their roots and tops. Were the pots too 
porous, the best soil would soon be converted into 
mud by excessive absorption. With the best ware, 
it will be found that very little water will be needed 
by plants thus enveloped with it all round. So far, 
too, this plan of watering is the best ; and during 
very hot weather, amateur gardeners may safeh', 
and with advantage to their favourites, carry the 
copying of nature a little further by drafting a 
few pieces of ice into the water-way around their 
Alpine pots. Neither must the water be allowed 
to become putrid. If it is not removed with suffi- 
cient rapidity by the compound process of absorption 
by the inner pot, and evaporation through the outer 
one, to keep it sweet, then it must be emptied by 
prompt inversion, carefully spreading a hand over 
the plant and soil during the process. Sufficient 
attention is not always given to this, as nothing could 
be more unnatural or deleterious than semi-putrid 
water for Alpine plants. The price is double that 
of common pots of the same diameters. 

The Double-rimmed Pot.— This is a propa- 
gating pot, and the use of the double rim is to place 



the bell-glass on this instead of on to the sand oi- 
surface in which the cuttings or seeds are placed. 
It is doubtful if any cultural advantages arc 
gained by this arrangement. But it affords con- 
siderably more space, and as the majority of cutting.s 
root more freely against the aides of the pots, the 
placing of the bell-glasses on the rims would enable 
the best rooting-places now necessarily left vacant 
to be fully filled. By filling the rim-space with 
water or damp sand, the bell-glass will hermetically 
seal the enclosed atmosphere as effectually as the 
present mode of placing the glasses on the surface 
soil of the pot. The use of water as the seal of the 
air might also dispense with the necessity of water- 
ing the cuttings ; while, should the moisture prove 
excessive, sand could easily be substituted for the 
water. 

Orchid Pots, Pans, and Baskets. — These 
differ from other pots in being, as a rule, of less 
depth, greater breadth, and more profusely perforated 
at bottom, and also in their sides (Fig. 6), this extreme 
porosity or openness being adopted for the double 
purpose of insuring the most thorough drainage, and 
also the free passage of the roots from the pots or 
pans into the atmosphere. The shape or form of the 
openings in the sides of orchid pots or pans is of 
little moment ; but as most orchid roots are large, 
and it is of ^dtal importance they should neither 
be bruised or injured in their exit, nor afterwards, 
it is very essential that the perforations should 
be of sufficient size. As orchid pots are specially 
prominent, it is also well that, especially in the cast;- 
of suspended pans or pots, they should be orna- 
mental. The potters have been among the first to 




Fig. 6.— Orchid Pots. 



recognise and anticipate the demand for orna- 
mental orchid pots, and they may now be had of aU 
forms and sizes, and with every degree of perfora- 
tion, from a few round holes in the sides to latticed 
diamonded sides or bottoms, as open and porous to 
water or roots as the older wire and wooden baskets, 
so well known to all orchid growers. Earthenware, 
-being so much cleaner and more useful and durable 
than any other material, is rapidly superseding every- 
thing else for orchid culture. A few illustrations 
will show how useful and ornamental these are now 
made. The price of orchid pots is the price and a 



GAEDEX-rOTS. 



half of ordinary ones ; improved ones, with movable 
bottoms, double price. Pans (Fig. 7) are virtually 
still shallower pots, arranged for hanging up. 





Fig. 7.— Orcliid Pans or Baskets. 

Glazed Pots. — A good many years ago rather 
fierce battles on paper, as in practice, used to be 
waged over the merits of glazed versus unglazed pots. 
And along the entire line the unglazed ware has won 
the -^-ictory. , The latter was in fact so complete, that 
glazed garden-pots are now seldom olfered for sale, 
or made unless to order. The cost is almost double 
that of ordinary" pots, and as the v are equally or more 
liable to breakage, the corresponding advantages, if 
any, hardly make up for the enhanced cost. They 
undoubtedly wear cleaner on the outside than ordi- 
nary pots, and this is almost all that can be said in 
their favoui-. A few authorities here and there pre- 
fer them, but the majority shun them as they would 
the plague. It is doubtful, however, whether this 
strong aversion is founded on any direct effect of 
the glazed pots on the plants grown in them. As 
their sides are imper"vious, the provision of drainage 
should be more ample, and plants grown in them 
need less water than those gTOwn in ordiaary pots. 
When cultivators bear these two facts in mind, 
glazed' pots are likely to prove as successful from 
a cultiu-al point of view as unglazed. 

Colours of Pots.— Good pots, like good horses, 
are seldom or never of a bad colour, and with cul- 
tivators generally all colours are bad but a cheerful 
bright red, a shade or two lighter than red brick. 
Pai-t of the feeling against glazed pots no doubt has 
originated in the colour, so suggestive of common 
pie dishes or other household ware. Neither have 
white, French white, nor any shade of stone coloured 
pots ever been popular. They look to practical 
men cold, and by these it is said that they are so ; 



and it is without doubt true that, under the same 
conditions and treatment, plants in white or light- 
coloured pots seldom do so well as those in red. 
As for painting pots green, black, grey, or any other 
colour, all such xu'aclices are universally condemned 
by practical men, and are only indulged in by 
amateurs to the increase of their risk of failure and 
loss. The paint stops up the pores of the pot, and 
converts it at once into a glazed pot of the very 
worst sort. 

It may seem a bold step to vindicate the prevailing- 
colour of garden-pots on aesthetic grounds. But 
taking into account the prevailing colour of floors, 
roofs, frame-work of plant houses, and the white 
glare of the glass, perhaps no colour could prove 
a more effective contrast to all this, or be better 
adapted for the effective display of plants in growth 
and bloom, than the light red which characterises 
all the best makes of garden pottery. 

Pots for other Purposes than Plant-grow- 
ing. — These are what are called blanching pots, or 
such as are used for the growth of sea-kale and rhu- 
barb. They are large, deep, and have movable tops- 




Fiff. 8.— Ehubarb Pot. 



Fig. 9.— Sea-kale Pot, liighlid. 



to give room for the development of the tops, and 
aft'ord easy access to the produce when ready for use 
(Figs. 8, 9). 

Though the modern practice of lifting these roots 
and placing them in heat in the dark has greatly 
modified and curtailed the old plan of forcing them 
all out in the open by placing fermenting mate- 
rial around and over the pots on the ground, yet 
there is still a brisk trade in these useful blanching 
or growing pots. In the case of rhubarb especially, 
a month may be gained in time, and the quality 
of the produce vastly improved, by simply placing 
the pot (Fig. 8) over the crowns in February or 
INIarch. 



10 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GAEDEXIXG. 




Fig. 10.— Seed Pan. 



Sesd-propagating and other Pans, Saucers, 

&C. — These are made of various diameters and depths, 
according to size. The most useful range from two 
inches to four in depth. The price is about the 
same as pots of the same diameters, as they are more 
difficult and take longer to 
make than garden -pots. 
Square pans are much more 
troublesome to make than 
round, and are on that 
account more expensive. 
Their only advantage is that they can be packed 
closely together without losing an inch of space. 
Garden-saucers are used for placing under pots 
to prevent drip and economise water. Unless, 
however, for such thii'sty plants as straw-berries in 
full growth in pots, saucers are now but little used. 
The base of the pot, constantly standing in water, 
becomes saturated, the water not seldom rising by 
capillary attraction till the whole mass of soil is 
converted into mud. Such mishaps, which have not 



have plunged headlong into the utmost possible 
variety of shape and elaborateness of ornamentation ; 
and their success has been so great in these direc- 
tions as to have run the stonemason, the moulder, 
and the sculptor rather close on their own lines. Of 
course, not a few mistakes have been made in this 
new departui-e of garden-pottery into the regions of 
fancy and the domain of taste. Eepresentations of 
most things in heaven and on earth — and of not a 
few not likely to be found in either — have appeared. 
But on the whole the new departure has proved 
successful, and, by lowering the price of works of 
art, has made it possible to make some of the artistic 
garden-pots and baskets almost as beautiful in their 
way as the plants that fill them. A few illustrations 
are given here — mere samples of these more fanciful 
styles of garden- j)ottery (Fig. 11). 

So long as these and others do not intei-fere with 
the sterling merits and the real utility of garden- 
pots, the more varied and beautiful they can be 
made the better. 





•V; 

Fig. 11.— Eustic Pots and Baskets. 




by any means been rare in practice, have rendered 
the placing of saucers under pots unpopular. 

Larger saucers, however, prove valuable slug and 
other insect guards. The pot in these cases is 
elevated on a small pot, shell, or pot-stand, so as to 
raise its base right up out of the water; and it is 
obvious that the entire army of insects are thus 
baulked in their efforts to reach it by the water. 
^Notwithstanding this side-use of saucers, however, 
there can be no question that they are going out of 
fashion. So much is this the case, that it may almost 
be said — the more pots made, the fewer saucers. 

Hustic Terra-eotta Vases, Baskets, 
Figures, &c. — These bare names, which are far 
from exhaustive of all that is attempted and done by 
the modem manufacturers of garden pottery, give 
but a vague idea of the number and boldness of their 
designs and the general excellency of their perform- 
ance within the domain of taste. 

Having, as it were, exhausted the art of x^ot- 
making on its utilitarian side, not a few makers 



GEOUOT) OPERATIONS. 



LEVELLING. 

OPEEATIOXS upon the gTOund itself are of 
necessity the first steps in horticultm-e, and 
they sometimes prove so difficult and unpleasant 
that they also become the last. Properly set about 
and pushed on, however, few operations afiEord more 
healthy occupation, and hardly any good exercise 
can be made more pleasant ; while, as to profit, it 
may be boldly asserted there can be none without 
previous operations on the ground. True, at times 
a field may be found in the open, which is in reality 
a ready-made garden natui^e has laid out level, or 
on a regular inchne or slope. -The tilth is suf- 
ficiently mixed ; deep, dry, and rich, it needs neither 
better form, more disturbance, deeper drainage, or 
manuring, to grow the most choice vegetable pro- 
ducts to perfection. The more we meddle, the more 
we might mar its quality and spoil its texture. But 
such fields are rare as swallows in March, or white 



GROUND OPERATIOXS. 



11 



sparrows or "blue daHias or blue roses at any season. 
And hence, notwithstanding- the dictum that the 
land which will grow good wheat or mangold will 
also grow very excellent vegetables or flowers, it 
is found by far the best and cheapest policy in the 
end, to thoroughly remodel and overhaul most ground 
before it is devoted to garden purposes. 

For the fact is that the laboui'-bill and other 
expenses of the garden reach of necessity such a 
considerable sum, that only the best soils yield a 
profitable return. Never was the penny -wise pound- 
foolish maxim so \ividly illustrated as in the en- 
closure of gardens by brick walls or other fences, 
the planting of valuable trees, bushes, or other 
plants, the sowing of the choicest of seeds, and 
the devotion of skilled labour to horticulture — all 
doomed to failure through the poverty or bad con- 
dition of the soil. Horticulture handicaj)ped wdth 
inferior soil is bound to prove a losing concern. Skill 
and energy can do and are daily doing very much to 
vanquish and destroy other difficulties, such as those 
of an uncei^tain climate, the constant assaults of 
foes, and hindrances of all kinds. But when the 
earth is in league against the cultivator, he must and 
does surely fail. Taking it therefore for granted 
that certain ground operations will be needful, it will 
be useful to describe the most important, and to 
give as jaVdin and clear instructions as possible for 
their proper and prompt performance. The chief 
are the levelling, trenching, draining, digging, and 
ameliorating of the ground. 

Levelling does not mean that every kitchen or 
flower garden or lawn is to be converted into a dead 
flat. Nothing could be in worse taste, or lead to less 
profit, than such dead seas of unproductive and un- 
sightly uniformity. Inequalities of surface, causing 
inclines less rather than more steep towards the 
sunniest and consequently the most genial point of 
the compass, are among the most potent causes of 
augmented fertility and increased 3'ield. The term 
"level," as used here, is sj-nonymous with evenness 
of surface, and even that need not be too rigidly 
enforced, for some of our best gardens are so uneven, 
and lie on such steep inclines, that the heavy rains 
convert the walks into torrents, and carry the gravel 
pell-mell before them to the lowest points of the 
walks; while summer showers of unusual severity 
not seldom bear crops and surface tilth away bodily 
also, reminding us of the farmer on the blowing sands 
in East Anglia, who found his barley field, that he 
had sown over-night, blocking up the drift -way from 
hedge-top to hedge-top the following morning. But, 
of course, such steep inclines are far from desirable — 
they may insure early crops, or mature fruit on walls 
that could not be otherwise grown in the climate or 
locality, but they have many drawbacks. The crops 



may be washed out or burnt up, and are not infre- 
quently subjected to something approaching to both 
catastrophes in turn, while the labour of transporting 
manure, removing produce, and of cultivating the 
land, is almost doubled. All such unlevel sites should, 
if possible, be avoided. Of course, the erection of 
boundary-walls of hot-houses, and other buildings, 
is greatly simplified and much facilitated if the 
garden is or can be made level, or to fall gentl}^ to 
the south, south-east, south-west, west-south-west, 
or even, though that is not so desirable, north- 
west. 

The most Common Mistake in Levelling. 

— This important and ^ital operation, on which so 
much of the future success or failure in any given 
garden so largely depends, is too often left wholly 
in the hands of architects or builders. The result is 
that the surface is laid level or smoothed over, at the 
sacrifice of a portion, and not seldom the whole, of the 
sui'face soil. Now, as every tyro in rural affairs 
knows, this soil is not only the best, but very often the 
only soil of any possible use or value. Nevertheless 
the mere mechanical leveller thi-ows it here, there, 
and everywhere, into any and every deep rut or 
depression, just as if it were nothing worth. Why, 
with hardly any figure of speech, that surface tilth 
may be defined as fragrant roses, crisp celery, sweet 
cauliflower, luscious peaches, in another and not very 
distant form. And yet in how many gardens in the 
course of formation, has it been degraded to the level 
of mere ballast or builder's rubbish I sold to surface 
other gardens with a few inches of presentable soil, 
that lures so many amateurs to their bitter disap- 
pointment in horticultural pursuits ; screened to make 
sand for mortar in the running-up of contract houses, 
or virtually stolen by speculators ; the barren subsoil 
alone being left for the future owner of the tempting 
suburban or villa residences, so tellingly posted up 
and alluringly described as " self-contained within 
their own grounds." Why, the ground proper has been 
cleared out years ago, almost as clean as a hungry 
dog picks a bone, and instead has been placed the 
vilest possible compound of dead subsoil, brick-ljats, 
and builder's rubbish, about as barren and as utterly 
useless for horticultural purposes as the same depth 
of the old or ne^v red sandstone. 

Neither has this robbery, denudation, and degra- 
dation of surface been confined to the immediate 
neighbourhood of great and populous cities. Not 
a few of the noblest mansions in the country have 
had the surface of their groimds destroyed for some, 
considerable distance by the overspreading of the 
subsoil dug out of the foundations all round the 
house. The stuff was on the spot, such as it was, 
and the cheapest way to get rid of it was to raise the 



12 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



ground-level into a terrace or artificial wide prome- 
nade with the worthless diggings. And the fertile 
surfaces have been entombed where we least expect 
it, and barren earths without either texture or 
strength substituted for them. 

Testing the Depth and Disposition of 
Surface Soil. — It is impossible to exaggerate the 
importance of this precaution. The dangerous leap 
in the dark of some landscape gardeners and ci^-il 
engineers, who will begin to level ground without 
first testing its quality, is about the most reckless 
and wasteful expenditure of time and money. Small 
test-holes, about half a yard square, at intervals of 
ten or more yards apart, will generally furnish suffi- 
cient information, and guide the proceedings of the 
leveller. 

It is one of the most mischievous popular errors to 
suppose that the surface soil, or tilth as it is called, 
will be found of one uniform depth throughout. As 
well might the geologist expect the rocts' strata to 
overlay each other with as much regularity as a 
pile of books on their sides on a shelf or table, 
without any tilting whatever. The surface soil, 
alike in depth and quality, is one of the most variable 
factors in this world of change. It is no business of 
the mere leveller to exactly determine its quality, 
though the more correctly he can read off that at 
sight, the better for him and the quality of his work. 
But he can measui-e its depth, and so estimate its 
mass, as to calculate with approximate exactness 
how far it will cover the entire area of the garden to 
a uniform depth. The following formula, which is 
tolerably correct, furnishes a useful guide in the 
practical levelling" of gardens : — An inch per acre 
requires about a hundred cubic yards or tons of 
earth. Further, a common cart-load is about a ton. 

Even where art has not disturbed the surface soil, 
it is astonishing how greatly its depth and quality 
vary in places near to each other. It is difficult to 
account for these wide variations, whatever theory of 
its manufacture and deposition be adopted. For its 
infinite gradations of depth remain almost equally 
mysterious, whether we attribute its formation to 
atmospheric influence, or primitive rocks or subsoils, 
the rise, progress, and decomposition of vegetables, or 
the direct and active agency of earth-worms. If the 
latter have formed the mass of surface soU, how came 
they to be more numerous in one place than another, 
and that before the surface soil had been deepened ? 

Lea\-ing this, and kindred subjects concerning the" 
formation and arrangement of surface soil, for special 
treatment by itself, all that concerns us here is 
the levelling of soil and subsoil, so as to have the 
surface or vegetable mould of one uniform depth 
throughout. 



Level Subsoil and Surface Soil Together. 

— At the same time, so \itaUy important is it that the 
subsoil should be levelled, that the ad\'ice to level it 
first of all would be given, were that possible. As 
that cannot be, the levelling of the two should 
proceed as nearly abreast as practicable. The surface 
reveals its own inequalities, but it is only by the use 
of test-holes that the inequalities of the subsoil can 
be discovered. It is too often taken for granted that 
the surface tilth will be found of one uniform depth 
throughout. There are, however, dips in the suiiace 
mould as well as in the subsoil and lower strata : 
and it is most important that the garden modeller or 
moulder should make himself acquainted with their 
existence. They will enable him the better to calcu- 
late on the depth of siu-face soil generally, and how 
much of the subsoil, or other, will be needed to im- 
part to the garden the most desirable depth of working 
soil, or surface mould. Having collected these data, 




rig. 1.— Ground Dug out to Levei Surface Soil and Subsoil 
together. 



and taken the level by some of the simple processes 
about to be described, he may then proceed to remove 
the surface soil bodily from a space of ground three 
or four feet wide, carting or wheeling it away to the 
other side of the piece of ground to be levelled. The 
next operation is to dig out or remove a sufficiency 
of the soil to allow of eighteen inches, two feet, two 
and a half, or three feet, for surface earth (see Fig. 1). 
During this process see that the subsoil is formed of 
the same shape, with exactly the same incline, as the 
surface. As soon as this is done, proceed to operate 
on another sx^aee of three or four feet, of exactly the 
same area. In moving this one to the opening, as it 
is technically called, it should be manipulated in such 
a manner as to thoroughly mix the surface soil, sub- 
soil, and new earth, if any added ; that the surface 
mould should be a careful admixture in proper pro- 
portions of the three or more earths used in it. It is 
impossible to lay down any strict rules regarding* 
the relative proportions used; so much depends on 
the poverty or richness of the old surface mould, on 
the sterility or semi-fertility of the subsoil, and on 
the quality of the new earth added. Sometimes the 
existing soil is so rich and deep that neither better 
compost nor any considerable portion of subsoil need 
be added. As a rule, however, both will be necessary 
to get ami;hing like a i^roper depth for horticultural 
purposes ; and it is seldom that any subsoil is so 
absolutely barren, useless, or positively injurious, but 
that something like a sixth portion might be incor- 



GEOUXD OPERATIOXS. 



13 



porated with the soil : whereas a full half of maiden 
surface soil added to that on the spot, will gene- 
rally he found of the greatest ser\ice, and render 
it far more valuable for all horticultural purposes. 

But the subject of deepening will recur under the 
head of " Trenching," and the chief point here is to 
insist on the necessity of so levelling the subsoil, 
either by bodily removal or incorporation with that 
on the spot, that the surface soil should cover it 
everj^where to the same depth. Those most conversant 
with the economical performance of ground opera- 
tions will see that this levelling process should com- 
bine the merits and advantages of trenching, digging, 
and manuring as well. After levelling the subsoil 
it should be loosened to a further depth of six inches 
or a foot with a pick or spade, a layer of manm-e 
spread over it before the layer of surface soil, and 
more added during the process of filling up with the 
mixture of the different earths. But not a few level 
first, and it is for these chiefiy that the advice is 
so often repeated to level soil and subsoil abreast at 
one operation and the same time. 

Simple Modes of Levelling. — Levelling on a 
large scale is an important bi^anch of ci^•il engineer- 
ing, and requires a theodohte. and other expensive in- 
struments and appliances. It is not such ascertaining 
or alteration of levels, on a large scale, that is re- 
ferred to here, but rather of inequalities of surface or 
of fall over a few acres at the most. The majority of 
gardens are either on a dead flat or an e^-en fall, and 
so far as the kitchen garden is concerned it is desir- 
able that they should be so. 

Most fields, on the other hand, before being taken in 
for gardens, are more or less uneven, and as a rule it 
is not desii'able to perpetuate these inequalities, and 
hence the importance of having some simj)le means 
of removing them. So many words, figui^es, and 
diagrams have been expended on tliis subject, with 
the result of frightening people away from it rather 
thar teaching the art of levelling their own garden, 
that one almost fears to approach it. 

In most gardens the starting or standard points 
are already predetermined for the operator, the house 



L 



Pig. 2.— Straight-edge with Level. 

or mansion on the one hand, and the park, fields or 
STirrounding country, public or private roads, and so 
forth, on the other. The problem is thus much sim- 
plified, for few operations can be more simple than 
the making of ground between two points perfectly 
level, or on an even regular fall all the way. The 
only implements needed are a measm-ing-rod ten feet 



long, marked into feet and inches all the way, a 
straight-edge (Fig. 2) or triangular foot level (Fig. 4), 
a quadrant (Fig. 3), three borning-rods, a buncUe of 
straight stakes, either with or without cross-bars, 
movable or otherwise, at the top, some smaller stakes, 
and a mallet. 

In levelling such an irregularly- shaped piece of 
ground as Fig. 5, place a row of stakes at equal dis- 




Quadrant. 




Triangle-level. 



tances of ten or twelve feet along its surface, and 
of an}' convenient height. Having placed the first 
two in position, take the straight-edged spirit-level 
(Fig. 2), place it on the tojD, and see that they are 
made exactly level. Then drive a third in, and 
level it to a dead level with the second, and so with 




Fig. 5.— Levelling with Stakes and Rods. 

the fourth, and aU through to the end. This will 
form a level line at any handy distance from the 
earth, the exact height being in no way material. 
As the slightest mistake becomes of material impor- 
tance in a long line, it is desirable to test the level- 
by sighting it over a quadrant, or by sighting on 
a second level, reversing the end of the level be- 
tween every pair of stakes. Two points must be 
specially noted at this stage. The gauge for forming 
a level surface is already pro\'ided by the level line 
on the top of the stakes, and it is quite clear that 
by measuring the same distance down from the top 
of each stake, the earth-line would be as level as 
this line in the air. But the second point is, where 
is the surface line of the garden to be P This can 
be settled thus : — ^Measure the distance fi'om each 
stake to the original surface, and set the distance 
down, and so on with all the other stakes throughout. 
As the ground varies in height less or more at either 
end, it is better, for the sake of greater accuracy, to 
measure the two ends separately, add the product, 
di%-ide by two, and set down the half under the other 



14 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



heights. As of course it would not be fair to count 
both, ends in reckoning the number of measurements, 
this product of the two end stakes will only count as 
one. Add the different heights, divide by their num- 
ber ; the product will give the mean or average height 
throughout. Measure down each stake by this mean 
and level up to it, and the surface of the ground will 
present a true level. 

LeveUbig ivith Bornlng-rods. — This is still more 
rapid and simple than the method already described. 
Borning-rods are upright stakes or splinths, from two 
to three inches broad, and from three and a half to 
four feet in height, the exact height varying to suit 
the stature of those who use them. Cross-bars are 
fixed against the rod at exactly right angles with it, 
so that the cross-bar forms a horizontal line as far 
I i as it goes, the stake being perpendicular with 
it. Two of these stakes should be of exactly 
the same height, and one, or what may be 
called the sighting one, about an inch taller 
N than the other two. On this, and exactly 
^ R)d"^" at the same height from the ground, a small 
sighting -hole should be bored, at an equal 
distance from each end of the cross-bar, and an inch 
from its upper surface. This should be very small, 
and after making should be burned black with a hot 
iron, to make and keep it perfectly clean. This 
sighting or borning-rod is fixed in the earth at one 
end of the ground to be levelled, and another fixed 




Fig. 6. — Levelling' with Boruins-rods. 



at the other end. (See Fig. 6.) Then a man or a boy 
distributes stakes all along the line to be levelled, 
which ought to be kept quite straight between the 
two points, and places the third borning-stake on to 
the ground, or a stake driven into it. When, on look- 
ing through the sight-hole, the tops of the other two 
can be seen at once, the borning-rods are either level 
or at an even fall. The jDrocess of placing the third 
borning-stake is repeated along the line at distances 
of ten, fifteen, or twenty feet, as the case may be, and 
Avhen completed, the line of earth or of stakes on 
which they rested indicates a level, or an even fall. 
In places where the earth is too high, it must be 
removed, and the stakes driven in till the top of the 
borning-rod lines with the sight-hole and the top of 
the fixed stake at the other end. 



This mode of levelling can be done with tolerable 
exactness with rods of equal length, without the 
sight-hole ; but that simple contrivance makes the 
matter much easier; and if the work is carefully 
done the level or fall is absolutely perfect. The 
light is apt to confuse the eyes, as it flashes on the 
cross-bars of the three borning-rods at once, whereas, 
when seen through a sight-hole, the third can be set 
in line with the other two with absolute certainty, 
and far greater ease and. rapidity. The cross-bars 
are best painted white, with half an inch of black 
from the top downwards. This simple mode of 
levelling is invaluable for the making of walks, the 
laying down of box or other garden-edgings, the 
levelling of lawns, the determining of the regular 
fall of di-ains, or any other purpose where a simple, 
easy, and expeditious mode of levelling is required. 

It is always desirable to drive stakes fii-mly into 
the ground in this mode of levelling, as these serve 
the double purpose of forming a ground- line parallel 
with the top of the borning-rods, and of lea^ing• a 
permanent guide for the men to work to in mo^'ing- 
the soil. In cases of considerable irregularity of 
ground, the labour of digging to the i)roper level 
may be avoided, and the stakes themselves made to 
serve a double purpose, by starting the stakes a 
foot or so higher than the ground is intended to be. 
The process of levelling with the rods proceeds just 
as before. The tops cf the elevated stakes are level, 
or on an even fall, and by measuring a foot down 
on each, the line of the ground is found. In cases 
of even greater irregularities, the highest points of 
the ground may be taken as the starting-level for 
the borning-rods, and the desired level may be found 
by measuring to the ground-line, and finding the 
measure as already indicated by Fig. 5. 

There are many other means of levelling ground, 
but none more simple and efficient, and therefore 
none better, nor likely to be of more general use to 
readers of a work of this character. 



FLOEISTS' FLOWEES. 

Bt Eichard Dean. 



rriHE distinctive term of "florists' flowers" repre- 
X sents now, with a larger meaning than it did a 
quarter of a century ago, a group of subjects, some 
of which have for many years past been taken in 
hand by persons specially interested in them ; and 
cultivated, as well as improved, with great care, 
mainly for the exhibition table. The annals of 
floriculture are prolific of recox-ds showing how 
workers in various positions in society, but mainly 



FLOETSTS' FLOWERS. 



15 



in ihe humbler walks of life, have taken np one, 
two, or more subjects (such, as the Auricula, Carna- 
tion, Pink, and Tulip, among others), and cultivating 
them with the gTeatest care, saved seed and raised 
seedlings ; selecting with intelligence from these 
only such as were manifest improvements upon the 
varieties known to them, and rejecting all others 
as inferior type? unworthy their attention. Such 
cultivators have invariably worked by certain rules, 
which have come in course of time to be known as 
"properties" or "points," and which were eventually 
formed into a code by some who had a clearer in- 
sight into what were deemed to be the requirements 
of quality in flowers than others. Thus an authori- 
tative statement of the properties of florists' flowers 
was made known and accepted by the large body of 
florists, and acted upon as if they had the authority 
of an Act of Paiiiament. When these laws or 
properties in their more elementary character began 
first to shape themselves in the minds of florists, we 
cannot say ; but as developments of their favourite 
flowers occurred, experience gave them a broader 
application. They were for a time unwritten, yet 
generally iinJerstood. By-and-by, when the neces- 
sity for a more accurate and complete exposition 
became necessary, they were codified, and the 
*' Philosophy of Florists' Flowers " became a phrase 
current among florists. A few of the properties held 
to be desirable may be mentioned by way of 
illustration : — The cii-cular petal ; thickness of sub- 
stance in petals ; purity of the ^\'hite ground, where 
it occurs as a base ; density, brilliancy, and unity of 
any prominent shade or hue of colour ; regularity 
and perfection of the feather on the edge, or the 
flame in the centre of the -petal of a Tulip; the 
circular edge, the dense, well-defined zone of body- 
colour, as well as the thickness, purity, and smooth- 
ness of the paste in the Auricula. These, with 
others of greater or lesser importance, serve as 
illustrations of what not a few modern writers are 
apt to term the artificial and arbitrary laws set up by 
the florists. Xow-a-days they are being consider- 
ably relaxed ; but in bygone days they did undoubt- 
edly work out great and important results in the 
case of many popular flowers, which went altogether 
beyond the most sanguine expectations of the 
pioneers of the floral movement, though their faith 
in time was large. 

In so strenuously insisting upon the requirements 
of the code of properties, the florist, during the last 
forty or fifty years, made such striking advances in 
the attainment of size, stoutness of texture, ^jm- 
metry of form, and comparative perfection in the ar- 
rangement and distribution of colours in flowers like 
the Auricula, Carnation, Dahlia, Hollyhock, Picotee, 
Pink, Ranunculus, and Tulip, not to mention others, 



that it ajopears difficult to advance much beyond 
what has been attained. The florist is now accused 
of having developed flowers so formal, an.d so geo- 
metrically correct, that everything almost has been 
sacrificed to form : the grace of natural beauty hav- 
ing been overlooked. 

The chief objection is, however, rather that he has 
set up a standard of his own, without always suffi- 
cient reference to the natural conformation and 
pui'pose of the flower. Instead of striving to de- 
velop and accentuate its distinctive features, all of 
which are important as landmarks in the history of 
the flower and its relation to outward circumstances, 
the florist often ignores these in setting up his own 
ideal, to which he endeavours to make the flower 
conform, applying to each and all, in spite of their 
diversity, much the same rules. It would be aftec- 
tation to deny that the result is very beautiful, but 
it sometimes lacks the highest beauty — that of 
fri(tl/~and thus destroys the significance and evi- 
dence of purpose and adaptation, which are as dear 
to the intelligent observer as mere symmetry of 
outline, or harmony of colour. 

As a kind of reactionary movement, a great deal of 
attention has of late years been given to the de- 
velopment of the eccentric and fantastic in not a 
few florists' flowers, so called ; and with these new 
breaks have been associated other properties of size, 
substance, form, and striking colours; but upon 
many of these, the florist of the older school looks 
with undisguised contempt, and considers them as 
altogether unworthy of his care. But narrow as 
are his views in the estimation of some, he knows 
nothing of finality in relation to his work. He has 
an unfaltering trust in the possibilities of nature ; 
his ideal continually recedes as he reaches nearer 
towards its attainment, taking on new features of 
beauty and fitness, and inciting him to renewed 
efforts to realise the better and eventually the best. 

One result of this floricultural enterprise was the 
establishment of a large number of small exhibitions 
of flowers in many parts of the country, where cul- 
tivators of certain subjects could meet, put their 
specimens into comparison, and receive j)remiums 
for the best. These shows sprang up with marvel- 
lous rapidity in and around London, and especially 
in Lancashire, Yorkshire, and other of the Midland 
and Xorthern Counties. The Flemish and French 
weavers, who many years ago were driven from their 
own country by religious persecution, brought with 
them their Auriculas and other flowers. Settling in 
London, Lancashire, and elsewhere, they cultivated 
them with assiduity and success ; and intermarrying 
with those among whom they came to reside, spread 
abroad a love for their flowers, and a desire to culti- 
vate them. At Middleton, near Manchester, quite 



16 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



•a colony of these Flemish refugees formed a settle- of these meetings, each purchaser pajdng for and 

ment ; and to this day florists' flowers are largely taking home his plants. "With the establishment 

.grown there, and frequent exhibitions held. of a horticultural press came more enlarged oppor- 

Thirty and even fewer years ago, these exhibitions tunities for interchange of o^Dinion on plants, and 

were a necessity, as they were the only means by the best modes of culture; and this new vehicle 




URicuLA (Variety C. E. Brown). 



which florists could interchange views as to the best 
modes of cultivating their favourite flowers. They 
were then as much of a social as of a competitive 
<'haracter, and when the task of awarding prizes 
had been performed, the florists sat down, and over 
pipe and glass talked for hours about their floral 
pets. In those days a new variety of known quality 
cf any popular flower, when a sufficient number of 
j)l;ints had been obtained, was "let out" at one 



brought into notice many other plants outside jf 
those then known as florists' flowers. The Rose, 
among others, became highly popular ; the "bedding- 
out system," as it is termed, began to attract public 
attention ; and the consequence was that some of 
the most valuable of the best -known florists' 
flowers declined in public estimation. The improve- 
ment in the culture of fruits and vegetables, and 
the introduction of many new varieties of each, also 



FLORISTS' FLOWERS. 



17 



operated to draw attention away from the flowers 
dear to the florist ; old growers of repute died, and 
there were none to fill their places. The Tulip, 
Anemone, Ranunculus, Hollyhock, and a few others, 
have in these days almost gone out -of cultivation, 



speculation, it may be remarked that the " single " 
form of the Dahlia, which the florists of the 
past generation laboured so hard to develop into 
a symmetrically-shaped, full, and approximately per- 
fect "double" flower, has become one of the most 




though there are still a few valuable collections of 
the first to be met with in the Midland Counties, and 
particularly in Lancashire. Thirty years ago several 
fine collections of Tulips were grown near London ; 
now there is scarcely a remnant of one to be met 
with. 

And, as showing that in the world of flowers there 
are revolutions of opinion and sentiment similar to 
those which occur in the realms of thought and 
2 



popular of the floral pets of the day, and admirers 
of these look askance at the large, well-formed 
double Dahlias the florist loved so well. The rapid 
growth and wide development of a taste for floral 
decorations, which is one of the prominent social 
characteristics of the present day, has had a great 
deal to do with originating a preference for single 
flowers, as being more elegant and graceful for table 
and general home decoration. The single Chi-ysan- 



18 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



themums also appear likely to be preferred to the 
fine double forms, and destined to receive a share 
of the popular favour given to the single Dahlia. 

But there is such a thing as "fashion" in the 
world of floriculture, as there is on the broader stage 
of our social life. One of these ajDpears to be taking 
the shape of a renewed interest in some of the old 
florists' flowers. For a few years past, exhibitions 
of Auriculas, Carnations and Picotees, Dahlias, and 
Pelargoniums have taken place annually in London. 
The Auricula is receiving special attention, and the 
circle of cultivators of this charming flower widens 
every year. There is a decided tendency towards 
an enlarged culture of hardy flowers, and not a few 
of the prettiest and most useful florists' flowers come 
under this denomination. At present the two most 
popular of our hardy florists' flowers are the Rose and 
the Chrysanthemum ; but others will surely rise uj) 
to a higher level of popular appreciation before long. 
Information respecting many neglected subjects is 
eagerly inquired for; and when this activity is 
apparent, it is certain that a new era of popularity is 
in store for some of those fine old-fashioned " Stars of 
Earth," neglected for a time, but which the flower- 
laving public will not willingly let die. 

The Auricula.— Some years ago this was very 
happily described by an old florist as a " beautiful and 
fascinating flower." It is so in every sense of the 
word. But, unhappily, it has come to be regarded 
as! a flower that can be successfully cultivated only 
by proficients, and much that has been written 
respecting the Auricula has tended to deter rather 
than to encourage lovers of this flower to attempt 
its culture. It is a flower that the amateur should 
take in hand, for if only the necessary attention be 
paid it, it can be grown with comparative ease. Xor 
is it necessary, as some have said, that it should have 
a pure, sweet, untainted country air, though this is 
a decided advantage; for we have seen collections 
of Auriculas in thickly-populated, smoky districts 
of Yorkshire and Lancashire, growing freely and 
lowering finely : indeed, it is a subject that can be 
gsown in the neighbourhood of cities and towns 
where many other things would fail. It does not 
require much space to be grown in : an ordinary glass 
frame, with the be d raised above the ground-level so 
as- to. secure, as far as possible, a dry bottom"; or a 
small house on a north or west aspect, will suit the 
Auricula well when grown in pots ; and we have 
&een in tt)wns pots of Auriculas standing on the 
outside s:.il of a basement window — large, vigorous, 
healthy plants, flowering with great success in spring. 
Let no assumed difficulties, therefore, dissuade any 
one from attempting its culture. We have seen in 
Lancashire a few plants growing in odd corners, 



where it would scarcely be believed they could exist, 
but tended with loving care, and this attention 
neutralising all the disadvantages of position. 

Classes of Auriculas. — There are two distinct t^-pes 
of the Auricula, viz., the show, or edged and sgU: 
varieties; and the Alpine varieties. There is no 
doubt they are both derived from Primula auricula, 
but how and when the divergence between the two 
tyjDes became so marked is beyond our knowledge. 
The main distinction between the two consists in 
this : that while the show varieties have a dense meal 
— a farina-like substance — round the tube, which 
comes off at the slightest touch, and which is termed 
the iDaste, the Alpine varieties are meal-less. There 
are green-edged flowers in which the edge is destitute 
of farina : the grey and white-edged flowers have meal 
on the margins, in lesser or greater abundance, and 
between the paste and the edge there is a zone of 
colour, which is termed the body : the self-flowers 
have a broad marginal colour round the paste — 
yellow, mauve, blue, purple, maroon, or black — and 
this extends to the edge. The Alpine varieties have 
a great variety of shades of colour ; some are self- 
coloui'ed, some are beautifully shaded, some have 
white, some cream, some pale yellow, and some deep 
golden centres, the last being very handsome. There 
is a class of Alpine Auriculas known as "laced," a 
delicate and beautiful strain, with distinct and well- 
defined pale margins to deeper colours defined with 
marvellous regularitj". These are of Continental 
origin, but improved by English florists. There is 
also a very interesting class of double-flowered 
Alpine varieties, but they are in but few hands, and 
at present restricted in numbers. 

Propagation of the Auricula. — The Auricula is in- 
creased in two ways : bj- means of offsets thrown up 
from the main stem, and by seeds. Some sorts of 
show varieties throw up offsets much more freely than 
others ; almost all the Alpine varieties make offsets in 
plenty. As soon as these growths have made roots, 
they should be carefully removed, and potted singly 
in small pots, using a light sandy soil; or several 
may be placed round the sides of larger pots. And 
as they make roots, they should be shifted out into 
larger pots, taking care not to over-pot, and to give 
tho pots abundant drainage. In this way an in- 
crease of stock can be secured. New varieties can 
be obtained by seeds. The sooner they are sown 
after becoming ripe the better, filling pots, pans, 
or shallow wooden boxes with rough siftings about 
half-way up, and then adding fine soil of a light 
sandy character, which should be pressed down 
firmly until the surface is quite level, and the seeds 
should then be scattered very thinly over the surface, 



FLORISTS' FLOWERS. 



19 



and te pressed into the soil, adding a very thin 
sprinkling of silver sand or charcoal dust. A piece 
of glass should then be placed over each pot or pan, 
and these stood in a cool frame or green-house, where 
the seeds can be shaded from the sun when necessary. 
Auricula-seed germinates slowly, and at irregular 
times ; and seeds sown in the autumn will sometimes 
lie in part until the spring before there are signs of 
germination. Some do not sow until the spring ; 
but when it is convenient, it is decidedly advan- 
tageous to do so as soon as the seeds are ripe. We 
may here remark that seeds taken from the finest 
edged flowers will produce Alpine varieties ; and 
those who are doing their best to improve our 
varieties of show Auriculas generally do not care 
to grow Alpine Auriculas. Some of the Lancashire 
and Yorkshire florists raise their seed in a remark- 
able manner. They take large pots, half fill them 
with crocks, on which they place a layer of cinders, 
and fill up with the very fine ashes taken from 
a blacksmith's forge. The pots are stood in pans of 
water, and a piece of glass placed over each. The 
seed germinates much more rapidly than under the 
older system of sowing ; but it is necessary to prick 
off the young plants as soon as they can be handled, 
or they are in danger of dying off. The strongest 
seedling Auriculas will flower in fourteen months 
from the time of sowing; the remainder not until 
the following spring. As soon as the tiny plants 
are large enough to handle, they need to be pricked 
out into pots of fine soil, a dozen or so in a pot. 
When they have grown sufficiently large, the plants 
can be put three in a pot, or potted singly into small 
pots to flower. Any one caring to have a choice 
collection should reject all flowers of poor quality 
among the seedlings, and retain only those that 
are improvements, or at least equal to existing 
varieties. 

A common error w^ith growers of the Auricula is 
to over-pot. This is a mistake, as the plants do better 
when the roots are in a reasonably confined space. 
The best pots for good-sized plants are those known 
as forty-eights; these are about four and a half 
inches in diameter measured inside. Smaller plants 
need smaller pots ; and the sooner the roots have 
penetrated to all parts of the soil, the more satis- 
factory will be the condition of the plants. 

Potting is generally done in June and July, when 
the plants have done flowering and before they make 
their summer growth. The soil should be prepared 
some time previously, and should be composed of 
the following: — good fibrous, clayey loam, from an 
old pasture that has lain by and become thoroughly 
rotten; this should be broken up quite small be- 
fore using. With this mix a fourth part of decayed 
cow -manure, or, if that cannot be had, the same 



quantity of decomposed manure from an old hot-bed, 
adding some charcoal and enough silver sand to keep 
it open. This should be used when it is thoroughly 
mixed together, and suflBciently moist to cling to- 
gether a little, but not be wet. The plants must be ' 
turned out of their pots, all the old soil shaken out, 
and any decayed portion of the tap or main root cut 
clean away ; any offsets or side growths from the 
roots or main stem should be removed and put round 
the sides of small pots. Potting should be done 
somewhat firmly, and when finished the plants should 
be kept in a close frame for a few days, and no 
water should be applied for two days. Then it 
should be carefully and gradually applied. 

The best position for Auriculas during the summer 
is a cold frarae in a shady place ; on the north side 
of a wall or thick fence is one of the best positions. 
At the end of September the frame can be placed in 
the open, facing the south. It is a good plan to raise 
the pots above the ground -level ; it is not so neces- 
sary in the case of a shallow frame, but advisable to 
have the plants as near the glass as possible. In the 
case of severe frost it is also necessary to cover up 
the frame with mats ; and it is as well to keep the soil 
in the pots pretty dry during the winter, as the plants 
are at rest. In February it is the custom to top- 
dress the plants, using some rich soil for the purpose. 
The reason for this is, that the plants put forth roots 
near the surface in spring, and some fresh soil is 
applied for the young roots to work in. A portion 
of the old surface soil is carefully removed, and the 
fresh soil put in its place. But the top-dressing of 
Auriculas is not so much followed as it was, and 
some of the leading growers for exhibitions dispense 
with it altogether. And they are found dispensing 
with rich composts, and use turfy loam in which 
Cowslips will grow : some friable leaf -mould from 
the woods, and a little rough stream or silver sand. 
Those who grow choice collections of Auriculas now 
build small houses, so that they can go into them 
and enjoy their flowers at all times ; and they some- 
times heat them with a flue or hot- water apparatus, 
which, while it keeps frost from harming the beau- 
tiful flowers, also helps a fine development. But it is 
by no means necessary that artificial heat should be 
applied to the Auricula at any time during the year. 

The choice named Alpine Auriculas need to be 
treated in the same way as recommended for the 
show varieties. But being generally of a hard}- 
character they do well in the open ground, such 
as the shady .side of a bank, or shallow rockwork. 
Inferior varieties — that are, however, too good to be 
thrown away — can be planted out in this way. 
The new laced Alpine varieties are singularly 
pretty, and so attractive that they are well deserving 
of cultivation. 



20 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



Selections of Auricula. — The following are the 
mo«it noteworthy varieties : — 

Show and Edged Varieties. 



Green-edged. 
Anna (Trail) . 
Mrs. Moore (Douglas). 
Rev. F. D. Horner (Simo- 
nite ) . 

Colonel Taylor (Leigh). 
Freedom (Booth). 
Lycurgus (Smitli). 
Prince of Greens (Trail). 
Talisman (Simouite). 

Grey-edged. 
Alexander Meiklejnhn (Kay), 
C. E. Brown (Headly). 
Confidence (Campbell). 
Dr. Horner (Eead). 
George Levick (Walker). 
George L'ghtbody (Headly). 
Lancashire Hero (Lanca-h.). 
Eichard Headly (LigMbody). 
Victor (Eead). 

Alpine Varieties 



Wldte-cdged. 
I Acme (Eead). 
i Beauty (Trail). 
I Glory (Taylor), 
j John Simonite (Walker) . 
I Conservative (Douglas). 
' Lady Sophia Dumaresque 
(Lightbody). 
Silvia (Douglas). 
Eegular (A&hworth). 

Selfs. 

Blackbird (Spalding). 
C. J. Perry (Turner), 
i Clipper (Turner). 
I Heroine (Horner). 
I Ellen Lancaster (Pohlmaii). 
: Lord of Lorne (Lightbody). 
Pizarro (Campbell). 
Euby (Eead). 
Topsy (Kay). 



Amelia Hartwidge ( Douglas) . 
George Lightbody (Turner). 
Sailor Prince (Turner). 
Unique (Turner). 
Colonel Scott (Turner). 
Diadem (Gorton). 
John Ball (.Turner). 



King of the Belgians(Turner). 
Mercury (Turner). 
Mrs. Ball (Turner). 
Napoleon III. (.Turner). 
Phoenix (Turner). 
Slough Eival (Turner). 
Topsy (Turner). 



Of double Auriculas, the black and yellow are well 
known. Purpurea (purple), and Delicata (primrose), 
are both very fine, with large double flowers, and 
other striking types are being raised. 

The laced varieties have not yet reached a stage of 
development to admit of named varieties being put 
into commerce ; but seed can be had anywhere. 



THE LIFE-HISTOEY OF PLANTS. 

By Dr. Maxwell T. Masters, F.E.S. 



GROWTH, SEEDS, BUDS, ETC. 

THE degree of excellence at ^^•hich practical gar- 
dening has arrived must be attributed mainly 
to the accumulated teachings of experience. Every 
gardener, be he professional or be he amateur, has 
to learn his business mainly from experience. No 
amount of book-learning or help from others can 
supply the want of this quality. This truth it is 
which leads unreflecting persons to uphold what 
they call practice at the expense of what they con- 
sider theory, and, as they imagine, to confound all 
opponents by the statement that " an ounce of fact is 
worth more than a pound of theory." Such persons 
do not trouble themselves to consider whether their 
so-called facts are deserving that name, or whether 
what they conceive to be theory is rightly so entitled. 

Experience, whether gained by the indi-\ddual 
himself — the most valuable of all — or whether 
handed down as a tradition from his predecessors, 
is in any case only the result of conscious or un- 



conscious inference from observed phenomena. The 
observation may be correct, it is ahnost certain to be 
incomplete; the inference maybe just, it is almost 
certain to be faulty. A perfect theory implies the 
elimination of all error, whether of observation or 
of inference. Such a consummation is rare indeed 
in any science, and unattainable in any department of 
natural history. But in a practical art like gardening 
it will, at any rate, be admitted that the more per- 
fect the observation and the more correct the infer- 
ence, the more valuable will the experience and the 
practice founded upon them be. This being so, the 
necessity of knowing something of the nature oi 




Fig. 1.— Slice through a Lily-bulb, showing the conical 
growing point enveloped in a number of fleshy scales, 
from which it derives its nourishment in the first in- 
stance, and the roots which help to supply food when 
that in the scales is exhausted. 

the plant, and of the way in which it lives, feeds, 
breathes, grows, propagates, dies, will at once be 
admitted, and will serve as our excuse, if any be 
needed, for devoting some space to the life-history 
of the plant ; in other words, to its general structure 
and to the work which its several parts Individ ually 
and collectively do, and to the means whereby that 
work is either helped or hindered. 

Were science perfect, it is probable that every 
detail would be found of more or less direct practical 
importance ; but in its present fragmentary and im- 
perfect state there are whole departments in which 
we either know little or nothing definitely, or in 
which imperfect observations and conflicting views 
necessitate further studv and discussion on the part 



THE LIFE -HISTORY OF PLANTS. 



21 



of the practitioner in tlie laboratory, before they can 
be made safely available for the guidance of the 
practitioner in the garden. For full information as 
to the existing state of structural botany, or of those 
departments of chemistry and physics 
which are inseparably bound up with 
the physiology of plants, the reader 
must consult the standard text-books. 
All that we can do here is to call atten- 
tion to the leading j^henomena of plant- 
life, as observed under conditions in 
which they are brought under the 
notice of the cultivator in the course of 
his ordinary routine. 




G-rowth.. — As we have to trace the 
record of plant-life from day to day in 
■due sequence from its beginning to its 
end, it mat- 
ters little at 
what part of 
the cycle we 
begin; but as 
growth is the 
most strik- 
ing pheno- 
menon ob- 
servable at 
the time 
when these 
pages 
before 
reader. 



y 

Fig. 2. — Germinating Seed 
of Carina, showing the 
black seed-husk, and the 
seedling plant protrud- 
ing its two growing 
points, one upwards to 
form the stem, the other 
downwards to form the 
root (shghtly enlarged). 



come 
the 
it 

e ap- 




Fig. 3.— Bud of Horse-chestnut sur- 
rounded by scales, the outer of 
which are becoming shed by the 
growth of the growing point 
within. 



may 

propriate to 
begin our re- 
marks with 
that subject. 
The pro- 
priety of this 
will strike some 
so forcibly that 
they will natu- 
rally think no 
other course than 
that of "begin- 
ning at the begin- 
ning " would be 
correct. And 
this is no doubt 
the case ; but, un- 
fortunately, we do not know where to fix 
starting-point. Neither the seed nor the 
can be strictly considered as beginnings — seeing 
that they are merely remanets from last season's 
growth. 




Fig. 4. — Section showing 
the Seedling Plant of 
Canna surrounded by 
the food-store in the 
perisperm (enlarged). 



Practically, however, we may take them as start- 
ing-points, in which the activity of the plant chiefly 
shows itself, after the rest and relative cessation of 
work of the winter season. 

Reserve Organs.— Sharply-drawn 
definitions are not applicable, except to 
a very limited extent, in any branch of 
natural history or physics. One thing 
is always wholly or partially inseparable 
from some other thing. The several 
parts act and react upon one another, 
so that anything like an absolute line 
of demarcation which sJiall hold good 
in all cases, at all times, and under all 
conditions, must not be looked for. 
Hence, when we say that the seeds and 
buds, and their modifications, with 
which we are 
now princi- 
pally con- 
cerned, are 
" reserve or- 
gans," it 
must not be 
inferred 
either that 
they have no 
other office, 
or that no 
other parts 
of the plant 
can fulfil the 
same duty. 

Both seed 
and bud (we 
are speaking 
especially 
of leaf -buds) 
contain a 
" growing point" 
in their interior, 
but the growing- 
point of a bud, or 
of a bulb (which 
is only a form of 
a bud), remains 
attached to the 
shoot from which 
it originated, and 
grows principally 

in one direction (Figs. 1,3); the growing point of a 
seed is detached entirely from the seed, and grows in 
more than one direction (Fig. 2). The growing point 
of a seed is, in fact, the germ or embryo plant which, 
on its escape from the seed, becomes the seedling. 



Fig. 5.— Portion of the Perisperm of the Seed 
of Wheat, highly magnified, to show the 



food-store 
starch. 



in the shape of grains oi 




Fig. 6.— Section of Seed of Date, showing the 
hard, horny perisperm from wbich the 
minute embryo (shown in the centre 
and close to the upper edge) derives its 
notu-ishment. 



the 
bud 



22 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



But in either case the growing- plant is surrounded 
by a protecting investment in the shape of the husk 
of the seed, or the scales of the bud (or other device 
having the same object). 
With that protecting in- 
vestment we are not 
greatly concerned now ; 
it is not in itself a centre 
of activity at any time ; 
and now that we may 
assume it to have done 
its work, it is no longer 
of service, and is dis- 
carded either by gradual 
decay or by being pushed 
off by the constantly in- 
creasing growing point 
within (Pig. 3). 




The Perisperm.— 

Beneath the protecting 
husk, in the case of the 
seed, is very frequently to 
be found a mass of tissue 
generally of a white 
colour and floury appear- 
ance — this is called tech- 
nically the "perisperm" 
of the seed (Fig. 4). 
Sometimes it is called 
albumen, but this latter 
term is objectionable as 
conveying an altogether 
erroneous notion of iden- 
tity with the chemical 
substance of which the 



familiar example. The 
perisperm is filled with 
starch grains, and other 
materials suitable for the 
nutrition of the growing 
jDoint. This is the sub- 
stance which constitutes 
the bulk of the wheat- 
grain, and which is 
ground iip to supply our 
requirements (Fig. 6). 
Another familiar example 
is the flesh of the cocoa- 
nut, which also is filled 
with food destined for 

the benefit of the young plant, if it be not previously 
requisitioned for the requirements of mankind. The 
hard bony stone of the date (Fig. 6) and of some 
other palms (by no means to be confounded with the 



Fig. 7.— Seed of Broad Bean after removal of the husk, to 
show the embryo witnout any perisperm, but with 
large fleshy seed-leaves or cotyledons, in which food is 
stored for the use of the growing plant. In A, the Une 
at c points to one seed-leaf, and p to the plumule or 
growing jjoint of the stem. B shows one seed-leaf re- 
moved ; r is the growing point of the root ; a, the scar 
formed by the removal of the seed-leaf ; p, the plvunale. 



Fie 




stone of the peach or the shell of a filbert), affords 
another illustration of the perisperm, filled in this 
case also with food for the embryo plant. 

The nutritive power of 
the perisperm is well 
illustrated by some curi- 
ous experiments of Yau 
Tieghem, Avho removed 
the embryo plant of the 
Marvel of Peru {Mira- 
hiliti) from its bed of 
X^erisperm, and fed it not 
only with artificial nutri- 
tive solutions, but also by 
portions of the perisperm 
bruised and laid over it. 
The embryo plant gTcw 
almost as well under this 
system of artificial nurs- 
ing as under, natural con- 
ditions. 

But such seeds as those- 
of the pea and bean have 
no perisperm ; their em- 
bryo plant is immediately 
invested by the seed-husk 
wdthout the intervention 
of any perisperm (Fig. 7). 
In these cases it wall be 
found that the embryo 
plant itself is large, and 
its tissues filled with food- 
matters. Thus, while the 
embryo plant or growings 
point of a date-stone is 
no bigger than a pin's 
head, that of the pea or 
bean occupies the whole 
of the seed ; the plant in 
this latter case carries its 
store with it. 

The seed of an orchid 
is very minute, and is 
equally destitute of peri- 
sperm. It is so small 
that there cannot be much 
store of nutriment within 
it ; hence it is clear that 
it must be enabled to 
shift for itself from a very 
early period, or it will 
dr}' uj) and die ; while 
the other seeds we have mentioned are not under 
the necessity of obtaining supplies from without, un- 
less it be of water, till after their o-R-n stores have 
become exhausted. An examination of different 



Tuberous Eoot of Dahlia, serving as food-store. 



THE LIFE -HISTORY OF FLAXTS. 



seeds from the points of view we have named will at 
once supply the grower with a hint as to the method 
of treatment most appropriate to them. 

Buds have no perisperm to di-aw upon for their 
suj)plies, hut they have nutritive matter stored up 
within their tissues, and they have a still more 
abundant supply in the hark and young- wood of the 
shoot from which they originate. 

The thick root of the carrot or tumix3 contains a 
supply available for the growing bud, which forms the 
cro\^^l ; the thick fleshy root-stock of such plants as 
the Solomon's Seal {Convallana), the tuberous roots 
of dahlia or orchis (Figs. 8, 9), the tubers of the 
potato (Fig. 10), the fleshy 
stems of cactuses (Fig. 11), 
the fleshy scales of the bulb, 
also contain much nutritive 
matter available for the 
support of their growing- 
point. In the corm of the 
crocus, the old corm serves 
as a storehouse for the new 
growths. 

"SVe have now to see in 
what way that store is 
rendered available, and 
what circumstances in- 
fluence it— matters of the 
greater moment, seeing 
that the food as it exists 
in the perisperm or tissues 
of the bud or seedling- is 
insoluble, and quite in- 
capable of serving as food 
until it has been in some 
way rendered soluble, and 
capable of being- digested 
and assimilated. 

Germination. — It 

hence appears that the bm^sting of the seed to liberate 
the enclosed seedling, the unfolding of the scales to 
let loose the young shoot, are phenomena dependent 
on a gradual change in the nature of their contents — ■ 
a change brought about, in the first instance, by the 
absorption of water, or at least by the transfer of 
water from one part to another, under the influence 
of the increasing heat of the soil or of the atmo- 
sphere. It cannot be the result of the more intense 
light of the lengthening day, for the seeds grow 
beneath the soil away from the access of light, and 
the buds or eyes will sprout in the darkest cellar, as 
every one who stores potatoes knows to his cost. On 
the other hand, every gardener knows what a little 
" bottom-heat " will do to start his seeds or buds into 
growth. 



23 

Increasing heat, then, is the prime mover in start- 
ing seeds and buds into growth, if the water sup- 
ply from within or from without be adequate. The 
amount of heat required is different in different cases. 
Hardly has the soil of the Alps or of the Arctic re- 
gions become loosened from the grip of frost than 
growth commences. In other cases, nothing cooler 
than the temperature of a hot bath suffices to stimu- 
late either bud or seed. Each plant grows best at 
a certain temperature ; high in one case, low in 
another. What that temperature is, the physiologist 
fixes precisely in the laboratory, and the practical 
cultivator approximately b}- means of his experi- 
ments, aided by what he 
may know beforehand of 
the source whence the seed 
was derived, and its pro- 
bable requirements. Under 
natui-al circumstances, in 
temperate countries, the 
heat of the soil, treasured 
up from last summer's sun- 
rays, is always greater 
during the winter than 
that of the atmosphere, so 
that in many instances a 
very little additional heat 
in spring sufiices to incite 
the dormant activity of the 
plant. 

"VVe are now brought face 
to face with the question, 
"What does the heat do? 
In reply, it may briefly be 
said that it disturbs the 
balance both of the solids 
and of the fluids of the 
plant ; it expands the 
gases ; it causes currents 
in them and in the fluids ; 
it provokes chemical action ; it necessitates the ab- 
sorption of water. What is the result of aU this, 
we shall have to consider f ui-ther on. 

The absorption of water is the most important of 
these early stages (provided the bud or seed have 
access to oxygen gas, as it would always have under 
ordinary circumstances). This absorption of water 
is rendered evident by the increased size of the seed 
or bud, an increase beyond what could occur at so 
early a date from any growth, were that possible. 
The water may be derived from without, or it may 
in the first instance be simply transferred from one 
portion of the bud, bulb, tuber, or seed, which has 
much, intp another portion which has little, no 
living portion ever being absolutely destitute of 
water. This movement of water, either from with- 




Fig. 9. — Tuberous Eoot of OrcMs, serving as 
food-store. 



21 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXING. 



out or from within, is checked by too low or too 
high a temperature, the most favourable temperature 
varying- with different plants and under different 
circumstances. The absorption of water, however, 
may be more fitly dealt with hereafter, under the 
head of " Eoot-action." 

Digestion of Reserve Food. — The conversion 
of the insoluble and indigestible reserve matters into 
the soluble and digestible food-material is a very 
marvellous and a very intricate process, one only 
imperfectly known, and one to which we can only 
incidentally allude. It must suffice to say that it is 
effected by the action of a substance called ' ' diastase," 



practice to prevent the germinating seed from get- 
ting too dry, or too cold, or too deeply buried in 
the soil. On the other hand, they furnish sug- 
gestions as to the best method of preserving seeds, 
and of transporting them from distant countries. 
These are points which will be further dealt with 
under the head of "Seed-sowing." 

Not so well kao-^-n to practitioners are the means 
whereby germination may, in some cases, be hastened 
and facilitated. In the laboratory it is found that 
solutions of chlorine, iodine, and bromine favoui* 
germination, and this is accounted for by the fact 
that water (consisting of hydrogen and oxygen gases 
combined) is decomposed ; as for instance by chlorine 




Fi^. 10. — Tubers of Potato, serving as food-store. 



T/hich exerts its action only when the juices of the 
plant are acid. Lately it has been shown that 
certain extremely minute organisms or germs, com- 
monly known under the general term of " Bacteria," 
act on starchy matters in the same way as diastase ; 
indeed, it is stated that they secrete a ferment 
identical wdth, or having the same properties as, 
diastase. The fatt3" and oily matters contained in 
some seeds undergo corresponding changes, and arc 
converted by the agency of a nitrogenous ferment 
from an insoluble to a soluble condition. 

Conditions requisite for Germination. — 

Sufficiency of moisture and of heat, together with 
access of air, then, constitute the chief essentials in the 
germination of the seed or the sprouting of the bud. 
These facts, coupled with an examination of the na- 
ture of the seed, large or small, thick-husked or thin- 
husked, with or without perisperm, and a knowledge 
of the climatic conditions of the country from which 
it comes, furnish the reasons for the care taken in 



under the influence of light forming hydrochloric 
acid and setting oxygen at liberty, which "nascent" 
oxygen, as it is termed, is forthwith appropriated by 
the growing seed as a powerful stimulant and as 
food. On the other hand, the application of anaesthe- 
tics, such as ether or chloroform, arrests germination 
for a time, the process being resumed after the effects 
of the vapour have passed off. pro^-ided the dose be 
not so strong as to destroy vitality altogether. 

Vitality of Seeds. — The length of time diu^ing 
which seeds can retain their vitality is very variable, 
being dependent on the conditions under which the 
seed is kept, and on the nature of the seed itself, 
as may readily be inferred from what has been 
already said. Generally speaking it may be said 
that oily seeds lose their ^-itality sooner than starchy 
ones, owing to the greater readiness of the oil to 
decompose. Even imder ordinary circumstances 
there is great variation as to the duration of the time 
for which seeds of different plants will preserve their 



THE KITCHEX GAEDEX. 



25 



Titality ; and this will not surprise the gardener, 
who knows how frequently seeds of the same plant 
— e.g., Frimula japonipa — sown on the same day, and 
under apparently identical circumstances, germinate 
at very irregular intervals. In any case, the reader 
will do well to exercise scepticism as to the tales 
of extremely prolonged extension of vitality, as in 
the case of the so-called mxmimy wheat, such cases 
being usually attributable either to faulty observa- 
tion or wilful imposture. 



matters, the result is likely to prove a perpetual 
source of ii-ritation and disappointment, to say 
nothing of real loss. A kitchen garden entailing 
only the needful amount of labour can be made 
highly productive, where these considerations are 
given effect to in connection with its formation. 
Too frequently it is the practice, in connection 
with building new houses, for the architect to choose 
the site of the garden without bestowing any thought 
upon these needful considerations ; whereas, those 




Fig. 11.— Stem of Cactus, the swollen tissi 

THE KITCHEN GAEDEN. 

By "William Earlet. 



SITE. SIZE. SOIL. 

THE kitchen garden, being that wherein vegetables 
and indeed fruits are grown for domestic uses, 
is necessarily an essential and important department. 
It is intimately associated with the economy of 
" home," and is, like all divisions of the garden, a 
luxury, having the advantage of being, when pro- 
perly utilised, self-supporting. In view of its great 
usefulness, and that it is indispensable, far more 
consideration should be given to its formation, &c., 
than is customary, in regard to site, proper appor- 
tionment of size according to the demands likely to 
be made upon it, soil, shape, disposition, <fcc. When 
proper deliberation or study is not given to these 



;3 of wliich are laden with nutritive material. 

versed in such matters should always be consulted, 
in order to obtain the best-arranged whole. 

The Site. — Considering this in relation to the 
house and the other parts of the residence, the 
site of the kitchen garden should be one con- 
venient of approach therefrom, through and beyond 
the floM'er garden, or an ante-garden devoted to 
tloral embellishment, possessing agreeable features. 
It should also be so arranged as to be convenient 
to the stable-yard, from whence an entrance should 
exist, in vie^^ of obtaining and utilising such 
materials as are usually carted from thence into the 
garden. 

The aspect due south is always desii-able, in view 
of securing more favourably the sunshine of the 
early spring months. Level ground is most con- 
venient generally, though a site haA'ing somewhat 



26 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GAEDENIXG. 



undulating slopes is capable of producing-, by proper 
culture, excellent crops in kind. These simple facts 
show that the situation should never be in front of 
the residence, nor immediatel'y in the line of view 
from the chief windows. 

It is desirable, so far as possible, to secure for the 
crops immunity from direct north and east winds. 
This is an important factor connected with the 
growth and production of winter supplies, and very 
early crops of young spring vegetables. Where the 



which choice of situation can be made, it is highly 
desirable to avoid as far as possible low-lying spaces 
or valleys. This from the twofold fact that colder 
subsoils generally abound, and late spring frosts 
prevail; both of which cause injury to early crops, 
the former being very injurious besides to the roots 
of perennial vegetables wintered therein. 

A source of advantage and profit is always to 
found in the possession of an abundant supply of 
water in connection with this department. When- 




Kitchen Garden to north-east or Eesidence : planned so as to catch the greatest amount of sunshine. 



natural conformation of the land in the immediate 
neighbourhood does not give this, or plantations do 
not exist around, high fences or walls should be 
constructed. These latter are all but invariably 
associa,ted with this department, owing to this 
necessity in a measure, but also from the other 
important one of choice fruit supply. By growing- 
such things together, all can be more certainty 
secured, and in the most economical manner 
possible. 

I have thus far treated the subject from the point 
of view that areas of limited extent most generally 
prevail. Where large mansions exist, however, and 
in connection with them extensive grounds, from 



ever a neat pond can be formed, it is a very 
desirable feature, especially when the garden is 
formed midway upon a sloping ground, enjoying 
the happy mean of being between the Tiigher-up 
ground, where too full exposure to cold north or 
easterly winds exists, and the lower ground so 
subject to cold in spring, with the drawback of 
cold subsoils, and sour soil generally. Such a pond 
should be artificial in construction, of oblong or 
ornamental shape, formed by water imprisoned in. 
its descent from the higher to the lower grounds. 
From such a source, water in the best possible state 
for periodical summer waterings, obtained in the 
handiest possible manner, is under command, very 



THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 



27 



different from that, so cold and hard, which is 
laboriously brought thither from wells. 

To summarise the above explanations, it will readily 
appear that aU considerations attached to grounds of 
limited extent as a whole, decide the fact that the 
kitchen garden should, if possible, be situated north 
or eastward of the residence. By this arrangement, 
fruit, or protective fences, walls, or tree screens, &c., 
will act beneficially in regard to such residence. 
Besides, the approach to it will be "set off" to 
great advantage, loy having the most cheerful aspects, 
and their varied garniture in form of crops and trees, 
facing both the residence and the more direct ap- 
proach (see illustration) ; whereas a kitchen garden 
at the western side must be approached and entered 
to a disadvantage in these respects, to say nothing of 
the fact that all space south or west will be far more 
eligible for flower garden, lawn, and shrubberies. 

Size. — The extent of the kitchen garden is to 
be determined by the extent and habitual require- 
ments of each family. It is important also to con- 
sider whether other arable land exists, in connection 
with the estate, wdiereon some of the common, albeit 
most important crops so essential to household uses 
can be grown. These consist of potatoes, turnips, 
and such other very hardy subjects as could be 
most successfully grown as main crops, leaving only 
early supplies to be furnished from the garden itself. 
M^here no such aid exists, more space whereon to 
grow these things should be allotted. It is surmised 
by many that the potato supply is as cheaply pur- 
chased as grown. This is not so, however, where 
a proper sj'stem of successional cropping is carried 
out. 

To form a kitchen garden possessing the ut- 
most usefulness in produce, and pleasing in appear- 
ance, it must be so laid out that good walks exist 
for enjoyable pedestrianism, and easy access and 
working. Small side-wall and side-walk divisions 
or borders should be formed, whereon, in the 
former case, to winter and produce early crops, and 
sustain the roots of fruit-trees grown against the 
wails ; and in the latter case, to grow bush, espalier, 
and pyramidal fruits, the lesser kinds of herbs, &;c. 
A garden thus neatly arranged will occupy more 
space than an ordinary piece of vegetable ground ; 
and it should not be less, supposing potatoes, &c., 
Tdc grown for the main crop, than an acre in extent, 
if it is to furnish aU the supply for a moderate-sized 
family maintaining an establishment of dependents. 
The question of labour has also something to do 
with this matter. It is universally admitted that 
one man's time will be fully occupied the year 
round upon one acre of kitchen garden. Upon 
this basis a proper calculation can be made on 



this score : a calculation, when desirable, which 
should always be made in conjunction with flower 
and pleasure gardens and glass structures. Nor 
should the fact be overlooked, that it is cconoinical 
to possess a glass structure, whether for fruit or 
otherwise, where labour can be economically main- 
tained in activity during inclement weather, &c. 

Neat and eftective kitchen gardens, including bush 
fruits, &c., may be arranged in connection with 
villa residences upon a space comprising half an 
acre of ground. It is always desirable, however, to 
exceed requirements rather than limit the space, 
Avhere the real supply of a family is contemplated. 
Additional fruits, &c., can always be grown, which 
in themselves are a minimum tax only on the labour 
bill. Eising from the villa garden up to ducal 
kitchen gardens and requirements, a variety of 
sizes exist in the country, up to as many as ten or 
twelve acres. It has been held that a rood of 
ground will produce a supply of vegetables pur et 
simple for four persons. 

But much may be done far short of supplying the 
entire necessities of a family. A few choice or early 
vegetables out of " one's own garden," fresh, not 
only seem to, but really do taste different to any 
other ; and not a few manage, by dint of skill and close 
cropping to get most welcome, and what almost seem 
ample supplies out of the tenth or twentieth part of 
a rood. By successional and what is called express 
cropping, that is, the dri\ing of two or more crops 
abreast on the same land at the same time, an amazing 
amount of produce maybe obtained from a few square 
yards of ground in the course of the season. But 
such small-size kitchen gardens, which are intimately 
connected with allotment gardens, averaging one or 
two rods in extent, require comparatively quite as 
much super^-ision as do those of greater extent. The 
chief object in regard to all is to grow the greatest 
quantity possible of excellent crojDS. There is no 
good tangible reason why all the best kinds of hardy 
vegetables should not be produced by owners of vege- 
table ground ver}^ limited in size. For instance, 
Asparagus, considered so very difiicult to grow, and 
so great a luxuiy, is as easily grown as any crop, 
and should be essentially an amateur's plant ; and 
more especially if its culture be undertaken on the 
modern principle advocated by advanced growers 
during the last few years, i.e., united row ciilture, 
rather than the older plan of separate beds and their 
attendant expense. Two or thi-ee rows sown across 
even an allotment space will give constant crops by 
means of such simj^le preparation only as will be 
found under the head "Asparagus." Besides, the 
space may be conveniently utilised to grow early 
lettuces upon, providing always the seeds are sown 
very thinly, and plants grown so also. By these 



28 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



means such superficial-rooting plants do not injure 
the bed or the permanent crop, especially if the 
annual surface di-essings of manure are given as 
advised. 

In small gardens, herbs and minor subjects may 
advantageously occupy the outer sides or edges, 
and all corners. A regular system of successional 
cropping can conveniently be maintained with 
great advantage, and in some instances, especially 
on light soils, one crop may be made to follow 
another with very moderate cultural outlay. For 
instance, the onion-bed, well manured, when it has 
produced its summer crop, will only need hoeing 
deeply before autunm-sown cabbage plants are 
planted thereon. They will succeed better upon such 
soils, so treated, than when digging is again resorted 
to in view of planting. Certain kinds of very nutri- 
tious vegetables, such as beet and Jerusalem arti- 
chokes, are not so generally cultivated in small gardens 
as, from their prolificacy and merits, they should be. 
In the planting or disposition of crops, even in small 
gardens, such tall subjects as the last should be 
planted at the northern side as nearly as possible, in 
view to not unduly shade crops of more lowly statui^e. 
Again, as regards such small gardens, too little heed 
is given to the matter of aspect. All plants in rows 
should be grown from north to south, rather than 
from east to west. This is especially desirable in 
connection with peas and potatoes ; thereby the two 
sides will have equal sunlight or sunshine, which they 
do not receive by the latter plan. 

Again, and in spite of what is said above, it is a 
mistake to endeavour, by too thick planting, to reap 
excessively heavy crops from limited spaces. Numbers 
never give bulk in proportion equal to proper limits 
of such, and where each plant has power to develop 
fully. This is particularly noticeable in connection 
with root crops. And to limit the supply of manure 
is, especially in the case of heavilj^-cropped small 
gardens, false economy. The too common thought, 
that land will sufiice to carry a current crop without 
it — that, in fact, it will do until next season — should 
never be indulged in. By placing a dressing upon 
such forthwith, both the present and future crops 
receive benefit. 

Too much also cannot be said in favour of artificial 
waterings in connection with small gardens. Such 
waterings, as otherwise explained, must, however, 
be given studiously to the roots, and at regular in- 
tervals, to insure really beneficial results. 

The Soil. — The soil is an all-important con- 
sideration where choice can be made. Subject to the 
aspect, ground conformation, altitude, &c., referred 
to, a sandy loam of moderate consistency is preferable. 
This under culture will always, when of a goodly 



depth, or not less than two feet deep, resting on a 
porous subsoil, give the best results. Not only does 
such a soil possess the requisite fertility, freedom 
for root action, and mechanical cohesiveness, but 
it is also characterised by more warmth in winter, 
without excess of latent moisture at any season. It 
also has the very important advantage that it will 
work freely in a day or two after excessive rains, 
which is an immense advantage. 

Unfortunately, however, occupiers of a majority 
of large detached residences, villa houses, kc, are 
subject to many influences which determine where 
land is most eligible to build houses upon, quite 
irrespective of considerations as to the adaptability 
of soils to gardening purposes. The result is that 
houses are built indiscriminately in this respect, 
not unfrequently on the poorest of thin soils, &c., 
requiring much labour and expense to bring them 
into an indifferent state for any such purpose. 

Thus occupiers have variously shallow soils and 
light ; heavy soils with deep pans of impervious clay 
for subsoil, and many intermediate classes : a con- 
sideration which enforces reference to each separate 
class herein. 

Shallow soils, resting upon a gravel subsoil, may 
be by heavy manuring converted into excellent 
media for late winter, spring, and early summer 
crops. The addition to them of any stiff loamy or 
clay-like soil will also prove a great advantage. 
Practi-cally, a different system of working should 
be followed to what is requisite in connection with 
other grades of earth. INIanuring, as suggested, 
should always be applied very liberally, and, as far 
as possible, throughout the entire depth of the 
upper soil. The all-important fact in connection 
with the latter is, that it should be applied and the 
soil turned over as long as possible before crops are 
planted. By these means the manure will enrich or 
thoroughlj' impregnate the interstices, and the early 
digging or ' ' working " -^dll have been done in time to 
insure such a mechanical firmness as is essential to 
root-growth, and the greatest possible retention of 
latent moisture. To dig up such grounds during or 
anterior to dry weather periods is to cause them to 
dry imduh", to the lasting injury of any perma- 
nent crop which may be sown or planted on them. 
In connection with such light soils, too much 
cannot be advanced in reference to surface mulching 
and artificial waterings. To secirre the utmost 
profit possible from both, however, they should be 
used as far possible together. For instance, a surface 
mulching with fine manure, applied to peas, dwarf 
and runner beans, cauliflowers, lettuces, onions, 
&c., over which artificial waterings are poured 
during dry intervals, not only gives direct support 
and fertilising powers, but the mulching secures 



THE KITCHEX GAEDEX. 



29 



the surface soil from being sunhumt suhsequentlv, 
and retains the artificial moisture applied durrag 
very arid periods. 

All heavy adhesive soils — and these usually have 
for base impervious and hea^der subsoils — must be 
properly drained to insure to them all the fertility 
possible. Such drainage differs in practice greath', 
both as to depth and nature of subsoil and contour of 
the immediate area to be operated on and its sm^- 
roundings. A\Tiere about two feet in depth of upper 
soil exists, and then a clay subsoil, this latter, called 
sometimes a " pan," through which superficial 
waterings do not pass, is sometimes of moderate 
depth only, before a coarser material is found, through 
which water will percolate. Under such conditions 
it is well to trench the ground over down to this 




Fig. 1.— Artichoke. 



subsoil, clearing it effectively of soil, and to then 
break it up by digging and turning it over at the 
bottom of the trench, before it is filled in with the 
succeeding layer of soil. 'S\Tien broken up it is 
excellent practice to throw in any kind of coarse or 
green manurial matter before any soil is put therein. 
In all instances where the surface soil is of less or 
equal depth, and the subsoil is too deep for such a 
process as this to be followed, an occasional cbain 
laid in across the ground down upon such surface of 
subsoil ^\ull prove very advantageous. "S\Tiere the 
roots of fruit-trees do not exist, or are not likely to 
find their way into such drain-pipes, large sizes need 
not be used ; two-inch and three-inch pipes will 
suffice admirably, the larger size being best adapted 
for large areas only. 

The superficial working " of all stiff soil differs 
greatly from such as have already been described. 
Too much culture cannot well be given to these lat- 
ter in season. Trenching and manuring — that is. 
placing layer after layer of the latter as each trench 
progresses — is admirable. The merit of such a 



practice is readily seen when it is understood that 
many minor-sized products root very deeply. Eor 
instance, the onion often protrudes its roots down 
to a depth of at least six feet. Strawberries root 
deeply also, to say nothing of parsnips, long car- 
rots, and permanent crops of brassica, pea tribes, 
kc. In a word, all such plants root more or less- 
deeply, according as natural roadways or feeding- 
grounds exist, throughout which they are enabled to 
travel more or less freely. 

In the case of heavy soils, working them up^ 
whether by trenching or the more generally appli- 
cable practice of digging and forking, aerates and 
ameliorates their heavy, too-binding, cohesive, mois- 
ture-retaining characteristics durrag rainy periods, 
and so excessive in moist seasons, and the harsk 




Fig. 2.— Section, a, leaves ; b, tlie " clioke c, the 
■bottom. 

hardness prevalent diiring arid ones. Unlike light 
soils, therefore, these last cannot be worked too 
fi^eely or too frequently, and, save in one particular 
instance, too immediately before actual cropping- 
takes place ; this exception being, diggiag them up 
when dry during an arid period for the purpose of 
planting upon immediately. In such a case it is 
preferable to wait for at least some quantity of rain 
to fall before the operation is undertaken. Frost 
being so great an ameliorating agent, it is essential 
that all such soils be turned up dirring the winter 
months. This should be done as roughly as possible, 
in ridges or otherwise, so as to expose the largest 
surface possible thereto, as the more this is frozen 
during the winter, so much the readier will it work 
in the spring, and the smoother it will be when 
required for the reception of crops. 

Many intermediate substances may be usefully 
applied and added to heavy soils with great and 
lasting advantage, comprising sands, road-scrapings, 
burnt earth, <S:c. All kinds of manure are also 
especially advantageous in this respect, quite apart 



■30 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



from, their more fertilising capacity. Yery rough 
or crude manure, in admixture with straw, &c., 
buried at a depth therein, will cause air to be im- 
prisoned along with it, which will prove invaluable. 

Between the two extremes of very light and heavy 
soils, many intermediate grades exist, superior, 
free, rich sandy loam standing midway. Each will 
have to be treated on the above bases, in accordance 
with its exact constituents. Certain crops have a 
great power in correcting harsh or over-tenacious 
soil, owing to the system of summer culture need- 
ful in connection. Amongst these are Jerusalem 
artichokes, potatoes, celery, «S:c., all of which may 
be advantageouslj^ employed as correctives in con- 
nection with new gardens. 

Wherevev new gardens have to be formed upon 
pasture or turf land, it is highly desirable to dig the 
surface turf into the ground, as it possesses root 
nutriment of the very highest order. 

Referring to the highest order of kitchen garden 
ground, which should be secured in connection with 
all large gardens where excellence of produce of all 
kinds has to be studied rather than outlay, the soil 
should never be less than three or four feet in depth, 
and when taken in and arranged, it should be 
forthwith trenched over to its extreme limit. In 
connection with such gardens it is a great advantage 
to secure different soils in separate parts of the 
garden. By these means a greater variety of superior 
vegetables can be grown. Nor is it desirable in the 
case of well-expressed undulating surfaces to level 
all down, as to do so will cause too shallow soil in 
certain places. Independently of the several aids to 
soil amelioration previously referred to, sea-sand is 
an excellent medium in connection with all heavy 
soils, and may be intermixed with such in far 
gTeater bulk than is customary. Sea- weed may also 
be brought into inland gardens, and worked into the 
ground with very great advantage. Burnt earths, 
thinly but evenly intermixed in all soils, are very 
beneficial, and incite active root-growth extensively, 
proving a source of great help during the winter 
months and at other seasons, when rains are in 
excess. Occasionally a red or mineral tint appears 
in some forms of stifE soils. Such are "fox-bent," 
and contain an excess of iron. The only corrective 
of such is frequent working over and exposure to 
the air, and good dressing with fresh-slaked lime 
triennially. This should be dug up with and 
thoroughly intermixed in the soil, along with such- 
additions of other foreign subjects as are recom- 
mended above. 

Generally speaking, yellow loams are preferable 
to dark or hazel, being more recently broken up 
from prim£eval field or forest. Their texture, both 
from a fertile and mechanical point of view, is far 



superior. Dark soils, such as exist in old gardens, 
require heavier manurings than others. It is well 
also in their regard to apply a little lime occasionally. 
It is in this case not only a corrective of sourness, 
but hastens also the solubility of mineral substances. 
An excess of lime is, however, injurious to soils in 
any case : especially where the ground has to be 
looked to for permanent crops indefinitely. All very 
strong, hot, and diy soils will at all times be 
benefited by the addition of a little chalk, broken 
finely, where readily obtainable. 

THE CULTURE OF VEGETABLES. 
The cultivation of vegetables for cuHnary or edible 
purposes has improved very rapidly of late years, 
all classes showing, under a studied and assiduous 
system of culture, a remarkable development of such 
j)ortions as are required and are nutritious, whether 
these consist of the root-base, the leaves, blossoms, or 
fruit, some of each coming under this head. We 
shall give the most improved methods now prac- 
tised in connection with the several jDopular kinds, 
with brief and practical lists of a few of the best 
vaiieties for the amatem-, reserving hints as to 
successional cropping and other details of general 
management for later articles. 

Artichoke [Cynara ScoJynuis). German, Artl- 
schoche ; French, Artichaut ; Spanish, AUachofa. — 
Tliis is a perennial plant from Barbary and the South 
of Europe, cultivated more as a luxury, certainly, 
than for profit. The flower-heads when full-grown, 
but still quite young, contain the only edible part. 
This consists of that portion of the fl.eshy receptacle 
(the base of the bloom) which adheres to the stalk and 
the base of each scale ; in other words, the bottom of 
each fi^ower-head when it is cut away from the stalk. 
Cooks divide the head in their phraseology into 
(a) the leaves, (b) the "choke," and (c) the bottom 
(see Fig. 2), of which only c and a portion of a are 
eatable. The plant is distinguished often by the 
name Globe Artichoke, and is entirely different from 
the "Jerusalem" Artichoke, the tubers of which 
are alone edible. It delights in a deeply-cultivated 
and enriched sandy loam soil. 

Seeds sown upon a sunny, open site during the 
month of April will germinate and produce fine 
heads of flower, if properly thinned out, when neces- 
sary, the same season. Such seedling plants trans- 
planted during the following spring months also 
form permanent beds. 

Transplant into rows, somewhat elevated or 
mound-shaped, three feet" apart, and two feet apart 
•in the rows or between each plant. Such planta- 
tions will remain in bearing three or foui- years. 

New plantations are also made during the months 



THE KITCHEN GAEDEN. 



s: 



of April and May in each, year, by removing strong 
young suckers or side-growths from around the base 
of aged plants or " stools," transplanting precisely as 
achdsed for seedlings above. The flower-heads are 
fit for use just before they show symptoms of o-pen- 
ing so as to show the actual florets within. The 
heads cut when young, but of good size, will keep 
for a short time in a cool place. Subsequent 
attention required by them consists of occasional 
hoeing dm-ing summer, the removal of the lesser 
blooms upon stalks which grow more than two, and 
the cutting away of sucb stalks immediately the 
crop is secured. During the month of October cut 
away many of the aged leaves, and place a few inches 
of tree-leaves or other protective litter around them 
and over the root-base. Remove this protection 
early in the month, of March of the following year. 
Select three or four of the strongest shoots from 
amongst the many to be found upon each plant, and 
remove all others. To do this, remove some of the 
soil from each plant, and cut the useless ones out. 
Place a layer of raamu-e over the roots exposed in 
the process, and rejDlace the soil over such in its 
former place, using the finest to -place between and 
immediately around each young shoot so retained. 

Two distinct varieties exist, known as the Green 
Globe and Purple Globe. The former is more 
conical-shaped than the latter, and is known as the 
" Erench " variety. 

Artichokes, Jerusalem {HcUanthus tuberosus). 
French, Topinamhour. — The origin of the name 
" Jerusalem " as apphed to this plant is hidden in 
doubt, though it is most generally inferred that it 
is derived from Girasole, its Italian name. The 
plant is a native of Brazil, but is perfectly hardy in 
Britain. It flourishes in and deserves a rich loamy 
soil. "When grown in such the tubers produced 
are beyond comparison larger and better than such 
as are obtainable in the too customary slip-shod 
manner of growing them. 

No better j)lan can be followed in planting sets 
than such as is so imiversally practised in connection 
with the potato. No kind of manure should, how- 
ever, be apphed to them at any stage of growth. It 
causes excessive stem and leaf growth at the expense 
of large and good tubers. Small or medium-sized 
tubers should always be planted. For this reason it 
is bettor to cut large ones in two, and plant halves 
only as single sets. Planting may be done in Oc- 
tober, or during February and March. It is impor- 
tant, however, not to defer this operation until too 
late. Spring growth cannot commence too early 
in view of insuring good crops. 

It is a common practice to plant them in some 
out-of-the-w^ay corner of the garden, owing to the 



fact that young tubers persist in growing after once 
they have occupied any given space of ground. 
These can be readily uprooted, however ; hence no 
sufiicient justification remains for not giving them 
such good culture as they certainly deserve. 

Care should be taken not to cut down the rijoening 
stalks too early in the autumn. It is diiring the 
ripening process cf these stems that the tubers attaia 
to their full size, which they cannot do if deprived of 
them prematurely. The tubers should not, as a rule, 
be dug up and stored away, as is customary. By 
doing so they entirely lose that freshness w'hich is so 
prominent a feature in all home-grown vegetables. 

Plant the "sets "four inches dee]3, and slightly 
mould up the young growing plants when about six 
inches high. 

Asparagus {Asparagus officinalis). French, As- 
perge ; Gevman, Spargel ; Spanish, Usparagos. — It is 
to be regretted that asparagus is looked upon so much 
in the light of a luxiu-y, and not of an ordinary vege- 
table. Wherever moderately good garden ground, 
with moderate exposure, exists, annual crops may be 
secured, with no more trouble than is usually needful 
in the case of all which are known or considered as 
ordinary vegetable crops. The fact is that when this 
plant was first placed under garden culture a system 
was originated, which has gained precedence, almost 
exclusively, to this date. To this idea must be at- 
tributed the belief that without costly prepared beds, 
and expensive attendance subsequently, no good re- 
sults could be obtained. We give the older method 
first, and then a far simpler way of growing it. 

On the old plan, one or more beds are requisite, 
each four and a half feet wide, with intervening 
alleys not less than two feet wide. According to 
the number of beds to be planted, so must the ground 
be marked out. The whole must first be trenched 
thirty inches deep or more, as the nature of the 
subsoil permits. During the process of trenching 
well-seasoned manure must be added to the bottom 
and centre, as well as a goodly dressing dug into 
the surface. This work should, if possible, be per- 
formed during the month of February or ]\Iarch. 

The whole being trenched and manured, lay out 
the beds to the required size, with alleys between, 
elevating the beds at this stage shghtly above the 
alleys. The proper time to plant seedHng plants is 
when they are just commencing to grow, a i^rocess 
which varies with the seasons. Draw a line along 
the bed lengthwise, from end to end, nine inches 
from the side. With a rake or hoe form a drill for a 
row of young plant roots. Lay the plants therein, 
with their apices near to the line, from eight to nine 
inches apart, spreading the roots out . straight from 
the centres ; then cover over to a depth sufficient to 



32 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAUDEXIISG. 



keep them in place. Plant other rows to complete 
the bed, a foot apart. When the bed is planted, 
place soil from the alleys over all to a depth of about 
three inches, raking the rough particles off, and 
watering, should the weather continue some time dry. 

Keep the bed scrupulously clean and free from 
weeds during the summer. So soon as the growth 
made ripens, cut it down close to the ground, clean 
the surface, place a layer of well-rotted manure over 
it, and again cover all with about an inch and a half 
of soil from the alleys. This latter operation, per- 
form any time from October to December inclusive. 

About the last week in February it is advan- 
tageous to just loosen up the sui-face of the beds 
with a fork. At this time a slight dressing with 
salt may be given with advantage. It neutralises 
injury done to the young blades by insects, and 
eventually aids the roots materially. By this 
method beds last well for seven or eight years. In 
Austria they often prove prolific for twenty to 
twenty-five years on the same principle, with the 
addiiion of crushed bone, horn, &c., laid at the 
bottom of the bed. 

The most economical, and what will become the 
most popular, method of growing asparagus, is far 
simpler. It is indeed well in most places, if possible, 
to prepare the ground by trenching, manure, &c., as 
above, though this is by no means necessary. Every 
possessor of garden ground may grow asparagus, 
even if it be only manured and prepared as for 
potatoes, and reap excellent crops, though not so 
good certainly as when the soil is manured and 
trenched more deeply as advised. And some deep 
sandy soils exist, such as those round Colchester and 
elsewhere, requiring only manurial aid to insiu-e the 
best results. However, the soil being prepared, 
draw drills therein one inch in depth, and three feet 
apart, and sow the seeds dm-ing the month of April, 
watering them in, should the weather at that par- 
ticular time be dry. 

So soon as the plants are six inches high, thin 
them out, by removing all the lesser ones, Szc, 
to nine inches apart. Keep well hoed during 
the summer, and give manure-water occasionally. 
Grown so for two summers, a moderate first cut- 
ting may be made the following spring ; in view of 
which slightly prick over the surface soil between 
the plants to within an inch of the roots, place the 
soil in mound form over the crowns of the plants, 
then place a thick layer of good manure over the 
whole surface of the bed. 

Cultivated in this way, the great anniial labour of 
packing up the beds is dispensed with, besides which, 
rows of early Paris Cos lettuces can be annually 
produced by sowing the seeds between the rows of 
asparagus early in the month of March each year ; 



or the amateur may simply grow one or more rows 
across any piece of good garden ground, giving 
merely annual manuring and attention, less than 
many vegetables require, and secure good produce. 

Seedling asparagus plants have to be especially 
prepared where the system of transplanting is 
followed out, which may be done in connection with 
both methods referred to above. The better plan 
is to place a thickness of soil upon a hard level bed 
of cinder ashes, or similar material, the richer it 
is the better. Sow the seeds thinly in drill rows, 
about twelve inches between the drills. Thin the 
young plants out well when large enough, and en- 
courage to make a good growth by copioas manurial 
waterings. The following spring, push a spade or 
shovel along the surface of the hard bottom beneath 
the soil, and so raise the whole plant up ; detach one 
plant from another in the most convenient wav 
without injury to the roots of any, or tearing the 
soil from them, and plant as before ad%'ised. 

Selected or improved varieties generally produce 
finer blades than ordinary seeded plants do, for 
which reason Conover's Colossal, an American 
variety, should have precedence, by all who would 
succeed thoroughly. It is important also to procure 
seeds from a reliable source. The general practice 
is to procure two-j-ear-old plants from reputed nur- 
serymen. By so doing, a year or more is saved in 
the ultimate production of a crop. 

In instances where a bed already exists, and a 
futm-e renewal of its contents is anticipated, seeds 
may be sown in advance to produce the needful 
young plants in due time. Where the better system 
of sowing in soil placed upon a level and hard 
basis is not followed, sow the seeds upon an open 
sunny bed, in rich soil, not too thickly, leaving 
them to complete therein a two-summers' growth. 
In taking them up at the stage already indicated, 
use great care not to break any roots. Every root 
so destroyed limits the immediate future growing 
capacity of the plant, besides a risk of injury to 
other parts owing to the decay of the same. 

The asparagus is mostly a seaside plant, growing- 
near sand-covered rocks even on some western 
coasts of Great Britain. It is a great aid to their 
superior culture to use abundance of sea-weed in 
the bottoms of the trenches, when preparing the 
ground for them; and the majority of inland soils 
would be made vastly more fitting for this plant were 
they very liberally mixed with sea-sand. 

Many good and highly promising asparagus-beds 
are destroyed, owing to the thoughtless persistence 
of the possessors in cutting for use out of season. 
Not only does this practice so exhaust the root-base, 
that it has not power to make strong summer shoots : 
but such shoots as are permitted to grow are often 



THE KITCHEN GAEDEX. 



33 



mcapable of maturing, and placing such a store of 
strength to the root's account helow ground, as 
alone can enable them to produce freely and "well 
in the following spring. During hoth the first and 
second years following the planting, the young 
.shoots must he permitted to grow freely; none must 
be cut. To do so destroys the future quaht}' and 
prolificacy. English growers err generally in com- 
mencing, and continue to cut till too late in the 
reason, young immatured plantations. Such a tax 
is never thoroughly overcome. 

Forced asparagus is very easily obtained, where 
three or four-year- old plants exist along with suifi- 
cient fermenting materials to form a bed with, and 
frames with sashes to place over them.* Aspara- 
gus plants are not fit for forcing under three years' 
growth, though they cannot be too old for the pro- 
cess. A bed should be made up whereon to force, 
similar to such as are prepared for cucumber grow- 
ing, in connection with which it is known such a 
height and thickness is necessary as will retain heat 
within it — aided in severe weather by periodically 
placed linings — for some time. 

"When the heat at the centre of this bed does not 
exceed 100° Fahrenheit, a layer of decomposed 
manure or soil is first laid upon it, it is trodden 
somewhat firmly down, and the plants, taken up 
with soil adhering between the roots, are packed 
thereon as closely as possible together ; one lot of 
roots overlying another in such a manner that as 
many as practicable are pressed in ; all having the 
crowns, with young buds, as nearly as possible level. 
As gi^-ing some idea what any given size frame will 
hold, it may be said that 400 three-year-old plants 
can be placed in a two-light. 

"V\Tien as many as possible have been neatly 
packed within the frame, place just sufficient rich, 
light soil over all to cover the crowns, insert a test- 
stick to study the heat by, leaving the lights off 
until it is known that the heat does not fiuctuate 
unduly, and a mean temperature of about 90" exists. 
Immediately a slight downward tendency is observed 
in this internal heat of the bed, add about three 
iaches more soil, consisting greatly of leaf -mould 
and sand, giving a good watering with tepid water 
—sufficient, in fact, to moisten the roots below 
thoroughly; place the lights upon the frames, 
and shut them down close. With heat maintained 
within the bed as near to 85° as possible, give no air 
until the young blades push through the soil freely. 
A httle fresh air admitted by tilting with a wedge at 
the back just for half an hour daily to improve the 
flavour will be ample. Should the internal heat of 
the bed fall, resuscitate it by adding a lining first to 
one half, and again, in about eight days' time, to the 
-other half; and as the cropping continues aive other 
3 



waterings as needful, a little manure-water being 
xery advantageous ultimately, and when the old 
roots have formed their minor feeding rootlets. 

Forcing in mid- winter is far more laborious than 
during the early spring, or February, every care 
being necessary to deter cold air from blowing from 
without between the frame and the bed. Dui'ing 
very severe weather the sides of the frame without 
must be well covered up, too, with thick linings and 
with hay or straw, as well as mat coverings placed 
over the glass. Very slight warmth arises through 
these thicknesses of roots and soil, so that severe 
frosts readily gain ingTess if not weD. guarded and 
provided against. Forcing asparagus within glass- 
houses, having needful beds and heating media, has 
to be performed on precisely similar bases. In this 
latter instance very much more water should be 
applied to the roots ; surface syringings or sprink- 
lings being also frequently necessary to counteract 
the drying tendency of the pipes within. 

"Whenever forcing is undertaken, it should be done 
rapidly and well; to revert to a cool or slowei 
process after part of the crop is secured, lessens the 
ultimate }-ield and gives tough and inferior produce. 

The following are the varieties in cultivation: — 
Ai'genteuil Early Purple, Argenteuil Late Purple, 
Connover's Colossal, and Giant Battersea. 

Beans, " Broad " ( Jlcla Faha). French, Feve de 
Jlarciis; German, -Bo/(» ; Italian, ivfra. The Garden 
Bean, known commonly as Broad Bean, is an annual 
plant, and one of the very oldest associated with our 
gardens, introduced probably by the Eomans, and a 
native originally of Egypt. 

It is divided into three varieties or forms, viz. — 
the dwarf and small, or Mazagan ; the Long-pod, 
containing somewhat elongated seeds : and the true 
short or blunt-podded variety, containing but two or 
three seeds, very large in size, and very broad. 

The culture of the plant is of the simplest. It 
prefers a deep, stifE soil, only moderately manured, 
and such as has been dug up two or three months 
before seed-sowing. The three varieties named, 
especially in their improved modern forms, are all 
valuable from the fact that they aid cultivators in 
securing early, mid- season, and late produce, which 
without them would not be equally easy of attain- 
ment. The dwarf Mazagan is the hardiest, succeeded 
by the Long-pod, and finally by the old " Broad " 
variety: these characteristics being so marked. as 
to secure such succession even when, in the early 
spring months, all are sown at the same date. 

The seed-sowing rarely receives such an amount 
of consideration as it deserves. It is an error to 
make holes, toss the seed carelessly therein,, and 
cover them over indifferently. A blunt dibble should 



34 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENINa. 



■be used, sucli as will make a bed whereon the bean 
will fall, and can be made quite firm by superficial 
pressure of the side soil upon it. The common 
practice invariably permits hollows to remain be- 
neath or beside them, much to their injury during 
and after germination. Another simple plan is to 
draw drills six inches wide and four deej), placing 
therein two rows of seeds, each seed being placed at 
angles with those in the opposite row. Unless the 
soil after it is drawn over these be trodden down 
firmly, the plant does not succeed so weU as those re- 
sulting from dibbled-out seeds. The Broad Bean can 
be both conveniently and successfully transplanted ; 
often a useful method to employ when it is desirable 
that it should follow a recent crop, but one the pos- 
sible practice of which does not occur to many. 

As to time of sowing, when a long succession is 
desirable, the Mazagan might be sown late in October 
and November, also about 
the middle of December, 
for the earliest crops. Sow 
to succeed the above early 
Long-pod during Decem- 
ber or January, and an 
equal quantity of Taylor's 
Windsor, or Broad, Again 
plant of the latter in JMay 
or June, and, if desirable, 
another of the Mazagan 
during June and July, to 
give a crop before the 
frosts of autumn. The 
dwarf kind, sow one and 
a half to two feet apart 
in the rows ; the taller 
ones, two and a half to three feet between. The 
seeds should be about two inches apart in the rows. 

All after-culture is of the simplest ; when the 
young plants are about three inches high, well hoe 
between the rows to destroy weeds, then draw the 
soil in a ridge up to each row of plants from an 
equal distance on both sides. Beyond subsequent 
hoeings nothing more is wanted. To hurry on the 
crop and increase the size of the beans, pinch off the 
points of all, when all the flowers having expanded 
also begin to fade. It is important to gather the 
crop when the beans are little more than half grown ; 
when approaching to maturitj'- in size they lose 
flavour and are not appreciated. The Broad Bean 
is very subject to attacks of black Aphis. Root- 
waterings, removing the tops, and syringing with a 
strong insecticide, are means to its removal or 
destruction. 

The best varieties are — Early Mazagan, Leviathan 
{Aguadulce), Seville Long-pod, Taylor's Windsor, 
Green Windsor. 



THE EOSE AND ITS CULTUEE. 



INTRODUCTION.— THE BOTANICAL CRARAC- 
TERISTICS OF THE ROSE. 

By Dk. Maxwell T. Masters, F.E.S. 

IT would obviously be out of place to enter on full 
details under this heading, as many points it 
would be necessary to allude to woidd have little or 
no practical bearing. We shall therefore confine our- 
selves to a few leading characteristics to which it is 
desirable that the attention of the cultivator should 
be di'awn. The genus Hosa of the botanists is one 
of those groups which it is easy to define, and which 
a tyro finds no difficulty in recognising. The case 
is quite otherwise with the species which make up 
that genus. Precision now gives way to vagueness 
and uncertainty, and the alleged points of distinction 
break down almost at the 
first trial. Lindley, one 
of whose earliest and best 
monographs was one de- 
voted to this genus, was 
just in his remark, which 
reads now as if made 
yesterday (it was written 
in 1820) There are 
no limits to the species ; 
it is impossible to give 
them ligorous defini- 
tions." If this be true of 
the wild forms as we find 
them in nature, what 
shall we say of those 
which have been de- 
signedly or unconsciously modified, for untold cen- 
turies it may be, by the hand of man ? 

Distinctive Marks of the G-enus Kosa.— 

The genus Bosa is mainly distinguished from other 
plants, not only of its own order ( Rosacece), but of all 
others, by its peculiar fruit. This is what is called 
familiarly the " hip," and its structiu-e demands a 
little attention. By tracing the flower-stalk from 
below ujDwards, or better, making a slice lengthwise 
through the hip (Fig. 1), it is seen that the flower- 
stalk itself gradually dilates, and becomes fleshy, and 
ultimately brightly coloured. The "receptacle," as 
this part of the flower is botanically called, forms, 
in fact, a sort of cup or vase, in which may be seen 
a number of small, hard, dry nuts, each with a long 
thread at the top. These are generally taken by 
beginners to be the seeds, but are strictly not the 
seeds, but the carpels or seed-vessels, each containing 
a solitary seed ; the long thread is the style, at the 
end of which is a button-like dilatation which is the 




Fig. 1.— Slice lengthwise through, the Flower of a Wild Eose, 
showiug the vase-shaped receptacle (hip) enclosing the 
carpels, each with its style and stigma, and bearing at 
its upper edge the sepals (of which only a portion of one 
is shown), the petals, and the stamens. 



THE EOSE AND ITS CULTURE. 



35 



stigma. The hip, then, of the Rose consists of a vase- 
like swelling of the top of the flower-stalk, bearing 
the sepals, petals, and stamens from a rim just within 
the edge of the vase, and bearing the true seed- 
vessels, or "carpels," at the bottom. The nearest 
approach to this peculiar fruit is in the Fomacece 
(including the apple and 
pear), where we have 
pretty much the same 
structure, but with this 
difference : that whereas 
in the Rose the carpels 
are free from the vase 
within which they are 
included, in the Pomacece 
they are embedded within 
its fleshy substance, and 
form the " core " of the 
apple or pear (Fig. 2). If 
we add to the peculiarity 
of fruit just mentioned 
the circumstance that the 
species of Rosa are all of 
them shrubs with com- 
pound foliage — that is, 
(with one exception) 
the individual leaves are 
not in one piece, but each 
leaf branches into sepa- 
rate leaflets (Fig. 3) — we 
have said enough to en- 
able any one to recognise 
a Rose, and to dis- 
tinguish it from 
any other genus 
yet known. Our 
forefathers at- 
tempted to define 
a Rose according 
to the flower, as 
superficial obser- 
vers would do even 
now; but by so 
doing they jumbled 
up together all 
sorts of things, 
many ha\'ing no 
more real relationship one to the other than a 
cabbage to a cocoa-palm. The real marks of dis- 
tinction are those here stated. 

Having now endeavoured to convey an accurate 
notion as to what constitutes a Rose in a botanical 
sense, we may next call attention to some of the 
more important characteristics of the species, re- 
ferring the reader for fuller details to strictly 
botanical works. 




Fig. 2,— Slice lengthwise through, an Apple, showing the 
globular fleshy receptacle (pome) in which the carpels 
are embedded. At c and at st are the withered remnants 
of the calyx and of the stamens respectively ; tc shows 
the fleshy part of the receptacle ; p is the rind of the 
receptacle ; m, the fleshy portion ; e, the core or true 
seed-vessel : s, the seed. 




Fig. 3.— Compound (pinnate) Leaf of a Eose, showing two pairs and one 
terminal leaflet, st are the leaf-scales or stipules springing from the 
sides of the petiole or leaf-stalk. 



The Root. — The root of a Rose in its early stages, 
soon after its emission from the seed, is a tap-root, 
i.e., one having the form of a long cone, with a stoutish 
trunk descending relatively to a considerable depth, 
and giving off numerous branches at a somewhat 
obtuse angle. The root is thus so organised as to 
secure firm attachment to 
the soil, and a supply of 
nutriment at various 
depths. The root of a 
Rose (we are speaking 
more particularly of wild 
ones) is well equipped 
for taking part in the 
competition with other 
vegetable forms. As the 
plant grows, the base of 
the stem and the upper 
part of the root become 
more and more woody, 
and ultimately form a 
thick ' ' root-stock, ' ' which 
does not itself absorb 
food, but which serves as 
a store-place for the food, 
which is derived partly 
from matters taken up 
by the root -hairs and 
finest root-fibrils, partly 
by the aid of gases ab- 
sorbed fi'om the atmos- 
phere by the leaves. By 
this conjoint 
agency of leaves 
and root nutritive 
matter is formed, 
and those portions 
of it which are not 
used up by the 
growing plant are 
stored in the reser- 
voir afforded by 
the younger and 
outer portions of 
the woody stems, 
and more particu- 
larly in the root^ 
There they remain till requisitioned in 
spring to supply the needs of the growing parts. 
The thick butt-end of a Rose- stock, as taken from 
the hedge-row for purposes of "budding," has hence 
a degree of utility beyond what is often recognised. 

The Stem and Branches. — The modifications 
of the stem and its branches contribute especially to 
the " habit " of Roses. The branches may be erect 



stock. 



^6 



CA«SELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



and stiff, or trailing, or arcHng, or scandent. Wlien 
they take the form of " suckers," which are branches 
proceeding from the underground stock, they are not 
regarded with favour- by gardeners. Most often the 
Rose-shoots are covered more or less with woody 
prickles of variable size and appearance. These enable 
the Rose, in a wild state, to push its way between 
other competing shrubs, and to support its branches 
and expose its leaves to light and air at the expense 
of its neighbours, and with a proportionately small 
expenditure of force or tissue on its own part. The 
prickles are often curved, with the points down- 
ward. In this way fewer obstacles are offered to 
their upward passage among competing branches, 
while the hooked form insures a firmer hold, and 
prevents the branches being dislodged. The form 
and arrangement of the prickles furnish most valu- 
able means to the cultivator for the discrimination 
between different varieties when other marks of dis- 
tinction are not available. These prickles are super- 
ficial outgrowths from the rind, not to be confounded 
with spines, such as one sees on the hawthorn 
{Crataegus), which are true branches, though in an 
abortive condition. Other superficial outgrowths 
from the skin of the stem or the leaves are glandular 
hairs of various kinds, which contribute to the per- 
fume of the plant, as in the Sweet-briar,' and serve 
as a means of discrimination between different 
varieties. 

The Leaves. — The manifold variations in the 
appearance of the leaves scarcely need more than the 
mere mention. An idea of their extreme variability 
may be gained by comparing the simple leaves of 
it. berherifolia, the glossy leaves of the Macartney 
Rose [R. bracteata), the rough leaves of the Japanese 
Rose [R. rugosa), with the leaves of the Sweet-briar, 
or of the common Moss-rose. Size, form, colour, 
nature of the pubescence of the leaf as a whole, form 
and degree of toothing of its margins, are all points 
to which the attention of the Rose-grower must be 
drawn. 

Inflorescence. — By " iaflorescence " botanists 
mean the arrangement or grouping of the flowers on 
the stem or branches, and in the case of the Rose 
this is of great importance from a cultivator's 
point of view. First of all, there is the fact that 
the branch or branches which immediately support 
the flower are always " terminal." That is, they 
are at the end of the shoot, and are not developed 
from the sides, in the axils of the leaves, nor from 
thickened spurs, as in pears or apples. Then the 
flower-buds of the nascent inflorescence are always 
formed on the wood of the year. In the apple, or 
pear, or peach, the flower-buds are formed in the 



summer or autumn of the year preceding that in 
which they are to unfold ; but in the Rose, the flower- 
buds are formed in the same season as that in which 
they expand, and, as we have said, at the ends of 
the branches — points which the pruner needs to 
heed. The cultivator, too, will note that the work 
which a Rose has to do must be done very rapidly ; 
and, moreover, that it is done more or less con- 
tinuously till stopped by the advent of frost in 
autumn. The necessity for shelter, an adeqiiate food- 
supply, and an ample quantity of water during the 
growing season to obviate any check to gro^i;h as far 
as possible, is thus rendered obvious. 

The distinction between those Roses whose flowers 
are borne singly, and those which are in trusses or 
clusters, is ob^■iously a matter of great practical 
moment, but botanically the difference is slight, being 
only one of degree. The inflorescence of Roses, in 
fact, comes under the category of " definite " in- 
florescences, so called because the flower deflnes, or 
jDuts a stop to the extension of the stem in that 
particular direction, any subsequent gi-owth starting 
from below the first and, of course, at an angle with 
it. Thus, if in a truss there are three flowers — a 
common caSe — then the central one is the oldest and 
flrst-foi-med, and the side ones are formed sub- 
sequently, belonging, as botanists say, to a different 
"generation." 

When there is but one flower, that arises from the 
fact that the side ones are not developed, but the 
spot from which they should spring is generally indi- 
cated by a joint, or sometimes by a leafy scale. By 
suppressing or pinching the side-buds the grower 
often has it in his power to bring about increased size 
and colour of the flower, while by suppressing the 
terminal bud he can, as it were, postpone and prolong 
the blooming season. ^Taat are called Perpetual 
Roses {Roses remordants of the French) are Roses in 
which new inflorescences are produced in succession 
throughout the season ; and a minor degree of the 
same phenomenon is brought about by the difference 
in the time of expansion of the first or terminal 
flower-buds as contrasted with th-e lateral ones. 

The Parts of the Flower.— The cah-x of the 
Rose consists always of five sepals, var^-ing greatly 
in appearance in different cases, but always spring- 
ing from the top of the hip in which the seed- 
vessels are concealed. The five' sepals are not 
formed all at the same time, but in succession, and 
this sequence remains obvious even in the fully- 
developed flower-bud, by the manner in which the 
sepals overlap one another, and often by their 
appearance. Thus there are two placed out- 
side, two within the bud, and one half in, half 
out. The appearance of the sepals in these cases 



THE ROSE AND ITS CULTURE. 



often varies ; thus the two outer ones have little 
leaflets on each side, the two inner ones have none 
on either margin, while the intermediate one has 
miniature leaflets on one edge and none on the 
other. 

The normal numher of petals is five, as may be seen 
in the lovely briar-roses of our hedges ; but under 
cultivation the number becomes vastly increased by 
the substitution, more or less completely, of petals 
for stamens. The general form of the Rose flower — 
" globular," " cupped," &c. — depends upon the form of 
the hip, and on the number, arrangement, and size 




■Fig. 4, — Flower of a Wild Eose seen from above, showing 
a portion of the stalir, the tips of the sepals, the five 
petals, the numerous stamens, and the stigmas nlhng 
up the centre. 

of the petals. The concavity of some petals, the roll- 
ing back of the margins of others, are peculiarities 
dependent on the varying rate of growth at one part 
as contrasted with that at another. If, for instance, 
the rate of growth be greater at the margins than in 
the centre, the petal will necessarily be concave ; if 
the upper surface grow faster than the lower, the 
lalbter acts as a cm-b, and the tip of the petal will be 
rolled back. The exquisite colours of the Rose, 
varying from pure white to various shades of yellow, 
and from pale pink to rich crimson, depend, as in 
other flowers, partly on coloured juices within the 
petal, and partly on a series of minute pimple-like 
projections from the surface, visible under a low 
power of the microscope, and which break up the 
light and give that velvety translucence to the flower 
which constitutes one of its main charms. 

The stamens, under normal conditions, spring 
fi'om the inner edge of the hip within the sepals 
and petals, as shown in the section at Fig. 1 ; 
each consists of a slender filament, capped by 
a small anther containing the pollen which is 
required to fertilise " the germ in the young seed- 
vessel, and which germ so fertilised becomes the 
embryo or seedling plant. The stamens are extremely 
numerous, and apparently arranged without order, 
but in the very early stage of development it is 
easy to see that there are only five, and that all 
the rest are mere subdivisions and secondary forma- 



37 

tions from the five primitive ones. Even in the 
fully-developed flower, the original five-fold division 
may be traced in the quartered flowers of such Roses 
as Souvenir de la Malmaison. In garden Roses the 
stamens are, as above stated, more or less replaced by 
petals, although never completely so, or the flower 
would be sterile. 

As to the nature of the seed-vessel and fruit, that 
has been sufficiently dwelt upon for our purpose 
already. 

How to Obtain New Roses. — All that it is 
necessary to say in this place is, that any one who 
wishes to cross Roses, with a view of getting new 
varieties, must apply the pollen from one flower 
to the stigma of another, taking care that the latter 
is not fertilised by its own pollen. This essential is 
secured by the removal of the stamens from the un- 
opened bud of the flower it is intended to cross. The 
principles involved in crossing are simple, but the 
practice requires much patient care, intelligence, and 
forethought : qualities whose exercise will probably 
be repaid by accessions of variety and beauty, which 
will surprise and delight those who complain, and not 
without reason, of the number of " too-much-alike " 
Roses. A word may be said here as to the other 
methods of obtaining new Roses. The most common 
way is simply to sow the seeds. Among the progeny 
are sm-e to be some sufficiently different from the 
parent to attract attention, and probably to be worth 
propagating. Of course, it is advisable to sow seeds 
from the best kinds and the healthiest plants. 
Another method is by removing and propagating 
chance bud- variations or " sports." A white Moss- 
rose, for instance, may suddenly be produced on a 
branch bearing flowers of the ordinary character, and 
if tliis " sport" be removed and propagated, it may 
be perpetuated. The origin of these "sports" is 
mysterious, but it is generally supposed to be due to 
the dissociation of previously-blended characters. 
Roses, like all other long-cultivated plants, have a 
very mixed ancestry ; and sometimes, for reasons 
we cannot explain, the characters of some of the 
ancestors suddenly become, as it were, disentangled, 
and show themselves in their original immixed state. 

l^ative Country of the Hose. — The species 
inhabit the temperate regions of the Northern Hemi- 
sphere, not growing wild within the tropics, but, on 
the other hand, extending far north and to sub-alpine 
elevations. European, Asiatic, and North American 
Roses have each a distinct appearance, and their 
numbers no one can compute, as it is so entirely 
a matter of individual opinion whether they shall be 
reckoned in tens, or whether we shall take the pains 
to verify the alleged distinctions between hundreds. 



38 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



For our present purpose, it will suffice to speak of 
a few of the most generally admitted species accord- 
ing to their geographical origin. 

Among European Roses we may allude, in the first 
place, to certain species which occur wild in our own 
islands. 

E. spinosissima is a low-growing form, growing in 
waste places often near the sea, and distinguished by 
its small neat gland- 
less foliage, its 
crowded stiff prickles 
and its globular 
blackish fruit. This 
is the parent of the 
Scotch Roses of the 
garden, the flowers 
being usually small, 
globular, and delight- 
fully fragrant. Its 
creeping under- 
ground stems and 
suckers render it 
useful in fixing light 
soil by the sea. 

JR. rubiginosa is the 
origin of the Sweet- 
briar, whose fragrant 
foliage is alone suffi- 
cient to distinguish it. 

R. canina is the 
common Dog-rose of 
the hedges, very vari- 
able in foliage and 
flower. Its prickles 
are strongly hooked, 
and its foliage usually 
without glands. 

E. arvensis has 
more of a trailing 
habit than the pre- 
ceding, and differs 
more especially in 
the styles, which in 

this species protrude from the mouth of the flower- 
tube, and, instead of being free, are more or 
less united , together. It is the parent of the Ayr- 
shire, Dundee Rambler, and other robust-growing 
climbing Roses well adapted for pillars or trellises, 
or as weeping trees. 

E. moschata is a native of Sicily and of the 
Pyrenees, extending also into Northern Africa. It 
is a form rarely seen, having few spines, leaflets 
glaucous beneath, flowers white, with a perfume of 
musk, and arranged in clusters. The Noisette Roses 
are said to have originated from the cross-fertilisation 
of this species with the Chinese Rose. 




Fig. 5.— Branch, of Eosa Gallica, showing prickly stem, stipules, pinnate 
leaves, definite inflorescence, flower -buds, and expanded corolla, as 
described in the text. 



E. sempervire7is is a native of Southern Europe, of 
the same climbing habit as the E. arvensis, but with 
nearly evergreen leaves. Felicite pcrpetuelle is one of 
the best known of its descendants. 

E. Gallica is a native of Central and Southern 
Europe, and is abundant in Austria and Switzerland. 
It is a shrub with weak prickles of imiform shape, 
rigid glandless leaves, and erect flowers. From it, 
or from crosses with 
it and others of the 
Centifolia, Chinese, 
Noisette, and Bour. 
bon Roses, has arisen 
a vast variety of 
garden Roses of all 
colours, and of every 
variety of habit 
(Fig. 5). 

E. cinnamomea is a 
species, native of 
North and Central 
Europe, forming a 
greyish shrub with 
cinnamon - coloured 
branches, beset with 
few spines, very large 
stipules, and long 
pointed sepals, the 
petals being of a pink 
colour. 

E. Alpina, a native 
of the mountains of 
Central Europe, form- 
ing a shrub without 
spines, with pale pink 
erect flowers, elon- 
gated pendulous fruit 
on a hispid peduncle. 

Amongst Asiatic 
Roses we may first 
note a few w^hich 
are natives of Asia 
Minor. 

E. eglanteria [hitea), often considered, but errone- 
ously, to be a native of Southern Europe. It forms 
an erect bush, with very irregular prickles ; doubly- 
serrated leaflets ; flowers usually solitary, of some 
shade of yellow. From this have originated the 
Austrian Briars and Persian Yellow of the garden. 
The species is a native of Asia IMinor, of the Hima- 
layas, Afghanistan, and Siberia. 

E. centifolia is a native of the Caucasus and of Asia 
Minor. It forms a shrub, with unequal prickles, 
flowers nodding, white or pink. This is the parent of 
the Provence or Cabbage Roses, of the Pompones and 
Moss Roses, the latter so called from the profusion 



SUBURBAN GARDENING. 



39 



of glandular moss-like scales or hairs with which 
their stalks and sepals are covered. It is very like 
Ji. Gallica, but has less tendency to produce suckers ; 
the prickles are more unequal, and the leaves more 
flaccid. This is the Rose from which the attar is 
chiefly made. Crossed and re-crossed with varieties 
of li. Damascena and H. Indica, this has given rise to 
the group kno-s\Ti as Hybrid Perpetuals — the most 
popular of all Garden Roses. 

It. Damascena is a form of unknown origin, usually 
considered to be derived from Syria, and perhaps only 
a form of the preceding. It is characterised by 
robust habit, stout unequal prickles, leathery green 
leaves, and reflected calyx-lobes. 

H. Jlccc is a newly-described Rose from Afghanis- 
tan, remarkable for its dwarf habit, dense prickles, 
and small yellow flowers. This species, with some 
others, is used for forming hedges in Afghanistan. 

E. sidphurea is another yellow-flowered rose, with 
leaflets whitish beneath. It is a native of Asia IMinor 
and Persia. 

R. alba has grey rugose leaves and large white 
flowers. It is a native of the Caucasus, and perhaps 
of Afghanistan. 

a. involuerata, the R. Lyellii of Lindley, is the 
only species of Tropical India, where it forms the 
Common Rose of the Bengal plains. 

From China comes the very distinct IMacartney 
Rose, R. bracteata, the foliage of which is sub- 
evergreen, and deep shining green in colour; the 
flower- stalks have large bracts, as the leaf -like 
organs or scales on the flower-stalk are called, and 
the cup-like flowers are porcelain-white, and very 
beautiful. 

R. microphylla is a Chinese species, remarkable for 
its small and numerous leaflets. It resembles the 
]Macartney Rose, but has the hip studded with 
bristles, so that the flower-buds are " as rough as a 
hedgehog." (W.Paul.) 

R. Indica is another Chinese species, with evergreen 
glabrous leaves, glaucous stems, reflexed sepals, and 
pink flowers. It is the parent of the Monthly, or 
China Roses, as also of the Bengals, Bourbons, and 
Teas, and possibly of the Noisettes. The Fairy Roses 
are referable to this type, as is also the Manetti, 
tised as a stock. 

R. BanJcsim is a climbing form with glabrous ever- 
green leaves, few or no prickles, and tufts of small 
double yellow or white flowers of great beauty. 

it. Fortunei is also a climber, with glabrous leaves, 
small hooked prickles, large solitary white or yellow 
( flowers. 

Among Japanese Roses may be mentioned R. mul- 
tiflora, a climbing species, with deeply-divided 
• stipules and bracts, flowers small in clusters, flower- 
stalks hairy. There are several varieties, of which 



R. polyantha is one, and Rose de la Grifferaie^ used as 
a stoc'k for budding, is another. 

R. rugosa is a very remarkable bush, being densely 
prickly, with very dark green bullate foliage, and 
large pink or white flowers two inches or more 
across, succeeded by large globose red fruit. It is 
one of the most distinct of the species. 

The Roses of the United States are not numerous, 
and they have not given rise to many garden forms. 

R. setigera is the only American climbing form. It 
has stout straight prickles, and trusses of pink flowers. 

R. Carolina is a species found in cottage gardens, 
forming a tall bush with stout prickles, leaves greyish 
beneath ; flowers in clusters, pink. 

R. liicida is lower-growing than the preceding, 
with very numerous bristles, and a few straight 
prickles ; leaves shining above ; flowers in clusters, 
pink. 



SUBUEBAN GAEDEJSriNG. 

By James Hudson. 



SUBURBAN DIFFICULTIES. PREPARATION. PLANS 
FOR SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS. 

SUBURBAN gardens differ widely in many re- 
spects from those situated in the pure air of the 
country. Only those practically acquainted with the 
many difficulties and obstacles in the way of suc- 
cessful cultivation can fully realise these drawbacks, 
and endeavour by experience gained in past failures 
to attain to future successes. This is applicable in 
some degree to every branch of horticulture, but 
more especially as regards the cultivation of fruits, 
plants, trees, and shrubs; vegetables, from our ex- 
perience of the past fourteen years, being the least 
susceptible to the unpropitious influences of fogs, 
blacks, and smoke. These unavoidable deterrents to 
vegetation in general have to be overcome in the best 
way possible, and success in this direction is brought 
about by a selection of such material in each depart- 
ment of gardening as is best calculated to withstand 
these counteracting influences. 

Those who live in the pure country air have no 
conception of the many difficulties that must be 
contended with to preserve even a tolerable state of 
cultivation when surrounded by or adjacent to 
populous neighbourhoods ; and this condition of 
affairs is still worse when in the vicinity of manu- 
facturing towns or cities, or in the case of London, 
for example, where the suburban districts are now 
thickly populated in nearly every available instance. 
This adds to the accumulation of deleterious gases 
that are given off by the metropolis proper, many of 
which are slow poison, at the least, to plant-life in 
general. 



40 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENING. 



Limitation of Choice. — The o-miers of small 
gardens under such conditions must not, therefore, 
compare products with their more fortunate friends 
who reside in the country. There, many garden fa- 
vourites can he grown with the greatest ease, which 
in large towns cannot, with the utmost attention, 
he induced to assume even a medium appearance. 
Notably is this observahle with that universally 
admired flower, the violet, which many experienced 
cultivators fail to produce in town in a satisfactory 
manner. Other plants also linger out a forlorn 
existence, their very appearance making one feel 
miserable in the extreme, since after all the care and 
attention that has been bestowed on their cultm-e 
the record is but one repeated failure. Not only is 
this the case -^dth plants that are grown in the open 
air, but the inmates of glass-houses are also suscep- 
tible to the same "vdtiated condition of the atmosphere, 
especially during the prevalence of fogs. 

With all these counteracting influences at work, 
considerable discretion should be exercised in the 
selection of occupants of the subui'ban garden ; for it 
does not follow, by any means, even with these 
drawbacks, that the garden cannot be made enjoy- 
able. Many instances may be noticed by those who 
really take an interest in successful gardening opera- 
tions, wherein (by the emplo^Tuent of suitable sub- 
jects) subiu'ban and town gardens maybe and have 
been made to look well. One exception must, how- 
ever, be taken into consideration, and that is the 
deposit of "blacks," which in some places, in some 
directions of the wind, it is impossible by any means 
to avert. Suburban gardens suffer in this respect as 
well as town plots ; and it is perfectly astonishing 
what an amoimt of blacks, soot, and other deposits 
.are left behind after one of the spells of dull foggy 
weather. We imagine this to be caused by the 
heavy, dense state of the atmosphere, which causes 
these deposits to be precipitated on all surroundings 
instead of being carried up higher, and thence more 
widely disseminated, as is the case when the atmo- 
sphere is more light and buoyant. A heavy down- 
pour of rain is a great boon to town gardens after a 
prevalence of such weather. 

Those who have any glass-houses will also need 
to pay attention to the cleansing of all the glass 
occasionally, according to the condition of the 
weather. Even a little way out of town, we find this 
imperative during the dull season of the year, bear- 
ing in mind that the maxim imi of light is essential 
at such times for the proper develoj)ment of plant- 
life. This is best accomplished by taking a hair- 
broom, and carefully passing it up and down each 
pane of glass a few times ; this wiU generally have 
the effect of loosening the deposit, which is then 
easily washed off with a sjTringe or garden engine. 



A small- sized form of this latter most useful garden 
implement would soon repay its cost in more ways 
than one. The shrubs can be washed with, it as well 
as the glass, and roses and other flowers would be 
refreshed by its application after a hot and sultry 
day. The windows, too (though outside of the gar- 
dening sphere), could be cleansed with the same- 
useful implement. 

To-^Ti and subui'ban gardens are necessarily in 
most cases of very limited extent ; it is hardly 
possible for them to be otherwise, ha^ong regard 
to the greatly enhanced price of land in close 
proximity to our large towns and cities. Where by 
chance garden space is of more than average size, 
the increased rental is oftentimes a hindrance, 
causing the would-be tenants to prefer the quieter 
repose of the coimtry now that the means of loco- 
motion are so much more expeditious. We have ob- 
ser^'ed of late that agents ha-^ing the disposal of 
eligible building sites near our thickly-populated 
centres of acti-^dty, have been impressed (not too 
soon) with the growing necessity of allowing more 
open space around the buildings they have in con- 
templation. One common error is that of pushing 
up the frontage too close to the building line of the 
road, thus allowing of no fair amoimt of space 
whereby to render the fi^ont or entrance side of the 
house of a pleasing or attractive character. A well- 
kept and tastefully laid-out design in the fi'ont of 
the house, is the admiration not only of all visitors 
but of all passers-by. 

At the best, however, the space is but limited, and 
the utmost amount of ingenuity must be brought 
into play to economise the said space to the best 
advantage. The same remarks apply with equal 
force to the back or garden side of the house, which 
is invariably a long narrow strip of ground having 
walls running j)arallel with each other. By some 
contrivance, however, variety can be given even to 
such strips as these, as we hope to show in the 
accompanying two designs, which are distinct from 
one another, although the house and the ground are 
supposed to be alike in each instance. We shall 
in the present article describe each of these sugges- 
tions for the la;s"ing out of gardens in connection 
with semi-detached houses ; in a subsequent article 
ti^eating of gardens connected with terraces or 
rows of houses, where many dwellings are built 
side by side: after which we pm-pose to give a 
plan of a detached -viQa, standing surrounded by 
its own grounds ; beyond that scale, all that is ne- 
cessary may be gathered from other sections of this 
work. 

Tlie Soil on Building Ground. — With regard 
to all land that is being devoted to building opera- 



SUBUEBAN GAEDEXIXa. 



411 



tions, it is necessary to make a few brief remarks 
at tlie commencement. Builders of snbui-ban houses 
more often than not make a most fatal error in the 
beginning of theif work, by the manner in which 
they treat the ground where building operations are 
being carried on. One may often see the announce- 
ment, Turf and loam for sale." Now this ought 
never to be allowed by the gTOund landlord in the 
first instance, if he values the future appearance of 



surrounding ground as will be trafficked upon during 
building operations. This would of course entail a 
trifling additional outlay, but that would be amply 
compensated for in the lapng out of the future 
grounds for planting with shrubs and flowers, and 
for lading down in gi^ass. 

Sufficient soil, too, would thus be obtainable for 
mounds and undulations, which are hardly ever 
thought of by those who an-ange this description of 




his estate. It is robbing the intended garden 
surroundings to a considerable extent. Dispose of 
the subsoil, if you Hke, from the excavations for 
f oimdations ; but never that which should nomish the 
future shrubs and flowers. Instead of this being the 
case, the subsoil is too often retained as being quite 
good enough for the garden. Many a failure with 
the latter may be set down to this cause alone, which 
to inexperienced eyes would not be explicable on the 
surface of things as observed at the time of failure. 
"What ought to be done is as follows : — Previous to 
any cartage being permitted on the gTOund, the turf 
and top spit of soil should be shifted from the space 
to be occupied by the buildings, to a convenient 
distance for future use, including as much of the 



garden. These must, however, be made in such a 
manner as to receive the due amoimt of rainfall 
necessary for plant -life. We have often seen that 
where this kind of work has been attempted, even in 
larger gardens, it has not had proper consideration 
in this respect ; these mounds and undulating sur- 
faces being finished off at too sharp an angle, thus 
causing the water to rim away into the hollows. 
All variations in the surface arrangement of the 
ground should be done in a gradual and easy manner ; 
the proper amount of rainfall will then be more 
likely to be absorbed for the benefit of the shi'ubs. 
"We have seen these latter suffeiing miserably when 
planted on a sharp sloping banlv. and requiiing an 
unnecessary amount of attention in manual waterings 



42 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GARDENING. 



which, with foresight, might have been avoided with 
comparative ease. 

When the precaution of removing and storing the 
best soil for the future garden has been omitted, the 
neglect will cause the same to be almost unmanage- 
able for years to come, since the roots of all the 
plants placed therein will have a hard struggle to 
lay hold of the soil left for them. The end of this 
will be that some quantity of manure will be recom- 
mended as necessary for improving the condition of 
the ground ; which, with carefixl management, in the 
majority of cases, is not requisite for some few 
years at the least, when sound virgin soil has to be 
dealt with. Plenty of such will frequently be found 
in suburban estates, that are taken up for building 
operations. It is true some little modification of the 
soil may be necessary for special tilings. Thus, 
Hoses and Rhododendrons may require the addi- 
tion of weU-decomposed manui-e, or a little peat for 
the latter when the soil is somewhat tenacious; 
but as a whole the^ ground will be nourishing and 
good. 

Preparation of Suburban G-ardens. — Such 

gardens as wo have now under consideration are 
also frequently prepared in but a superficial manner. 
As long as they present a good appearance to the 
inexperienced observer, and to those who are un- 
acquainted with the modus operandi of " facing up" for 
the time being, it is thought sufficient, regardless of 
the future well-doing of the occupants of the garden. 
The gTOund should be moved about two spits, i.e., 
two depths of a spade, retaining the surface soil at 
the top when it is found to be of better quality 
than that underneath. This would be commonly 
designated " trenching," in gardening phraseology, 
and will be dealt with elsewhere. Previous to this 
being done, however, the necessity of drains will 
have to be considered, and these ought to be laid 
down to suit each given case. Those that are re- 
quired for the paths will not need to be laid much 
below the surface, being then more accessible in the 
event of any stoppage. Eor draining the other 
portion of the grounds, the depth should be about 
two feet six inches, if in a heavy clay subsoil, the 
draining of such soil being oftentimes frustrated, by 
reason of the very depth at which the drains are 
kid ; for if at three or f oua- feet depth, they will, in 
time, become useless, the water not percolating this 
adhesive soil with any freedom, but rather remain- 
ing near the surface. On the other hand, drains at 
the latter depths will be better on lighter land. 
Eor these pm-poses di-ain-pipes of at least three 
inches diameter should be chosen, and without 
socket ends, so that the water can the more readily 
onter them. The lowest point of the grounds should 



be fixed upon for building a tank capable of holding 
a good quantity of the groimd- water, for use in the 
garden as occasion may require. There is no reason 
why pro-vision should not thus be made to secure 
this indispensable aid, and the more so, taking into 
consideration the high rate at present charged by the 
water companies for any supply through them. By 
arranging the tank in one comer of the garden, and 
fixing a pump over the same, there will not be any 
eyesore or inconvenience in any way ; but the 
precaution must be taken of arranging for an over- 
flow, so that the inlet di-ains never have any water 
standing in them. 

After the drainage and trenching operations have 
been finished, that portion of soil removed from 
the ground taken for the house, as previously 
advised, can be utilised, as we suggested, to break up 
the even sm-face of the ground into moimds and 
xmdulations, which will have a much prettier effect 
when completed. For convenience, also, the paths 
should be fixed upon in as early a stage as possible 
of the work. The soil for at least ten inches in 
depth can be taken out of this allotted space also, and 
used as we have just advised for that taken from 
house-space. This will add considerably to that 
quantity, and be found of much service. There 
wiU generally be sufficient rough material avail- 
able from refuse left by the builders for the 
formation of the paths; brickbats and such-like 
things making a very good foundation, to be finished 
off, when all the ground work and planting has been 
done, with a good coating of gravel, which will then 
run in no danger of being mixed up with the soil. 
This also Tvall be fully dealt with elsewhere. Any 
moving operations with wheelbarrows can be done on 
these paths before they are completed ; this will help 
to bind them down in a solid manner. Planks 
should be used to move bjij soil across that part of 
the ground that has been dug over. The portion of 
space devoted to shrubs and borders should be staked 
out, to give a rough idea of the plan to be worked 
upon. This should then be dug or forked over, if 
any of it has been trodden upon so as to cause it to 
become heavy and close. 

The planting operations can then be commenced, 
fixing on the spots for the most prominent shrubs 
and plants with due regard to their style of growth, 
and what they are likely to be in appearance in a 
few years' time. The smaller shi'ubs can then be 
planted, and, as this work proceeds, the groimd 
should be lightly forked over. The staking of tall 
plants that are likely to be blown aside by the wind 
should be seen to, and, in doing this, a little wad of 
straw, if tied around the stem, will preserve it from 
injury by friction with the stakes. We would ad- 
vise that all newly-planted shi'ubs be watered at 



43 



planting-time, unless th.e ground is excessively wet ; 
the work, however, ought to be deferred when the 
ground is in that state. In the course of a week or 
two after planting, the shrubs will requii'e to be gone 
round again, and trodden somewhat firmly just abouu 
the stem. This is better done when the gTOimd is in 
a dry state. A medium course as to the quantity of 
shrubs planted, will be the safest plan to follow. If 
excessively crowded, the growths will be drawn up 
weakly, and the soil more readily impoverished. If 
jilanted thinly, there will be bare spaces between 
each plant, which will not look well. By following 
a middle course, some of the shi^ubs in the coiu'se of 
ii season or two can be removed where thickest, and 
re-planted where any may have failed to succeed in 
•a satisfactory manner. This re-arranging is advi- 
sable every season or two for the first few years, till 
€very part of the garden is well regulated. This 
will also be found a better plan than buying in fresh 
plants to fill up vacancies, as long as it can be worked 
upon. 

After the planting operations are completed, the 
space devoted to the lawn will requii^e attention. If 
it is not pressing to have a green surface at once, the 
better plan will be to prepare the ground for sowing 
with, select lawn grass-sf^f/s, which can be obtained 
of any seedsman with experience in such matters. 
The lawn-space Ts-ill in this case require to be 
trodden over somewhat firmly and evenly, then 
raked down to an even sm-f ace, after which the gTass- 
seed may be sown. If this be done in early spiing, 
a nice gi'een sward will soon be the resrdt. "^^^len 
mowing is required, it had better be performed with 
the sc}i;he in preference to a mowing-machine for 
the first two or three months, till the young plants 
are well established. Dming cb-y weather it will 
not do any harm to pass a roller over the smiace, but 
rather serve to crumble down any slight unevenness 
that may exist. If turf is laid instead of the sowing 
of grass-seed, the same should be taken up where the 
pasture is not of an over-luxuriant nature. Tui-f is 
oftentimes cut much too thin, this being more easily 
accomplished, and such tmi being of less weight in 
carriage. An inch and a quarter to an inch and a 
lialf will be about the thickness ; in superficial 
measurement these are generally cut three feet in 
length, by one foot in breadth ; this is the recognised 
size in purchasing turf. We ad^use the sowing of 
grass-seed, however, both as being more economical, 
and as eventually forming by far the best lawn. A 
good reliable selection of gi-ass-seed for such pui'- 
poses \\ull be composed of the finer-growing kinds 
of grasses, those of more luxiuiant growth not being 
included in such mixtures. 

This description of subm-ban and town garden will 
not allow of much space for kitchen garden produce. 



and neither is it ad^-isable to devote any considerable 
extent to the cultivation of vegetables under such 
conditions. Any kinds that require a good amount 
of room should not be included, as the trouble and 
extra expense will not compensate for the outlay. 
The same remarks apply with equal force to fruit 
cultm-e. Some part of the di-vision walls may be 
tui^ned to a good account for easily-grown fruits of 
hardy constitution ; but both vegetable and fruit 
culture -vvull be more fully commented on in another 
article. 

The accompanying illustrations will afford two 
examples of how the gardens of many similar 
semi-detached ^ulla residences might be arranged. 
The illustration marked Xo. 1 shows both a front 
and a side entrance, which is generally to be pre- 
ferred for reasons requiiing no explanation fi-om us. 
Supposing the di\ision walls to be of brick or fence, 
in either case one object should be to contrive to hide 
the same as soon as possible. By the aid of a few 
extra tall shrubs and slight mounds this could soon 
be accomplished. "We would not ad^•ise the planting 
thickly of one given kind of plant to fonn the hedge. 
This should only be done when used by itseK to form 
the boundary, A rapid-gro^dng climber, as the Iiish 
Ivy, would, for the time being, be suitable to hide 
portions of the wall not shut off by the shi-ubs them- 
selves. Those of the shi'ubs which are planted 
next the house should, on the other hand, be kept 
low ; Ehododendrons, for instance, would be suitable 
just there. Two or three climbers might be trained 
up the wall ; if a south or west aspect, Hoses would 
be excellent ; if either north or east, either the Vir- 
ginian Creeper, or Eaonymuft latifolius, would do well ; 
the latter, although a shrub of bushy habit, is also an 
exceedingly pretty wall-plant of good free growth ; 
but future articles on climbing plants will discuss 
such matters more freely. On the grass-plots are 
shown some dots ; these denote standard Eoses, A 
hedge of evergreen Privet would be advisable next 
the back path ; this could soon be got to a good 
height as a screen to the same. The shrubs next to 
this should be of a mixed character. A small tri- 
angular piece next the house is marked for Ferns, 

At the end of the house is sho^Ti a small conserva- 
tory. This, if the dwelling is entered by a flight of 
steps, could be carried up by brickwork to the same 
level, lea\'ing sufficient space imderncath (with a 
trifling excavation) for a tool-house, kc. The conser- 
vatory might with ease be heated from the kitchen 
boiler, or by a small gas-boiler fixed underneath, and 
attached to the pipes fixed in the conservatory itself ; 
the foi-mer would, we think, be the better plan, Xext 
to the conservatory on the garden front of the house 
comes a suitable comer for a rockery, boimded by 
the path leading to the bottom of the garden and 



44 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



to the garden entrance of th.e house. Along the 
•walls of the house, some Tea-scented Roses (both 
dwarf and climbing-) would find a congenial home 
if it should be a sunny aspect. Following down 
the side next to the division wall, the planting 
of mixed shrubs should be continued, till the 
bottom of the lawn is reached. This being a 
rather wide border, some room along the front 
will be very suitably filled with hardy herbaceous 
plants. At the corner of this shrub border, there is 
a space marked out for an arbour or summer-house. 
Along the bottom of the gai-den and facing the house 
will be an excellent position for Rhododenduons 
and other showy flowering plants. Some dots de- 
note standard Roses, or, in lieu thereof, a weeping 
Ash could be substituted. Two flower-beds are 
shown, one on each side of the foregoing. A thin 
edge of evergreen Privet should shut off the lawn 
from the small plot allotted either as a kitchen 
garden, or for the sx)ecial cultui'e of Roses, Carnations, 
Pinks, and hardy plants for cutting purposes. The 
wall at the bottom of this garden can be covered 
either with evergreen climbers or Morello Cherries, if 
a north or east aspect ; with climbing Roses, Peach- 
trees, Pear-trees, or red and white Currants, if either 
south, south-west, or west asj^ect. Tomatoes might 
also be grown on the same wall, as long as there is 
room. The shrubs bounded by the path leading to 
the house from the lower garden should be of a 
mixed character. A few tall-growing trees along 
this side would not look amiss, such as a few Limes, 
or here and there a Copper Beech and a Laburnum. 
One flower-bed is shown on this side about half-way 
up ; this would do for rock-plants or other hardy 
flowers. Space is allowed in the centre for a lawn 
tennis ground of the usual size. 

In the plan marked No. 2, the arrangements will 
be seen to be different. One pathway only from the 
house is shown, branching at the corner for access to 
the garden and side entrance to the house. The dots 
denote Roses, as in the former case, and a trellis is 
shown for climbers to screen the garden front of the 
house. On the garden side of this trellis is shown a 
rockery with a small grass-plot in front, bounded by 
the side path. In the recessed corner is shown a 
spot for ferns, by which passes the path extending 
along the entire length of the house, with a garden 
entrance in the middle. Standard Roses are there 
shown on the turf, with a flower-bed in front of the 
entrance, and a rather large clump of shrubs and 
border plants, to shut off the end of the house from_ 
the lawn. Following the line of the path from the 
corner of the building, we find one side of it is the 
boundary for the foregoing clump, and on the other 
is a narrow border with a break of Roses half-way 
down the garden. The wall could be covered with 



climbers or fruit-trees as in No. 1, and the border 
itself with strawberries or any other low -growing 
plant. A flower-bed is shown near the Roses, and 
lower down a narrow belt of shrubs that is extended 
round to the corner, in which is shown a summer- 
house ; some dots also denote Roses or a weeping Ash. 
The nari'ow belt of shrubs on the diWsion side will 
be sufiicient to hide the wall with the aid of a few 
creepers. Several plants mentioned for No. 1 would 
also be suitable in this plan. The tennis ground 
is again shown, with a back-garden entrance in the 
outside comer. 

The object aimed at in both of these plans has 
been to avoid any unif oi-mity or strict formahty, any 
repetition being avoided in the designs as much as 
possible, to give as great a diversity as could well be 
secured in gardens of such limited extent. We must 
leave for the present the enumeration of such suitable 
trees, shrubs, herbaceous and other plants, as will 
best thrive in suburban and town gardens. 



THE FLOWEE GAEDEN. 

By William Wildsmith. 



SITE, STYLE, SOIL, AND FORMATION OF THE 
GABBEN. 

C^OME one has said that beautj' is really more 
useful than utihty. Probably it is so. Measur- 
ing use by mental and moral, as well as physical 
considerations, no doubt almost the highest place 
must be assigned to beauty. The love of flowers is 
more refining, ennobling, satisfying, than the love of 
meat, bread, vegetables, fruits. It is a higher taste, 
and yet a purer pleasure, because less utilitarian. 
Flowers are the choice dessert of life ; the solace of 
life-sorrows ; the sweeteners of life's acids. Flowers 
were late in the order of development. For ages- 
the world was clothed with flowerless vegetation; 
or, to write more correctly, only those of alga-, 
mosses, or ferns were hidden in the dense rank 
greenery of those times. But before man was 
ushered on the scene, the flowers were prepared in 
all their brightness and beauty ; and ever since, a , 
hidden link binds the human race in closest bonds of 
sympathy and affection to the fragrant and beautiful 
flowers. They are the first ambition of bab}-hood ; 
the last thing the old and the sorrowful lose their 
hold of. Hence our desire to make each flower 
garden, whether it decks a cottage or adorns a 
palace, larger and yet more beautiful. 

Flower gardening, pure and simple, as dis- 
tinguished not only from pleasure-grounds and 
landscape gardening, but apart also from the Rose 
garden, is the subject we purpose treating of, alike 



THE FLOWER GARDEN. 



45 



fvcin a popular and a professional point of view. 
We trust to refresh the memory of the professional 
gardener, guide the faltering- steps of the amateur, 
and teach the shopman and the artisan on all 
matters relating to the forming and furnishing of 
their flower gardens. 

The great and still increasing interest that of late - 



race with anything in seeds, plants, or flowers, that 
may he thought to he an advance on previous intro- 
ductions. The fact that the writer has heen one of 
the most susceptible of mortals to the flower garden- 
ing fever, must doubtless be credited with his selec- 
tion for the task he has undertaken, to treat upon 
flower gardening from his point of view. 




Garden in Old-fashioned Picturesque Style. 



years has been taken by every class of the population 
in all that concerns horticulture, is a cheering sign 
of the advancement, education, and refinement of 
the people. That flower gardening is the favourite 
hranch of horticulture, none will doubt who have 
witnessed the crowds of admirers the flowers attract, 
on Sundays and holiday times in particular, both in 
the metropolitan and provincial parks. As might 
have been expected, this appreciation by the general 
public has had a corresponding effect on every 
gardener, and still more on every one professionally 
connected with gardening, so that now ever}- one 
vies with his neighbour as to who shall be flrst in the 



Position for a Flower Garden.— This is a 
point of great importance, but obviously circum- 
stances must govern the selection in by far the 
greater number of cases. As a matter of course, 
the ruling point must be the position of the house 
or mansion, because, to get the largest amount of 
pleasure from the flowers, they should be so placed 
that they may be admired independently of the 
weather. Not that it is undesirable to have flowers 
elsewhere, as our remarks will presently indicate ; 
but, first and foremost, provision should certainly 
be made for flowers "close at home." There are 
mansions and houses so unsuitable; with regard to 



46 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENIXG. 



the form of ground, landscape, and general scenery, 
that to place flower-heds of formal design in front 
of them would he the height of had taste. These 
positions we shall presently indicate ; but, as a 
general rule, the nearer the flower garden is to the 
house, the more will it he appreciated. All objec- 
tions as to not liking to see workmen about, or to 
the litter and untidiness consequent on mowing and 
clearing up, are not worthy of being entertained ; 
these operations, to real lovers of a garden, being- 
part and parcel of their pleasure. Not but that 
there are times when privacy from workmen, &c., 
is desirable ; but those times, by sensible men, are 
very soon learnt, and assured to their employers by 
arranging the work at stated hours. 

This point — the garden close to the house — -being 
accepted, the position must also be accepted as a fore- 
gone conclusion, except in those cases where there 
are two fronts, when the least objectionable with 
regard to the well-doing of the plants should be 
chosen. Aspects with a southern, south-west, or 
western exposure are all of about equal merit for 
flower garden purposes. Colder exposures may 
answer in favoured parts of the kingdom ; but so 
many tender plants are now used — and that, too, 
with splendid effect — that the warmest aspects, for 
this reason alone, ought to be selected. But there 
are other considerations that must govern the precise 
position to a certain extent. 

Style. — Here again the question of house, man- 
sion, and surroundings must decide whether the form 
of beds and general treatment shall be old-fashioned 
picturesque, symmetrical, or of the true geometrical 
type. 

The first type consists in laying down almost any 
form of beds, but principally ovals and circles, 
without any regard to regularity, but just in such 
spots as the operator conceives will give the best 
effect. For an old-fashioned mansion of the Eliza- 
bethan order, standing in a slightly elevated position, 
and well surrounded with shrubs as backgrounds for 
the flowers, this plan answers admirably, if a further 
informality be attended to, viz., that no attempt be 
made at arranging the plants in the beds in a formal 
manner. They should either consist of mixed her- 
baceous plants, or, at most, two colours in a bed of 
ordinary bedding- plants (see illustration) . 

The symmetrical and geometrical types may, for all 
practical purposes, be classed as one ; being, as they 
are, but complements of each other, the one adding 
grace, and what may be called freedom of outline, to 
the necessarily rigid angles of the other. The two 
in combination may be termed the free geometrical 
style, a style which the present system of bedding 
out has rendered generally popular, and which is 



the prevalent mode of laying out gardens. It is, 
we think, generally speaking, a long way the best 
mode ; but, for all that, it is not suited to the archi- 
tecture of all houses, or to the form of ground in 
some places. For instance, when the general -view 
of the landscape is on a level with the view from the 
house, intervening beds of flowers, and especially 
geometrically formed beds, look, and are, quite out 
of character w4th the repose of such a flat land- 
scape. If a flower garden of this kind must be 
be made where the landscape is of this description, 
the least objectionable plan is to bring it as close as 
possible to the house, that the -view be not inter- 
cej^ted by the plants; but a far better method of 
meeting the difficulties of the case would be, so far 
as flowers are concerned, to be content with a border 
of them close to the wall of the house, and then in 
the nearest available position, outside the range of 
such landscape scenery, to find another site for the 
"flower garden" proper. A deep recess amongst 
shrubs, or an opening on the lawn that cannot be 
seen till the spot is reached, or the ground in front 
of forcing-houses, or the entrance-borders to the 
kitchen garden — these may all be treated in free 
geometrical style. 

But a mansion or house situated on a rising knoll, 
of even but a few feet above the general landscape 
(if higher, all the more appropriate), and where 
terrace-walls are necessary to insure evenness or 
ground, as well as to aid the idea of massiveness by 
giving a broader base to the mansion, furnishes the 
best site for a geometrical garden. By this term 
we would not be understood to mean all and every 
sort of intricacies and unmeaning designs worked 
out in box, stone, teiTa-cotta, coloured gravels, 
sand, and the like ; but simple geometrical figures, 
cut out on turf, of such size and form as best 
suit the surroundings, the leading idea being that 
there shall be nothing to offend the most cultured eye 
when contrasting the architecture of the garden 
with that of the mansion. Should the latter be of 
the Gothic order, straight lines and pointed angles 
may be the prevailing form of the beds, though cer- 
tainly not to the exclusion of good bold circles and 
ovals; but these latter should occupy the central 
position. For a massive, plain-built house, ovals, 
oblongs, and circles are most in keeping ; and there 
should be no crowding of beds, as good broad belts 
of turf between each add to the general effect of 
the whole, particularly when in full growth or 
flower ; a wide margin of turf being then necessary 
to prevent any approach to gaudiness by a too close 
juxtaposition of colours. 

The size of the ground to be treated will also in 
some measure affect style ; for if the gi'ound be small 
the designing must be proportionately simple, and if 



THE FLOWER GAEDEN. 



47 



large, then elaborateness may have full play, so 
long- as it does not develop into incongruity. Sim- 
plicity of design, however, even on the largest scale, 
wears best, being the most lastingly beautiful. The 
style of garden for old-fashioned flowers, as the 
perennial and herbaceous section are called, may be 
of any description, but the rigidly formal — good 
■wide borders in front of shrubberies, or large circles 
by the sides of walks in distant parts of the pleasure- 
gTOunds, or a series of circles, squares, and ovals in 
some secluded part of the ground — always seems the 
most appropriate. Though relegated to outlying 
situations, it is, however, just as important that they 
should be well cared for in the matter of culture as 
those most favoured in regard to position. 

iFormation and Soil. — The first consideration 
under this head is naturally that of draining. A 
waterlogged, heavy, retentive soil is several degrees 
colder than a well-drained soil of the same descrip- 
tion, a fact that cannot be too deeply impressed on 
the minds of all who desire to excel in flower 
gardening, particularly in those branches now so 
popular, namely, carpet and sub-tropical bedding. 
Many of these classes of plants are so tender, and 
our seasons so cold, that it behoves us to spare no 
pains to obtain the best results. Clay soils are the 
most unkindly possible for all flower garden plants, 
as for the most part these are thread-like rooters, 
and cannot pierce such descriptions of soil, and it 
will only prove labour in vain to attempt to make 
them do so. 

Drainage is not all the preparation that clay 
soils need before they are fit for flower garden 
purposes. They will have to be pulverised by deep 
trenching and exposure to the atmosphere ; and the 
addition of ashes, vegetable mould, or in fact any 
description of material that will have a tendency to 
porosity and lightness. If the clay be very tena- 
cious, the dearest, and yet the cheapest (because the 
most eliectual), mode of treatment is to burn, or 
rather, char it. This is done by collecting all the 
brushwood, sticks, hedge-clippings, and any other 
material that will help to create a body of fire, on 
which the soil must be placed, turf side downwards, 
and of any bulk, so long as the fire is not put out 
owing to being too hea\'ily weighted. To save time, 
if sufficient firing material is to be had, several 
mounds may be started simultaneously, at convenient 
distances on the ground, to save wheeling both before 
and after charring. This will be dealt with in more 
detail in treating upon the amelioration of soils. 

Whilst this process is going on, the drains may bo 
laid ; and in such a retentive soil not only the place 
where the beds arc to be— as is sometimes done — but 



the entire garden should be drained, otherwise a 
heavy rainfall will just make the part drained a 
reservoir for the water falling on the undrained 
land. Drainage will be treated elsewhere ; and we 
only need say here that the drain-pipes for clay soil 
ought to be three inches in diameter, and eighteen 
inches deep from the surface, laying over them what- 
ever rubble or clinkers may be at command, and 
each series of drains should not be more than nine 
feet apart. This work completed, any description of 
light soil that is to be had may be spread over the 
whole surface, and when the charred soil is ready, 
spread this also equally, and trench as deeply as the 
top of the drain-pipes, or rather of the rubble that 
covers them, well incorporating the soil as the work 
proceeds. For land that is less heavy, or what may 
be termed of moderate texture, drain-pipes of two 
inches bore will be ample, and they may be laid 
deeper, from twenty to twenty-four inches, and each 
series need not be nearer than from twelve to fifteen 
feet ; but, as in the preceding case, there ought to be no 
partial draining ; all the ground must be treated the 
same. Very light soils — the best for flower garden- 
ing — if deeply cultivated, do not require any arti- 
ficial draining, other than a trench of rubble at the 
lowest parts of the ground to carry off the water 
that naturally collects there after heavy rain-storms. 

Draining over, next comes levelling ; but before 
this can be done the design must be decided on, and 
roughly sketched upon the ground. This is im- 
portant ; otherwise, the best soil may be wheeled 
where it is least wanted, and vice versa. It need 
scarcely be remarked that the best soil ought to go 
to the proposed site of the beds and trees, as any 
description wiU do for the turf ; and here it raax be 
remarked that " gravel and box beds " are not 
approved of by the writer of these articles, turf 
alone as a cushion for the flower-beds being at once 
the most natural and beautiful. 

Supposing that the garden now under considera- 
tion is to be laid out after the plain geometrical 
form recommended, the ground having been got 
somewhat into shape, the marking out of walks is 
the next item. The length will of course be that of 
the garden, but the width is only determinable on 
the spot, size of garden and height of house or man- 
sion having to be taken into account ; six feet wide 
is a fair average walk, but in some positions double 
that would be none too much. Though the land- 
drains run through the walks, i\\ey ought not to be 
considered as ample for these, but additional ones 
should be added, with abundance of brick rubble and 
clinkers ; then they will not only always be dry, but 
free of moss and weeds. (See also Gardex Walks.) 

The detailed marlring out of the banks, beds, and 
borders then follows. After rolling and getting the 



-48 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENING. 



ground in order, the tools or instruments needed 
are lines, measuring-rod, tape, level, torning-rods, 
pegs, and stakes. The design having been well 
wrought out on paper, and roughly sketched upon 
the ground, for the purpose of putting the best 
soil where it will be most required, exactitude and 
correctness are the only injunctions needed to the 
successful working out of the designs. 

Turfing, and Planting of Permanent 
Plants. — It is presumed that the ground was well 
rolled and beaten down before the final marking out 
was done ; and, the lines being still intact, the turf 
ought to be laid an inch over the marks, to admit of 
cutting the edges straight after the turf has been 
beaten or rolled down. Banks and slopes require 
much care and labour to get them to the same angle 
and firm throughout. Perhaps the most certain 
way of securing this is to add three or four inches 
more than will finally be required, and after beating 
very hard, to put in the levelling pegs to the exact 
angle, and shave ofE the surplus soil with spades. 
By stretching a liae from a peg at one end to that 
of the other, correctness of outline will be assured. 

The edgings being cut, the soil of the beds should 
be dug up, and left rough till planting-out time, 
but the planting of shrubs and hardy plants gene- 
rally should proceed at once. To what extent these 
should be present on a parterre or formal terrace 
garden is a moot ^Doint ; but at any rate there should 
be a goodly sprinkling of shrubs, if only to take off 
the appearance of baldness at the dull season, when 
the beds, if not empty, are virtually in that case, so 
far as any life-imparting properties are concerned. 
Our own inclination is not only to use plants as 
sentinels on the grass, as a break to the various plots 
of beds, as well as at the angles of walks, but also in 
the centres of the flower-beds, thus in some measure 
securing permanency of furnishing all the year 
Tound. This doeS not in any degree detract from the 
summer effect, but rather heightens it, there now 
being many shrubs that harmonise in general contour 
of growth and colour with the rarest sub-tropicals. 

The clipping and shearing of trees and shrubs into 
all sorts of ridiculous forms and shapes, which once 
was general in gardens of formal design, is fast be- 
coming obsolete, and that without a pang of regret 
from any one. Yet the notion had some merit, and 
might, perhaps, have been continued np to the 
present time, had not there been such rapid advances 
made in raising and introducing many kinds^ of 
shrubs of a sufficiently formal type without ha^'ing 
recourse to the shears. Such are Cupressus Laivso- 
niana erecta, about a dozen kinds of Retbwspora, 
several Junipers and Thujas. Besides these there are 
older types of plants, such as Yuccas, variegated Box, 



golden Yews, Hollies, &c., which are just as useful 
and appropriate for terrace-planting as are the 
first-named. In addition to these classes of plants 
for isolated positions on turf or the middle of beds, 
there are others that may be pressed into the service 
of the parterre for flanking a wall which it may be 
desired to conceal, or for making a hedge in lieu of 
a wall. The best of this class are Cupressus Lawsonii 
and Thujopsis borealis. 

It only remains to add that, as soon as planted, 
supports should be applied to each plant to prevent 
wind-wa-ving, which not only throws them out of 
the perpendicular, but breaks off new rootlets, and, 
in consequence, materially checks the growth of the 
new plants. 



FEENS. 

By James Bkittex, F.L.S. 



mTROBUCTIOJ<i. 

BEFOEE proceeding to describe the more impor- 
tant groujjs of ferns, we will devote a few lines 
to pointing out how^ ferns differ from flowering plants. 
The absence of blossoms at once strikes the observer : 
the place of these is supplied by the variously-shaped 
groups of small bodies which we shall notice on 
the back of the fronds — sometimes beiag arranged in 
roimd groups of the size of a pin's head, sometimes 
larger in circumference, sometimes placed in long 
lines, and always of a yellow or brownish colour, 
and covered to a greater or less extent with a 
membranous scale. The small bodies are little 
capsules (called sporangia), which contain the spores, 
these being analogous to the seeds of flowering 
plants ; the round or narrow groups of sporangia 
are called sori ; and the membrane which covers 
them is known as the indusium. 'Wh^en. the spores 
are set free by the bursting of the sporangia, and 
faU in a damp place, they shortly germinate. The 
result is — not a young ascending plant and descend- 
ing root, as in flowering plants, but — a very small 
membranous green body, which lies flat on the 
ground, and sends out delicate rootlets from its 
under side. This is known as the prothallium. On 
this prothallium are produced minute bodies which, 
speaking generally, correspond to the stamens and 
pistils of flowering plants. The male bodies are 
called antheridia : they are minute cellular sacs, 
which, when ripe, burst, setting free a number of 
spirally-twisted mo^dng bodies, called spermatozoids. 
The female bodies are called arcliegonia : they are 
bottle -shaped, and contain a minute cell at the base, 
called the oosphere. Fertilisation takes place by the 
action of the spermatozoids on the oosphere: pass- 
ing down the neck of the archegonium, they fertilise 



FERNS. 



49 



the oosphere, and the new plant is formed. This 
draws its nourishment in the first instance from the 
prothallium ; but the latter presently disappears, and 
the young fern begins to put out independent roots. 



Geographical Distribution. — Ferns 
require shade and a damp atmosphere. 
They are most abundant in tropical 
America, where they reach their 
maximum concentration " amongst the 
dripping rocks of the higher level of the 
Andes, the forests of their slopes and 
ra\dnes, and the dense humid flats that 
border the innumerable branches of 
the Amazon, where the sun's rays and 
the wind never penetrate the recesses 
of the primeval jungles, and climbers 
and parasites contest with the leaves 
of bright flowering trees for the posses- 
sion of the branches." Mr. Baker, 
from whose paper on the subject we 
quote the foregoing passage, sum- 
marised the distribution of ferns thus : 
— Tropical America, 950 species (42 per 
cent, of all known ferns, three out of 
four not being found elsewhere) ; 
tropical Asia and Polynesia, 863 
species, 427 being 
peculiar; Polynesia, 
380 species, 150 
peculiar ; tropical 
Africa and islands, 
346 species, 127 
p)eculiar ; south tem- 
perate America, 118 
species, 32 peculiar; 
temperate South 
America, 153 species, 
21 peculiar ; tem- 
perate North Ame- 
rica, 114 species, 37 
peculiar ; temperate 
Asia, 413 species. 
This estimate was 
published some years 
ago, but it is still 
approximately cor- 
rect, considerable 




sally admired for the graceful lightness of their 
delicate green fronds, which the dark stalks throw 
into greater prominence ; and so invaluable to the 
gardener from the profusion with which these fronds 
are produced. Perhaps no ferns are so 
much used with cut flowers as the 
Maidenhairs. Extending widely, as 
they do, over the tropical and tempe- 
rate regions of both hemispheres, they 
find their headquarters in tropical 
America. About a hundred species of 
Adiantum are known, and a large 
number are in cultivation. Of the 
species requiring stove treatment, one 
of the most peculiar, although perhaps 
not of the most beautiful, is A. reni- 
forme, a native of Madeira and Tene- 
rifie. This is distinguished at a glance 
by its simple roimdly kidney-shaped 
fronds, about two inches across, having 

the sori situated all round the edge ; 
Fig. 1.— Prothallium of Maiden- , .j.-in s- . • 

hair, seen from below, with the stems are tutted, trom four to six 

young fern attached, p p, inches high. A variety, known as 
the proth allium (magmfied p ,i -^t 

about tbirty times) ; d, the asarijoUum, comes from the Mauritius ; 
young fern ; ww its first an aUied species, A. Parishii, is 

and second roots ; li, root- i 

hairs of prothallium. a native of Moulmein and the Malay 

Peninsula : these form a little section 
of the genus very 
distinct from the re- 
maining species. A. 
trapeziforme is a well 
known, handsome 
plant, of wide distri- 
bution from Mexico 
to Brazil. It grows 
from six inches to 
a foot high, with 
stout, erect, shining, 
dark stems, and a 
very few spreading 
pinnge, which are 
trapezif orm in shape, 
having the numer- 
ous sori placed 
round their upper 
edges. A. lumda- 
tum has wiry dark 




Fig. 2.— 1, prothallium of Male Fern (natural size); 2, the same, much hrown stems, and 
additions having, enlarged; 3, autheridium before bursting; 4, antheroid cells escaping slender pinnate 
T - T from antheridium ; 5, antheroid cell ; 6, antherozoid or spermatozoid ; „ o j-,- . 

however, been made 7_ ^.vohf^^f^r^ium Ca.ii m^oh enlar^ed^. fronds of thin tex- 



to the Madagascar 

fern-flora especially during even that short period. 

Maidenhair Ferns (Adiantum). — Few genera 
of ferns are more popular than this, including as it 
does the various forms of Maidenhair; so univer- 



ture, a foot, or often 
less, in length. These are frequently elongated at 
the apex, and take root, as is also the case with 
the allied A. caudatnm, which is very much like 
A. hmulatimi, but of a leatheiy texture. A. lunu- 
latum is widely diffused in both the Old and 



50 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GARDEXIXG. 



New Worlds ; A. caudatum is confined to the Old 
"World, A. luciclnm is a handsome West Indian and 
South American species, a foot or more high, of 
robust growth and erect hahit ; the leather}^ fronds 
are simply pinnate, the terminal segment heing 
larger than the rest, ha-vdng from six to ten smaller 
ones on each side : A. macrophyllum, having much 
the same distribution, resembles it in habit, but has 
fewer pinnae, the lower ones on the barren fronds 
being so broad that the opposite ones often overlap ; 
in a young state the 
fronds are often beauti- 
fully tinged with red. 
Two South American 
species, A. Feei and A. 
digitatum, are remarkable 
on account of their long 
climbing stems, which 
are a foot or nearly two 
in length, with numerous 
branches. A. tenerum is 
a West Indian and South 
American plant, much 
like our common Maiden- 
hair, but larger and more 
branched, with smaller 
segments. To this species 
is often referred as a 
variety the very beautiful 
A. Farley ense, which is 
perhaps too well known 
to need more than a re- 
ference, with its dense 
masses of softly green 
and gracefully di'ooping 
fronds, the barren jjin- 
nules being elegantly 
fringed, and the young- 
fronds being of a de- 
licate pink colour in 

their earlier stages. It is, however, interesting 
inasmuch as its origin has not been definitely traced. 
The first specimen known came up accidentally 
among some ferns sent from Barbadoes by a gentle- 
man, whose residence (Farley HiH) suggested the 
name of the plant. It has been stated, however, 
that seedlings of this fern have produced examples 
of A. scutum, in which case it would be referable to 
that species. A. Farley ense was first brought into 
notice at a show of the Horticultural ^Society in 
1865. The plant most grown and used as Maiden- 
hair is A. cimeatum, although our British A. Capilhis- 
veneris (which we shall consider later on) generally 
lays claim to that title. Although now so common, 
it was not introduced to this country until 1841 ; but 
the ease with which it is grown caused it to spread 




with great rapidity. It grows very readily fi'om 
self-sown spores. The pinnules are smaller than 
those of A. Caj^illus-veneris, and the fronds thus 
have a more slender and graceful appearance. It is 
a native of Brazil. A variety known as elegantidum 
has much smaller pinna?, and thus assumes a very 
delicate and graceful aiDi^earance. The farthest 
point in delicacy and grace is, however, reached by 
A. gracillimum, a plant with the growth and habit 
of A. cuncatum, but with fronds composed of pinnse 
so delicate that they 
have an almost lace-like 
appearance. Although 
distinct enough for gar- 
den purposes, the plant 
is doubtless a form of 
A. cuneatnm. A. digita- 
tum is a very beautiful 
species, with lax habit, 
long fronds, and distant 
deeply-cut pinnules. It 
is a native of Brazil 
and South America. A^ 
ruhelluni is a small Peru- 
vian species, noticeable 
for the pink hue witli 
which it is tinged, the 
young fronds being pur- 
plish crimson. 

Caltivat'wn. — Most of 
the Adiantums are easily 
managed; there are pro- 
bably none of them 
which would not thrive 
in a mixture of peat, 
loam, and silver sand 
in equal parts, with, 
of course, due atten- 
tion to secure thorough 
drainage. Good leaf- 
mould, when procurable, might be substituted with 
advantage for the peat, which is by no means so 
indispensable for the good CTiltivation of ferns as 
most gardeners seem to think. Indeed, some of the 
finest plants of A. cnneatum we have ever seen were 
grown in pure loam, and potted almost as firmly 
as a heath. The latter plan enables growers to 
obtain good specimens in comparatively small pots, a 
consideration of no small importance in many in- 
stances, besides reducing to a great extent the 
danger of over- watering. Plenty of light and air 
are essentials. Of course, direct sunlight, as in the 
case of most ferns, must be avoided. 

It is almost imj)Ossible to draw a line between 
the stove and green-house kinds, as most of the 
thoroughly tropical ones will succeed well under 



Adiantum cuneattjm, 



HEEBS AND SIMALL SALADS. 



51 



green-house treatment with proper care. Even A. 
Forleyense, although growing more rapidly in a 
stove temperature, is not difficult to manage in a 
green-house, and cut fronds from plants so treated 
keep fresh much longer than those furnished by 
Ijlants grown in heat. As a matter of course, plants 
themselves from the cooler 
quarters stand much better 
either for the temporary 
or permanent decoration 
of apartments, &:c. Pro- 
vided the atmosphere is 
fairly well charged with 
moisture, syringing over- 
head should not be prac- 
tised, as the species with 
densely - packed pinnules 
often become discoloured 
and much disfigured by 
the water remaining among 
the clustered fronds. 

Many of the Maidenhairs 
are amongst the easiest of 
ferns to raise from spores ; 
and as good plants, by pro- 
per management, can be 
obtained in less than a 
year by this method, re- 
course to it, in preference 
to dividing the roots, is 
depended upon by growers 
on a large scale. The 
fronds with ripe sporangia 
should be cut and placed 
on a sheet of white paper 
in an airy place for a 
day or two. The spore - 
cases burst, and allow the 
spores to fall on the 
paper, when they may be 
sown at once. Well- 
drained pots should be 
filled with loam and sand 
made quite firm at the 
top, and well watered. 
The spores should be sown 

on the damp surface, and then the pot placed in 
a saucer of water in a shady place, and a piece of 
glass put over the top. If the saucer be kept full of 
water, capillary attraction will suffice to keep the soil 
moist enough, and the danger of washing away spores 
by watering overhead will be avoided. After the 
spores have germinated the glass should be partially 
raised, to allow more air ; and the young prothallia 
can be pricked off into small pots, and treated like 
any tender seedlings. 



HERBS AND SMALL SALADS. 

By William Earley. 




Adiantum Capillus-veneeis 



IN view of furthering the original intention of this 
work, to make it a book for " ready reference," 
it is deemed expedient to 
place the many varieties 
of kitchen - garden grown 
plants, known variously 
as herbs and the minor 
forms of salad plants, in 
one alphabetical list 
together, this being the 
more convenient, especi- 
ally when it is considered 
that accordingly as 
individual tastes vary, so 
are varieties of herbs 
proper, used and utilised in 
salad mixture as desirable 
ingredients. 

As the two terms are not 
too well understood by 
some growers, it may be 
convenient to explain them. 
Herb — i.e., Latin herba — is 
simply a plant with soft or 
succulent stalk, which dies 
to the root every year, as 
grasses do. Salads arc 
simply all kinds of raw 
herbs dressed for use as 
such, and are therefore thus 
simply separated from all 
vegetables used for culinary 
purposes, though some are 
useful for both. 

It will be observed that 
no hard-and-fast rule exists 
in regard to any. The term 
herb must therefore be read 
in the sense of being a useful 
and convenient mode of 
nomenclature rather than 
as being exact, for even 
the dwarf-shrub-formed Thjone and Sage are con- 
sidered such. 



Angelica {Angelica officinalis). French, Angc- 
liqne ; Germain, £>/gelwurtz ; Itsdisin, Angelica. — This 
is a stately biennial plant belonging to the Umbel- 
liferous order, and an inhabitant of Lapland, besides 
being indigenous in this country. Under a proper 
system of culture it will thrive and exist beyond the 
wonted time of biennials proper. The plant grows 



52 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXlXa. 



to a height of four oi' five feet, ha\ing very 
ornamental and stately pinnate leaves, and heads of 
greenish-white inflorescence. The whole plant is 
highly aromatic. Occasionally the stems are blanched 
and used in a similar manner to Celery. Moie 
frequently, however, the stalks are cut down duiing 
the month of May in each year, and are candied for 
use as a preserve. AATien well grown, the plant is 
ornamental besides. 

As its native home is invariably moist lowlands, 
it thrives best in such a position. Seeds are best 
sown during the month of August in a drill row. So 
soon as the young plants are a few inches high, 
transplant them into rich moist ground about three 
or four feet apart. The whole of each plant should 
be cut down to the ground-line annually early in the 
month of June, when an abundant successional supply 
of young shoots will form. 




'Angelica. 



Anise {PiuipineUa an'mcm). French, Anis; Qer- 
m.a,n, A>/is ; Italian, Anice. — This plant is generally 
grown in gardens for use in a similar manner to 
Fennel, and for garnishing, being extensively culti- 
vated in Spain for distillation, <tc. It is an annual 
plant, originally introduced from Egj-pt during the 
middle of the sixteenth century. 

Its culture is simple, though it will not transplant 
readily. A warm sunny border should be prepared 
for it, and the seeds sown about May 25th. Shallow 
drill rows six or eight inches apart will best suit it, 
covering the seeds over very thinly. So soon as the 
young seedling plants are large enough, thin out all 
the lesser ones from amongst them, lea\nng each 
strong one to be retained, standing free and alone. 

Balm [Melissa ojjficinalis), French, Melisse; Ger- 
man, 2[eUsse ; Italian, Melissa. — The Balm so popular 



in old English gardens, though seldom utilised for 
purposes for which it used to be grown, nsvertheless, 
as one of the most fragi'ant of all aromatic plants, 
is still very generally retained in the herbar^'. It 
is a hardy perennial, and a native of France and 
Switzerland. To insure a constant supply, it is 
only necessary to divide the plant each winter or 
spring into as many parts as necessary, as every 
division ha^'ing a iew roots attached will grow most 
readily. It will thrive in any ordinary garden 
soil. 

Basil Bush. {Ocymuiu minimum). French, Basilic ; 
German, Ba!<Uikum ; ItaKan, Basilico. — This, the 
Bush Basil, otherwise known as the Least Basil, is an 
annual plant used much for flavouring, &;c. It is a 
native of the East Indies. Seeds, to produce the 
annual supply of plants, should be sown in pots or 
boxes duL-ing the latter part of the month of March 
in each year. The young plants therefrom, when 
sufficiently grown and somewhat hardened by 
moderate exposure, should be transplanted on to a 
warm sunny site with i-ich soil, about six inches 
apart. It is important that a little soil should be 
maintained around the roots when transplanted, in 
A-iew of which the young seedling plants may be 
transplanted when very young into nursery boxes 
to gi'ow them on, and sufficiently wide apart so to do. 
They require watering ia, and slight shadiag for a 
day or two subsequently. 

Basil Sweet [Oojmum Basilicum) is the larger 
species of these culinary aromatics, and is the species 
most generally in demand. Like the former, this also 
is a native of the East Indies, and equally tender, 
if, indeed, not more so than the former. The culture 
of this species should resemble that given above. 
As the leaves of this latter are much larger than the 
" Bush " variety, it is certainly the most desirable to 
grow. 

Both are gTOwn imtil they form and commence 
showing flowers, which is diu'ing the month of 
June or July, at which time they are pulled up by 
the root and dried for winter use. An airy shed, 
where too much sunshine does not penetrate, is the 
best place wherein to diy them. 

Borage (^or(7^o officijialis). 'Frendh, BotirracJic ; 
German, Boragen ; Italian, Borragine. — Borage is 
strictly a perennial plant, though its more general 
habit under generous culture often causes its succu- 
lent growth to die away after the first summer. 
Its uses are for inserting into cool tankard di'inks, 
for garnishing, and the manufacture of nitre, kc. 
It is one of the best plants also for growing to 
afford bee-food. Its culture is of the very simplest. 



HERBS AKD SMALL SALADS. 



53 



Seeds are sown in an open sunny situation from 
March, until May to produce the summer supply, and 
during the months of August and September to pro- 
duce young leaves during the winter. It will thrive 
in all soils, though highly -enriched deep loams give 
the hest results. It is not customary to permit the 




plants to bloom where the green shoots and leaves 
are greatly in demand. Its bright blue flowers are, 
nevertheless, extremely pleasing, and a few plants 
may, with satisfactory results, be permitted to do so. 

Capsicum. — This is the Latin name of certain 
plants, called variously Guinea Pepper {Capsicum 
annuum), Bell Pepper {Capsicum grossum), Cherry 
Pepper [Capsicum cerasiforme), and Chili Pepper : 
this last name being somewhat explanative of the 
generic one. (French, Fiment ; German, Spanischer 
Pf^ff^^'', Italian, Peberone). The species of Capsicum 
generally cultivated is the somewhat tender annual. 
Seeds should be sown during the month of ]\Iarch 
each year, and be maintained in a warmth of be- 
tween o8« and 60''. When the young seedling 
plants attain to two or three inches in height, 
divide and transplant them carefully into other 
small pots. It is convenient to place four plants 
around the inner side of very small pots. "WTien 
these have made progress, and the roots are meet- 
ing in the soil, remove the ball carefully, break it 
into four divisions, each having a plant attached, 
and give to each the final potting into thirty-two- 
sized pots. The soil they delight in consists of a 
moderately stiff fibrous loam, and about a sixth part 
of decomposed manure added, with a sprinkling of 
sand. Press the soil moderately firm in process of 
potting. Thenceforward the plants must be main- 
tained in f uU sunlight, and receive a regular supply 



of root-moisture. After the advent of the month of 
June, they will do well in a cold frame, with the 
lights kept somewhat close. 

During fine warm summers crops may be grown 
in the open border. The seeds should be sown as 
above about April 1, and grown on in small pots 
similarly also till about June 1, at which time pre- 
pare upon a warm site a rich bed somewhat elevated 
above the mean level of the surrounding ground, 
and transplant the young plants out six inches apart 
thereon. Still more advantageous will it be to form 
a bed with fermenting materials beneath before the 
soil is placed wherein to plant them. They may 
likewise, where the convenience exists, be planted 
out into a bed of rich soil within a frame or pit. It 
is important, however, to have the plants well ele- 
vated, so that their heads, when growing, shall be 
near to the glass. The small-fruited Red Chili is 
somewhat hardier than the larger form designated 
Capsicum, and should be used for out-door work. 

Many greatly improved forms exist, Monstrous 
Red being very large. Other desirable varieties 
are : — Prince of Wales (yellow) ; Princess of Wales 
(yeUow) ; Long Red, Long Yellow, Xorcera Yellow, 
Red Squash, Cayenne, Chili, and Little Gem 

Caraway {Carum Carvi). French, Carvi ; Ger- 
man, Kummel ; Italian, Carvi. — The Caraway is a bi- 
ennial plant, and indigenous in England. It is grown 




CaEAWAT. 



for use in soups, and occasionally the roots are used 
in precisely the same manner as the Parsnip. 

Sow the seeds during the month of 3Iarch to pro- 
duce strong plants with fine leaves for autumn and 
for root-growth, and to produce seeds, which are also 
desirable to sow during the month of August. Thin 
the plants out to nine or twelve inches apart. A- 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



deep, rich, loamy soil is desirable. When grown 
for its seeds, pull up the entire stalk previous to 
their fully ripening, and lay in a dry shed to ripen 
in the same way as Celery-seeds are harvested. 

Chamomile {Anthemis nobilis). French, Camo- 
mille ; German, Kanlelle ; Italian, Camomilla. — 
Garden Chamomile is generally the double-flowered 
variety of the above — Anthemis nobilis jiore pleno — 
though occasionally the normal single-flowered one 
is to be met with in cultivation. The latter is the 
most useful, as it contains the peculiar bitter prin- 
ciple of the plant in greater perfection than the 
double. 

Both varieties ai-e partial to a deep and firm 
sandy soil. They are readily propagated by division 
of the plants during the month of May, when each 
side -shoot possessing a few roots will, properly 
planted, form the basis of a fine plant during the 
summer following. When the plants are established, 
the soil between them should be trodden down 
firmly — indeed, treading over the plants seems to 
aid rather than injure their growing powers. The 
flowers, which are used for chamomile-tea, &c., are 
generally ready for gathering early in the month of 
July, and are best when dried in partial sunshine 
only. 

Chervil {ChcerojyhyJlum aromaticiim, C. sativum, 
and C. tuberosum are the species grown). French, 
Cerfeuil ; German, Gartenkerhel. — The first, or 
aromatic species, is somewhat fern-leaved in shape, 
and is known as Sweet Cicely. Like C. sativum, or 
the Parsley-leaved, it is rather extensively used for 
salads, &c. Both these species are very easily grown. 
Sow seeds somewhat thinly, during the months of 
May, July, and August, upon a light sandy soil, 
thinning the young plants out to six inches apart 
when large enough. 

Chcerophyllum tuberosum is greatly prized on the 
Continent and some parts of America. Hitherto it 
has proved too tender to grow and produce its roots 
well in this country. It merits much more attention 
than has yet been given to it. The produce possesses 
an excellent flavour, and is somewhat in the way of 
the French Horn-carrot in shape, having a " nutty " 
flavour not unlike the Spanish Chestnut. It should 
not be sown in the spring, as many, when making a 
first and only effort to grow it, have done. A nicely- 
enriched bed on a sunny border somewhat elevated 
should be prepared for it, and new seeds sown during 
the month of August for the following year. So 
soon as the young plants are up and large enough, 
thin them out to six inches asunder. 

Chicory {dehor ium Intybus). French, Chicoree 
sauvage; German, Gemeine Cichorie; Italian, Cichoria. 



— The Chicory is also called Succory, or Wild En- 
dive, and is the same plant as is grown to manufac- 
ture the Chicory of commerce. Its use in gardens 
is, after the roots are produced, to force or otherwise 
cause them during the subsequent winter to push 
forth leaves in a dark confined place, which, being 
blanched, represent the Barbe de Capuein of the 
Parisian market, and are used plentifully for salads 
when such well-blanched mediums are scarce. 

To grow the annual crop of roots, sow the seeds 
and cultivate the young seedling plants in precisely 
the same way as the larger form of Carrots. In the 
early autumn carefully dig the long white roots up, 
store them away for the winter, placing successional 




Chicoet. 



batches in a warm dark shed, or similar place, in a 
layer of soil, well watering them until the yoimg 
blanched leaves are formed. 

A very free hearting variety is that named Wit- 
loef , or Large-rooted Brussels ; there is also the new 
Red-leaved. 

Chive, or Cive {Allium Schoenoprasum). — 
French, Civette ; German, Binsenlauch ; Italian, 
Cipoletta. — This very old British meadow plant is 
not so frequently and so abundantly grown as it 
used to be a few years ago. Nevertheless, as it pos- 
sesses the true Onion flavour, but in much milder 
form, it is far more suitable for salads, &c., than 
young Onions proper, in instances where — as is not 
uncommonly the case— either are used. Being an 
evergreen perennial plant, it has the merit besides 
of being, during most seasons of the year, in a state 
fit for immediate use. It will grow freely upon any 
moderately good soil, requiring only to be divided 
when the stools become too large. The supply is 
generally obtained by cutting ofl[ the young leaves 
down to the ground. Others soon form and grow in 
their place. 

Coriander {Coriandrum sativum). — The French, 
German, and Italian names vary but little from the 
Anglicised one above. The plant is an annual of 



HERBS AND SMALL SALADS. 



55 



very remote introduction, and lias been acclimatised 
in some i)arts of the countr}'. The young leaves 
are used for salads, &c., the seeds being- in great 
demand by druggists, distillers, &c. The height of 
the plant, when full-grown, is about two feet, 
hiaving double pinnated leaves. A light sandy soil 
is suitable, and periodical sowings, commencing in 
March, should be made, according to the demand 
for it, A late sowing should be made during the 
earlier part of the month of August, to produce 
plants for winter and early spring use. 

Cress [Lcpidium sativum). French, Cresson ; 
German, Kresse ; Spanish, Ilastruco. — This simple 
plant, so useful for salads, is called Pepper- wort, 
Pepper-grass, &c. It is extensively grown through- 
out the whole land, during the summer months in 
a partially shaded position, and somewhat moist, out 
of doors ; and during winter in boxes of rich soil, 
sifted finely, within glass structures. It requires 
sowing thickly, and to be only partially covered 
over with A^ery fine soil, keeping it constantly damp 
by means of superficial waterings. The varieties 
consist of Plain-leaved and Curled-leaved. 

The Australian, or Golden Cress, is a somewhat 
more robust ]Dlant, the leaves upon which are of a 
yellow tint of green. To secure good crops of it, 
sow seeds somewhat thinly upon a rich border at 
the foot of a south- aspect wall. Keep well watered 
subsequently, and whilst growing, to deter too qxuck 
running to seed. The young leaves require to be 
picked off singly, when of goodly size, for use as 
required. 

Dandelion [Taraxacum officinale, syn. Lcontoclon 
Taraxacum). French, Bents de Lion ; German, Lowen- 
zalin ; Italian, Tiscia in Letto. — Though usually an 
extremely troublesome weed, it should be more gene- 
rally known that it is one of the easiest-grown and 
prepared plants for salads, being at once piquant 
to the taste and very wholesome. Our French 
neighbours, who are large salad consumers, grow it 
extensively. Seeds should be sown in drill rows 
two feet apart in the month of March, and the 
young seedling plants thinned out to eight inches 
apart as soon as large enough. Care must be taken 
to cut down the plants when the flowers appear, else 
seeds resulting therefrom will be dispersed over the 
whole district. 

Probably the reason why this plant has not re- 
ceived a larger amount of culture in this country is 
to be found in the fact that it will not blanch so 
easily as will some other kinds of plants. Yet the 
cause is not far to search for. Total or perfect 
exclusion of the air is all that is needful to secure 
this. IMany devices may be resorted to in furtherance. 



During the winter months inverted pots or boxes, 
covered over with stable litter, will insure this. The 
roots may also be dug up and placed in the mush- 
room house, or some darkened place, covered over 
from the air. Whenever it is desirable to blanch the 
leaves during summer, all growth existing upon the 
plants should be first cut away down to the base, 
and a box so inverted over them, being somewhat 
buried in the ground, as to thoroughly exclude the 
air. French Large-leaved and Improved Early are 
the two varieties grown for this piu-pose. 

Dill [Anethum graveolens). French, L'Ancth; 
German, Dill ; Italian, Aneto. — This herb, which is 
nearly allied to Fennel, is used in a variety of ways 
by chefs de cuisine ; it is a biennial, and a native of 
Spain, and is of upright growth, somewhat re- 
sembling the Fennel. Seeds should be sown in an 
open sunny situation during the month of April, 
and when the seedling plants are large enough thin 
them out to eight inches asunder ; by this means a 
permanent bed will be made for the following season. 
As the plant is a biennial, however, it will be de- 
sirable to sow a small bed of it annually, in extent 
according to the demand. 

Fennel [Fceniculum officinale). French, L'Aneth; 
German, Dillkraut ; Italian, Aneto. — This is the 




Fennel. 



well-known "pot-herb," a perfectly hardy perennial 
now naturalised in many parts of Britain, and is 
most easily grown. Seeds are sown very thinly, and 
plants resulting are to be thinned out to at least 
a foot apart. The plants readily develop into large 
stools, more especially if the flower-stalks arc cut 
down as often as they push up from the base. Besides 



58 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GAEDENIXG. 



the more common use of the leaves of this plant for 
sauce, &c., the young shoots, when blanched, which 
is effected by covering the stools over before growth 
commences, are also used for salads, as the flavour 
is somewhat strong and highly piquant ; however, 
such an addition must be made with care. For- 
merly a variety of Fennels existed, but the cultivation 
of it has not of late years been so great as of yore, 
and therefore only one common form seems to have 
been retained by seedsmen, &c. 

Horse-radish. [Cochlearia Armoracia). French, 
Cranson ; German, Ilerrettig ; Italian, Rcmolaccio. — 
This is a perennial plant found wild, commonly, in 
England, and mostly in low-lying marsh-lands, which 
is a fact not always taken into account in connection 
with its artificial culture. Probably few plants re- 
ceived into the limits of the vegetable garden are 
allowed to possess their own space of ground, and to 
subsist regardless of culture and form, in an equal 
degree. Yet it is in very general demand. Market 
gardeners, or gTOwers for market, produce very fine 
sticks. To secure such it is desirable to trench a 
piece of gi'ound two feet deep, placing a nice layer of 
manure at the bottom. Subsequently, or during the 
month of February or March, procure cuttings for 
planting. Take ujd old plants, cut away the main 
shoots, and divide the lower parts of the sticks which 
remain into lengths of about two and a half inches, 
carefully removing all minor roots. Now procure a 
long dibble, and dibble holes into the bed down to 
the layer of manure. Drop one piece, or cutting, 
into each hole. They should be twelve inches apart. 
When the pieces are placed in the holes, fill the 
spaces above them with finely-sifted cinder - ashes, 
or sand. The only subsequent attention the young 
crop will require is to keep the surface free from 
weeds. It is important to be more particular than is 
customary in digging up a crop, so grown, for use. 
To simply insert the spade from, above downwards 
is to cut the produce in two, and to waste about half 
of each stick. A slight trench should first be made 
along one end of the bed, in such a manner that each 
stick when taken up can be exhumed from its very 
base. To lessen labom^, a row or two may be taken 
up at the approach of winter and laid in store con- 
veniently for use. 

Hyssop [Hyssojms officinalis). French, Hysope ; 
German, Jsc}) ; Italian, Jysop. — This is a dwarf 
evergreen shrub, a native of Southern Europe, which 
receives recognition in all moderate-sized herbaries. 
The plant produces blue flowers about midsummer, 
and is powerfully aromatic. Sow seeds during the 
month of April, and transplant the young seedling 
plants into rows or beds eight inches apart, during 



showery weather in the month of Jime. Small strong- 
side-shoots also root, inserted finnly, and it is pro- 
pagated by di^dsion of the old plants. 

Ice Plant {Mesembryanthemwm crystallinum). — 
Few kitchen gardens are complete without a few o£ 
these very desirable plants for garnishing purposes. 
Seeds are sown in a small pot and sandy soil, during 
the early part of April. "WTien placed in moderate 
warmth the young plants soon form. When large 
enough to handle, pot each one singly into a very 
small pot. About June 1, transplant out of doors 
into rich soil. 

Lavender [Lavandula Sjnca, syn. L. vera). French 
Lavendc ; German, SpiMavcndel ; Italian, Lavendula. 
— The Lavender, a dwarf hardy shrub introduced 
during the sixteenth century from the south of 
Europe, is popular among all classes. Its culture 
is extremely simple. It is propagated by means of 
side-shoots, or rather side-slips, being such as are 
drawn oflt from the sides of the main stems, having 




Lavender. 



a heel, or portion of the main stem, attached to their 
base. These have all ragged edges around such 
wounds; these are cut away with a sharp-edged 
knife, when the cuttings are dibbled out thickly into 
nui'sery beds in a shady cool position. The month 
of February is suitable for this pirrpose. When the 
young shoots are rooted, which will be seen by the 
plants commencing to grow somewhat, they require 
planting out into beds at eighteen inches asunder, 
or in rows. The most suitable soil is a poor stony 
or sandy one, moderately enriched. So planted the 
flowers produced possess more powerful perfume. 
Besides, the plants withstand severe winters better 
upon such soil, than when grown on such as is 
rich. After the flower-spikes are cut, which must be 
done when most of the flowers are expanded, cut the 
plants well back, by which means a more bushy and 
better form will be maintained. There are both, 
broad and narrow-leaved varieties. 



V 



COMMON HARDY FLOWERS. 



Marjoram {Origanum). French, Marjolaine ; 
German, Marjoran ; Italia,n, Maggiorana. — Mar- 
jorams consist of four or more species. Reference 
■will only be made to tliree, however, which are the 
most useful, though not more than two species are 
in general use, comprising the " Pot " and " Sweet " 
Marjorams. 

Pot Marjoram {Origanum Onites) is a perennial 
dwarf shrub, introduced from Portugal. It is only 
moderately hardy, and requires to be increased re- 
gularly, and kept in thrifty young bush form, else 
severe and excessively moist winters often destroy it. 
For this reason a light dry soil is best for it. It is 




Common Maejoeam. 

easily propagated by division of the roots during the 
month of February or March. Each plant should 
be from eight to twelve inches apart, and it is well 
to tread around the plants in the late autumn, should 
the soil be at all loose, to make it firm, so that less 
latent moisture may be maintained around their base 
during the winter months. 

Marjoram, Summer {Origanum Majorana). — 
This variety is sometimes called "Knotted" Mar- 
joram, and is often in demand. It is a native of the 
same country as the former, but is a somewhat less 
hardy or enduring biennial. It is much safer, there- 
fore, to sow seeds each spring about the beginning of 
April. Choose a dry, sunny border for the seed-bed, 
and when the young seedling plants are well above 
ground, thin them out to three or four inches apart. 
"Where an early summer demand for it exists, it is a 
good practice to sow a few pots of it during the 
month of February, thinning out the seedlings, and 
to plant what remains bodily out of the pots into a 
rich, warm border about the second week in May. 



Marjoram, Common {Origanum vulgare). — Thi& 
is a British plant found abundantly upon most chalk 
soils, and in a majority of instances it has to da 
duty for the better kinds. It is extremely hardy, 
and divides or seeds at will, requiring very little 
attention to insure permanently large plants. 



COMMON HAEDY FLOWEES. 



Il^TnOBJJCTION. 

UNDER this general and comprehensive heading it 
is proposed to include all sorts of old-fashioned 
plants which may not yet have arrived to the dignity 
of florists' flowers, nor to the showiness, perma- 
nency and effectiveness of those now generally used 
for popular flower gardening. Besides, there are 
thousands of readers who have neither the means, 
space, nor skill to go into the cultivation of either 
of these classes of plants, who have nevertheless one 
or more square yards of ground at the front, back, or 
sides of their houses, which they would gladly make 
more beautiful if they only knew how to do it at 
little trouble and cost. All such are cordially wel- 
comed to dip into this "common flower" series, and 
to plant and cultivate such in their borders, by 
their walls, or in their tiny beds on the gravel 
around their homes. For their special encou- 
ragement, it may be added here that the plea- 
sure or interest derived from gardens is by no 
means measured out or determined by their size. 
On the contrary, it is not seldom true that the 
smaller the garden, the more of both is reaped 
from it ; the larger, the less pleasure or interest. 
The land-hunger has proved even more disastrous 
in the garden than upon the farm, and the fabu- 
lous white elephant — excessive size — has too often 
devoured the pleasures and profits of both alike. 
As reasonably assess the merits of a picture by 
rule or tape-line, as those of a garden by its area ; 
the gems of art in either painting or gardening, 
like those of jewellery, are mostly in the inverse 
ratio of their size. But while all this is said for 
the encouragement of small gardeners, the fortunate 
possessors of large ones have still the best of it if 
they only have the skill to manage them aright ; and 
any management that excludes common flowers is 
radically faulty, for the common flowers are after 
all, as a rule, the most beautiful. Nature, who 
sprinkles her mineral gems so sparingly in or 
through the earth, scatters her vegetable treasures 
broadcast over the surface, and invites all to her 
feast of satisfying beauty. Gardening may, in a 
sense, be defined as the setting of her jewels to the 
best effect ; but they are so beautiful in themselves 



,58 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXIXG. 



that placed almost anywhere, they must needs give 
pleasure and satisfaction. In not a few localities the 
flowers in window-sill or garden plot are the one 
touch of nature that makes town and country kin, 
Jinking the two together in the indissoluhle bonds 
of a common love for common flowers. 

More than that, these common flowers, struggling 
bravely for life under the most unfavourable and 
trying conditions, possess, as a rule, a most un- 
common and tender interest. Those Gillj^-flowers, 
Daisies, Primroses, Eorget-me-nots, are all slips 
from the plants in the old garden at home, and form 
more subtle, swift, and constant lines of communi- 
cation than those of telegraph or telephone. The 
common flowers suggest common interests, pur- 
suits, tastes, loves ; and bind thousands and tens 
of thousands together who would otherwise be far 
more widely sundei^ed. 
The common flowers 
become the common 
trysting-places of 
kindred spirits ; and 
we hope that this 
series of articles may 
prove to be among the 
most interesting and 
attractive portions of 
our work. 

The Daisy.— Xot 

a few distinct species 
of plants are kno-v^m 
imder this name. Such, for example, as the com- 
mon herbaceous Asters, which flower in the autumn, 
and are known as Michaelmas Daisies ; the Pompon 
Chi-ysanthemums, which have been called Chusan 
Daisies; the Chrysanthemum leucantheinum, or Dog 
Daisy; the Chy smith emum tiliginosum, or Hungarian 
Dog Daisy; the Swan River Daisy {Brachycome 
■iberidifoUa) ; and the Paris Daisies, or Marguerites. 
All these, and several other composite or astereeceous 
plants, are popularly called Daisies at times ; and 
nearly the whole of them, and especially the Vjre- 
thrums, single and double, the annual Chiysanthe- 
mums, such as coronatum, tricolorum, and carinatum 
— the last two being probably the same species — 
are well worthy of cultivation. But it is not of 
either of these that we would now write, but of the 
common Garden Daisy, BcUis percnnis hortensis, the 
common parent of all our garden Daisies. This 
is e%idently a sport from the common Daisy of the 
meads, that variegates their A-erdiu^e with stars of 
light. When or where the Double Daisy lost its 
golden heart, or eye rather, and got mountains of 
thread-like petals piled up over it to hide its original 
whereabouts under a semisphere of red, white, or 



mixed colours, history says not. Certain it is that 
the Daisy took to doubling at a very early stage. 
The "eyes " of Daisies in the gi-een meads are often 
lichly furnished with ruddy lashes ; and the Daisies 
are always learning the art of doubling, as well as 
colouring. Culture and selection also strengthen 
and fix the tendency. 

This process of " doubling " is in fact very cmious, 
and a comparison of the Daisy with the flower next 
on oui' Hst will perhaps awaken in the reader, better 
than most other compaiisons, an interest in acquir- 
ing some knowledge of the essential natui-e of that 
extiaordinary variety in the foi-ms of flowers, which 
will be dealt with in due course. 

It is manifest that every flower of the Forget- 
me-not is a single flower. To most people who have 
no knowledge of botany, and have never made any 
examination for them- 
selves, the flower of a 
field Daisy may appear 
the same. But upon 
pulling off one by one 
what are supposed to 
be the petals, it will 
be foimd that each of 
these is a complete 
tiny flower, a tubular 
corolla enclosing the 
sexual organs, and one 
edge or side only of 
the tube being length- 
ened out like a tongue 
to form the supposed petal (Fig. 1, a b). Picking 
these away till all are removed, the centre of the 
Daisy is seen to be composed of similar tiny flowers, 
except that one edge of these is not prolonged into 
an apparent petal (Fig. 1, c). The outermost, 
tongue-shaped flowers are called ray-florets, and 
the central ones the disc-florets. So much for 
the common Daisy of the fields. And now the 
"doubling" of the Daisy, so far as regards the usual 
and best-known garden f oi-m, simply consists in these 
central or disc -flowers also developing one side of 
their corolla into petal-like prolongations like those 
of the ray. The effect of this is, of coui'se, to fill uj) 
the centre also with apparent petals, the golden 
"eye " being now buried among these. But, strange 
to say, there is another method of doubling," seen 
in another very common form of Double Daisy — 
the " Quill Daisy." In this foi-m the above process 
is precisely reversed ; it is now the central florets 
which are larger and more brightly colom'ed than 
usual, while the outer or ray-florets, instead of being 
tongue-shaped, have become all tubular, like the 
central ones. 

This simple example teaches us at once in what 




1> A c 



Fig. 1.— Section of Common Daisy, a, section through entire 
flower-head of the Daisy ; b, single floret from margin, 
showing seed-vessel, and corolla with tongue-like prolonga- 
tion, forming apparent petal (enlarged) ; c, single floret 
from the dis^c, showing corolla without ligulate prolonga- 
tion (enlarged). 



COMMON HARDY FLOWERS. 



59 



Tarious ways Nature may go to work, aided by man, 
to perform the task of " doubling" a flower; and at 
the very start we learn, from one of the simplest 
examples, how much light even a very little study 
can thi'ow upon the natm-e and development of our 
garden flowers. 

Still, it is slow work- converting the Daisy of the 
field into those of the garden ; and as so many good 
garden Daisies already exist, and seeds of these 
produce a fair percentage of doubles, and as almost 
every separate atom of a Daisy root-stock can be 
converted into a separate plant, it is hardly worth 
while hieing back to the Daisy of the field in search 
of either newer or better garden varieties. 

The Daisy has been much improved of late years, 
the German nurserymen especially having directed 
much attention to it ; some of them offer as many 
as from twenty-five to thirty named varieties. In 
this country, the varieties of Daisy are less nume- 
rous, still the red and white may be had in many 
strains, varied in regard to size and colour. For 
the whites are not all equally white, while the 
coloiH- of the reds ranges from soft red to crimson. 
Pink Beauty is one of the best pink Daisies, while 
Victoria is one of the largest and most striking of 
all the red-and- white mottled varieties. Rob Roy is 
one of the most brilliant of all red Daisies ; while 
B. perennis acnhcefolia well deserves its name, being 
almost as richly vaiiegated with gold as the old- 
fashioned well-known showy shrub, Acuba Japonica. 
This beautiful variety has crimson flowers, but it 
seldom blooms so freely as the plain-leaved vaiieties, 
and the leaves become more richly variegated when 
the flowers are picked off; and this, in fact, is the 
most effective way of cultivating this interesting 
variety of Daisy. 

But the most singular and beautiful of all Daisies 
remains to be noted. This is popularly known as the 
Hen and Chickens Daisy, and is known botanically 
as the B. perennis prolifica, from the fact that from 
the base of the flower, or calyx, other flowers on short 
stems are produced, the general effect being somewhat 
like the spokes of a wheel proceeding from the nave ; 
each spoke, however, at its furthest point from the 
centre, being finished off with a tiny Daisy, as shown 
in the illustration. Hence also the appropriateness 
of the name, Hen and Chickens. The Hen, or large 
Daisy, and the Chickens are in this variety gene- 
rally of unequal sizes (see illustration), distributed 
at tolerably equal distances from the calyx all round. 
It is very seldom indeed that any other variety or 
species of Daisy manifests any tendency to produce 
"chickens" in this way; neither is this interesting 
feature reproduced from seeds ; nor can it be deve- 
loped by high cxdture, though it may be lost and 
disappear for lack of care and attention. 



The most common variety of the Hen and Chickens 
Daisy is striped red-and-white. But there is also 
said to be a red and a white strain, although the 
latter is rare. This proliferous variety is the very 
choicest of Daisies, and from a botanical point of 
view is one of the most interesting plants in cul- 
tivation. 

Culture. — The culture of the Daisy is of the sim- 
plest kind, and half a dozen or a dozen plants may be 
grown on a square foot of ground. It is, therefore, 
one of the very best plants for small gardens. It 
thiives well either as an edging around small beds or 
borders, or in single patches or groups. Beds are 
also often filled with them, and if smaU they are most 
striking in masses of one coloiu-. Larger beds may 
be mixed with the different colours, or with other 
hardy flowers of similar height, such as the dwarf 
Anhrietia, Arabis, or Forget-me-nots. No garden, 
however small, should be without its patch or its 
beds, or window box, if there is no other place for 
Daisies, and in large gardens there cannot well be 
too many of them. Few plants can match them in 
long and continuous blooming, or in rich and telling 
effects. To have them at their best they should be 
partially divided every year, immediately after they 
have finished blooming. The time varies, according 
to treatment, season, and locality. As a rule. Daisies 
flower from April to June, or even Jidy. They will 
thrive in almost any soil ; but light, rather rich soil 
suits them best. Their greatest enemies are slugs 
and shade. Overrun with larger and coarser plants 
in the spring and summer, they simply perish ; and 
aU the sooner as the shade shelters the slugs, and 
assists them in hastening through their work of de- 
struction. The groimd also gets Daisy-sick, partly 
perhaps from the rapid growth and enlai'gement of 
the root-stock, and also probably from the enormous 
number of flowers produced in succession ; hence the 
importance of fi-equent division of root-stock and 
annual autumnal planting in flowering quarters. 

The Daisy is, perhaps, the most divisible plant in 
the garden. Each separate branchlet may be re- 
moved with its modicum of root, and every such 
morsel of Daisy will form a plant. A small space in 
an open border, naturally light, rich, and partially 
shaded, is the best place in which to plant divided 
Daisies about midsummer. It is a good plan to 
dibble the plantlets in pretty firmly. Water them 
home, and see that the plants never lack water 
during the season ; for though the Daisy enjoys the 
sun when in bloom, it grows faster in partial shade, 
and with its roots well watered dm-ing the droughts 
of dry summer or autumnal weather. If allowed to 
become parched, red spider attacks them, and they 
do but little good. 

For early spring fiowering, Daisies thus treated 



60 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GAEDENING. 



and grown should "be carefully removed to their 
blooming quarters in Octoher or November. Where 
they are wanted to bloom later they may be removed 
in the spring. Those who have only grown a few 
Daisies in tiny beds or borders, should re-di^-ide 
and change their' ground every second year at the 
longest. A spadeful or two of fresh compost may 
be dug into a fresh place, the Daisy patch lifted, 
divided, and re-planted, and thus a splendid spread 
of Daisy bloom be ob- 
tained every year. No- ' = 
thing can well be more 
simple than this mode 
of Daisy culture, and 
nothing more effectual. 

Unless with the ob j ect 
of raising new varieties, 
it is hardly worth while 
to raise Daisies from 
seeds. Sow on a shel- 
tered, partly-shaded bed 
or border in the open 
air as soon as ripe, water 
in dry weather, and keep 
clear of weeds. As soon 
as the plants are suflB.- 
ciently large to handle, 
prick them out in beds 
or borders, or in boxes, 
three inches apart, and 
leave the Daisies in 
these till they bloom. 
Throw out the worth- 
less ones, and plant 
out in the garden all 
those that may prove 
different to or improve- 
ments upon existing 
varieties. 

Those who do not 
possess a garden may 
grow Daisies in pots, 
either in their 



worms, and other vermin from them. This is said 
to be effective, but is very far fi-om being compli- 
mentary to the Daisies, which deserve a better fate 
than that of being converted into vermin-traps for 
other plants. 

The Forget-me-not. — Next to Daisies, this, if 
better known, would probably be the most popidar of 
all garden jjlants. Not a few, however, imagine that 
there is but one Forget- 



Hex axd C 



window-sills, or other places where a six-inch pot 
can be placed. Any of these will grow a Daisy plant 
that will almost hide the surface of the pot with 
its generous profusion of bloom. Daisies in pots 
may also be placed inside sunny windows in the 
early spring, and thus be forced gently into flower 
at least a month, six weeks, or even two months 
before they will flower in the open, thereby antici- 
pating to that extent the brightness and beauty of 
the spring. 

Some who love other plants, such as choice bulbs, 
Pinks, Carnations, &c., more than Daisies, may even 
use the latter as decoys to entice any slugs, wire- 




me-not, the one named 
through the romantic 
tragic legend that 
cost the lover his life, 
and riveted the name- 
to the plant, as he 
faintly and finally 
uttered it before he 
sank to rise no more. 
But this, of course, is a 
mistake. There are a 
gi-eat many varieties of 
Forget-me-nots grown 
in gardens, and it also 
happens that the parti- 
cular one {2I)/osotis pa- 
h(strls) being an aquatic 
is seldom foimd there. 
As it is however one of 
the most beautiful, in 
fact the most strikingly 
romantic in fiction, it 
should find a place 
wherever a little water 
or a damp border can be 
found, for this is really 
the true Forget-me-not. 

Among the most use- 
ful of the other Forget- 
me-nots for the garden 
is the dwarf Alpine 
Forget-me-not [Myoso- 
tis rujjicola), found in 
Scotland. Tliis seldom grows more than thi-ee inches 
high. The flowers are of the richest azui^e-blue, of a 
large size, and the foliage is also rather large for the 
size of the plant. 

21. aJpestris, or Alpine Forget-me-not, is a very 
rich-coloured dwarf, rather taller, but otherwise re- 
sembling, if not identical with, the Eock Forget-me- 
not of Scotland, ali-eady named (J/, rupicola). 

21. azorica is a much darker species, introduced 
fi^om the Azores in 18i8. This is one of the earliest 
Forget-me-nots, and, like aU the rest of the early- 
flowering section, it very often blooms in April, and 
has a largo percentage of rose-tinted bloom. There 



COMMON HAEDY FLOWERS. 



is a superior and more azm-e-coloured variety of this 
species {M. Azorica calestxna), in which nearly all the 
flowers are hlue. 

M. Imp^ratrice Elisabeth, a fine, rohust, high- 
coloni-ed variety, is said to he a hybrid between the 
fine species from the Azores and the Rock Forget- 
me-not of Scotland {M. alpestris). The Wood Forget- 
me-not (.IT. sylvatlca, or sylvcstris) is also among the 
most useful plants for beds and borders ; and there is 
a pure white variety of this which is very useful. 

The best of all the Forget-me-nots for the garden 
still, however, remains to be noticed ; this is Myosotis 
dissit'iflora, closely related to, if not identical with, 
the M. montana. Its name is derived from the loose- 
ness of the fiowers on the stems, and their distance 
from each other, which gives more room for their 
individual expansion ; and hence this is at once the 
largest-flowering and the most beautiful of all the 
Forget-me-nots. In the early season, when the 
cold nipping March winds are about, the flowers 
of this fine species are very much suflused with, 
rose; but as the season advances this changes, and 
all the flowers become of the softest shade of blue. 
There is a larger variety of this species, and also 
a pure white variety. The larger, or major sort, 
is almost double the size of the common strain, and 
hardly stands the weather so well on that account. 
This is one of the earliest and best of all the 
Forget-me-nots ; in fact, it is so pre-eminently good 
that in not a few gardens it has superseded all others, 
and is grown by thousands and tens of thousands for 
spring gardening. In mild seasons it flowers with 
the Fair IMaids of February, the Snowdrops, at that 
■early season. In most it flowers through March, 
AjDril, and May, and with a little care as to time of 
sowing and propagation, this lovely Forget-me-not 
may be had in flower nearly all the year round. 

Culture. — The species and varieties here specified 
are perfectly hardy, though it is found that young 
and rather smaU plants stand severe weather much 
better than larger ones. The reason seems to be 
that the Forget-me-nots suffer more fi'om wet on 
their crowns than from cold. The large plants 
allow the wet to accumulate and remain^ and the 
frost bites them hard in consequence. Some also 
contend that seedlings are more hardy than plants 
raised fi^om root-division or cuttings ; but this is 
hardly likely; however, as most of the Myosotis, 
and especially the clissitiflora, come quite true fi'om 
seed, it is just as well to increase and multiply it 
in this way. Sow it in June or July in a shel- 
tered, shady border ; before winter the plants will 
have reached a nice size for flowering next spring. 
As the seeds of all the Forget-me-nots are excep- 
tionally small, it is impossible to sow them too 
thinly or cover them too lightly. The soil should 



61 

also be light and rich, though almost any soU will do 
for these Forget-me-nots, provided it is neither too 
stiff nor too diy. 

AVhen once grown in any garden, the Forget-me- 
nots are almost sure to reproduce themselves from 
seed with sufficient fi-eedom to render rmnecessary 
any systematic saving of the seeds. Chance seedlings 
will not only abound, but they will generally prove 
more robust than any other. 

Another very simple way of increasing Forget-me- 
nots is to pull the plants to pieces immediately after 
flowering, and plant each little branchlet that has a 
rootlet as an independent plant. If this is done 
carefully, the plants placed in faii'ly good soil, and 
not allowed to get dry during the season, they will 
bear a second division of stools by about the end of 
September, and then have grown into nice flowering 
tufts before the end of the flowering season. Moist 
and partially shaded beds or borders are best for all 
the Forget-me-nots, though several species grow on 
mountains, and others of the more dwarf species seem 
to live on. almost barren rocks ; yet the roots find 
moisture in the crevices, and no Forget-me-nots 
in gardens should be allowed to become once really 
dry, or to flag in the least from drought. 

But the fact is, these plants are so easily grown 
and propagated that no small garden should be with- 
out them. The common treatment of the most 
common flowers will suit these admii'ably, or if a 
place with rather more shade and moistui-e than 
another can be found, plant these full of Forget-me- 
nots. Unless the seeds sow themselves, scatter a few 
over beds and borders at times, and simply and very 
slightly rake them in ; also now and then, and at any 
dripping time dming the season, lift, divide, and re- 
plant a few Forget-me-nots, and by such simple 
means pro^-ide a constant succession of their lovely 
flowers in the garden. 

Forget-me-nots look well among ferns, and on 
rockeries among Alpine plants. Some of the species, 
such as aJpestris; azorica, and dissit'iflora, do remark- 
ably well clothing crumbling walls and climbing 
ruins, the plants seeding themselves, and also agree- 
ing well with the common yellow single Wallflowers, 
and the best of all creeping plants for such positions 
— Linaria Cymbalaria. Forget-me-nots, especially the 
M. dissitijlora, also flower admirably in pots. Place 
a nice bushy plant in a sunny window in January ; it 
will be in bloom in February, and keep on bloom- 
ing right up to May, provided always it is care- 
fully watered and liberally fed. By potting up at 
intervals of a month or so a few plants of the lovely 
Forget-me-nots, and placing them in the windows, 
the rooms would be lightened up with their unique 
beauty, and the dwellers in the house be brightened 
and cheered by their presence throughout the year. 



62 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENINa. 



GEEEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 

By William Hugh Gower. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

A LTHOUGtH the plants which are treated upon 
under this heading are for the most part nati\'es 
of warm parts of the globe, they require very little 
artificial heat in this country ; indeed, the majority 
thrive during the winter months in a temperature a 
few degrees only ahove the freezing-point. This 
fact teaches us that even in tropical countries there 
are cool regions ; and therefore for the proper treat- 
ment of a plant it is not sufiicient to know that it is 
a native of the East Lidies, or South America, but 
its particular place in either of these countries should 
be ascei'tained ; whether it grew in swamps or upon 
rocks, (to, and the elevation above the level of the 
sea ; because there are such wonderful changes in 
the atmosphere and temperature of the plains, and 
the summits of the mountains. Seeing that plants 
natxu-ally are subjected to such different atmo- 
spheric conditions, their various requirements under 
cultivation must be studied and ministered to in 
order to maintain them in health and develop their 
beauties. 

Independently of the importance of the vegetable 
world in an economic and commercial point of view, 
the study of plants is full of delightful associations ; 
their wonderful forms and gorgeous beauty never 
fail to secure the admiration, not only of the civilised 
world, but even of the naked savage. But fashion 
has to a great extent ruled the garden ; and the rage 
for quick-growing soft-wooded plants has elbowed 
too many gi-and old plants out of our green-houses, 
simply because they had becom.e old-fashioned and 
" slow." 

The object of the green-hr"ase is to give shelter to 
those plants which, althougi. they reqiiire but little 
artificial heat, are yet not sufiiciently hardy to with- 
stand the vicissitudes of our climate during the 
winter unprotected. By the assistance of such a 
structure we are enabled to maintain a succession of 
bloom all through the dull and dreary months of 
winter, and that too without much expense in the 
cost of fuel, which in these daj's is usually a serious 
item in garden expenses. Amongst special winter- 
blooming plants, some of the most showy and decora- 
tive are the Australian Acacias, which form gorgeous 
masses of yellow blooms in various shades. Not less 
beautiful, but totally difi'erent, are the Epacris, from 
the same country, with their beautiful racemes of 
waxy bell-like flowers, which are equally useful for 
bouquets, button-holes, or the decoration of a lady's 
hair for ball or evening party. The Heath familj' 
{Erica) likewise contribute their quota to the winter 



decoration of the green-house, as also do the large 
families of Camellia and Azalea ; these latter, indeed, 
may be looked upon as the two most essential genera 
yet in cultivation for green-house decoration. 

A few words upon the structure of the gTeen-housc 
will be necessary even here, though the subject is to 
be separately treated. In the old times, plant-houses 
were nearly always built one-sided, or what is com- 
monly known as " lean-to " houses ; and many good 
plants have been and are grown at the present day 
in such buildings. They, however, are neither so 
good for the cultivation of plants, or present such a 
good appearance, as the modem span-roof house; 
because, in the lean-to house, unless the plants are 
frequently turned round, they draw towards the 
light and themselves become one-sided, which renders 
the plant quite unfit for drawing-room or dinner- 
table decoration, or indeed for any other position but 
the place it has growTi in. 

The two chief points to study in the cultivation of 
gTcen-house plants are full exposure to the light, and 
abundance of fresh air. 

Abelia, a genus of pretty plants belonging to the 
Honeysuckle family [Caprifoliaccce), almos't hardy in 
warm localities, and anj'where admirably adapted 
for a cool greenhouse. They are easily propagated 
by cuttings in summer, inserted in sandy soil, and 
kept close until they are rooted. 



A. jiorihunda is perhaps the 
most beautiful species in 
the family ; it has small 
opposite, oblong, evergreen 
leaves. It grows to a 
height of three feet, aud is 
well adapted for covering 
trellis-work. The flowers 
are freely produced during 
the early spring months, 
and are tubular and j)en- 
dent, some two inches 
long, of a soft rose-colour. 
Mexico, 1842. 

A. r^lpestns. — This species 
has opposite, oblong, liairy, 
deciduous leaves. It at- 
tains a height of from four 
to five feet. Ihe flowers 



are white and red, sweet- 
scented, produced in pairs 
at the ends of the brtinches. 
August and September. 
China, 1844. 
A. trijiora, leaves ovate 
lanceolate, evergreen and 
twiggy, growing to about 
five feet in height. Flowers 
arranged in thi-ee-, and 
produced ia corymbs at 
the ends of the branches, 
■pnle yellow, suffused with 
a tinge of pink. July and 
August. Northern India, 
1847. 

A. unijiora is so like rnpestris 
that bo th are not needed. 



Abutilon. — A genus of malvaceous plants, many 
of which are highly ornamental. They have some- 
what palmately divided leaves, and produce large 
bell-shaped flowers, which, being supported upon 
long slender foot-stalks, give them a pendulous or 
drooping habit. Besides the species which have been 
introduced, the genus has been taken in hand by the 
cross-breeders, and some very beautiful varieties 
have been obtained. The flowers of Abutilons are 
extremely useful, either for button-hole flowers, 
bouquet-making, or the decoration of apartments ; 
and when left upon the plants in the green-house 
they form very attractive objects. Many varieties 



GEEEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 



63 



of Abutilons are strong growers, and therefore are 
admirably adapted for training upon pillars or 
rafters. They should be potted in loam and peat, or 
leaf-moiild, with the addition of a little sharp sand. 
The following are some of the most desirable species 
and varieties: — 

A. Boule de Neige. — Pure white. 

A. striatum. — Orange, beautifully veined with 
crimson. 

A. Boule (V Or. — Large and globular, rich golden- 
yellow. 

A. Caroline. — Light pink, veined with rose. 
A. Fire King. — Flowers in pairs, bright orange- 
scarlet. 

A. insignc. — Eich crimson and white. 
A. Due cle Malakoff. — Flowers very large, bright 
orange. 

A. Seraph. — Pui'e white, large and fine. 
A. rohnstum. — Eose, veined with reddish-purple. 
A. Trophy. — Pale yellow, streaked with reddish- 
carmine. 

A. Verona. — Eosy-pink, streaked with reddish- 
crimson. 

A. vexillariurn. — A dwarf species; flowers red and 
yellow ; there is also a variegated form of this 
plant. Xow named A. megopotamicum. 

Acacia. — This is a family of handsome shrubs, 
some, indeed, attaining the dimensions of large trees, 
b(3longiQg to the order Leguminosce. They are widely 
distributed over the warmer parts of the globe ; the 
greater number of the species, however, are natives 
of Australia, where they are popularly known by the 
name of ''"Wattle-trees." Independently of their 
beauty, the genus claims our attention from a com- 
mercial point of view, as some of the species yield 
valuable drugs, &c. " Gum Arabic" is the produce 
of A. vera, A. Arabica, A. Yerelx, and other allied 
kinds. " Gum Senegal " and the drug called " Cate- 
chu" are also obtained from various species of 
Acacia. Again, many jdeld a valuable tanning 
material largely used in the preparation of leather, 
whilst from the seeds of some kinds the Indians of 
South America produce an intoxicating spirit. 

In many of the species the leaves are tripinnate, 
and give the plants a handsome plume-like ap- 
pearance. The majority of the kinds produce an 
abundance of beautiful flowers during the spring 
and early summer months, wliich entitles them to 
take first rank amongst green-house shrubs. 

The species here enumerated as being remarkable 
for the beaiity of their flowers are amongst the most 
desirable for green-house and conservatory decora- 
tion, and all are natives of various parts of Australia. 

It is remarkable that A'ery many of the Aiistralian 
Acacias do not develop their true leaves, but, instead, 



have their leaf-stalks flattened out and elongated 
into leaf -like shape ; these are called " phyllodes," and 
are arranged edgewise upon the stems and branches. 
These "phyllodes" not only take on the appearance 
of leaves, but also perform the same functions. 

The roots of Acacias are remarkable for gi^Tng off 
a strong disagTceable odour, somewhat resembling 
that of garlic. They are plants of very easy culture 
and of strong constitutions. For soil they prefer 
about equal parts of loam and peat, or loam and 
leaf -mould, with a small quantity of sand added to 
keep the mould open and porous. Acacias require 
an abundant supply of water, and the pots in which 
they are growTi should be well drained, for bad 
drainage is as inimical to plant as to. animal life. 

Diu-ing the summer months, which will be after 
the flowers are past, these plants will thrive best in 
the open air, care being taken to keep worms fi'om 
entering the pots, and proper supports being used in 
order to prevent injiiry from strong winds. 

Acacias are not much troubled with insect enemies, 
although sometimes they become infested with a 
small white scale, w^hich, if allowed to increase with- 
out check, will not only disfigure the plant, but 
speedily affect the health of the victim. Whenever 
this insect makes its appearance, the plants should 
be laid down, and have a solution of soft-soap and 
hot water apj)lied with vigour from the spinge. 
A little paraffin oil may be mixed wdth the soap 
with advantage, but care must be exercised in its 
application, and by no means should it be allowed to 
reach the roots. 

Propagation is effected both by cuttings and by 
seeds. 

A. armata. — This charming species is, from its 
close and compact habit, well adapted for cultivation 
in small pots. The leaves, or phyllodes, are entire, 
somewhat ovate in shape, and intense deep gxeen, 
which forms a fine contrast to its rich golden balls 
of flowers. With age the plant attains a height of 
eight to ten feet, but young plants one foot high will 
flower very freely. (Introduced fi'om Xew South 
Wales, 1803.) 

A. argyrophglla. — This is a very handsome shrub, 
even when not in bloom. The phyllodes, or false 
leaves, are large, obovate, or naiTowing from the 
base upwards, and clothed with a sih-crj'-grcy to- 
mentum. Its globular heads of deep yellow flowers 
are produced in the greatest profusion during the 
spring months. 

A. ccerulescens. — A pretty shrub, with bluish ob- 
ovate leaves, and globose heads of rich yellow. It 
flow^ers in the spring months. 

A. cochlearis. — The flowers of this species arc 
bright yellow and sweet-scented. It blooms in mid- 
winter, which is an additional attraction. 



.^4 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GAEDENINQ. 



A. cuUriformis. — One of the most beautifal species. 
'The name implies that the leaves, or phyllodes, re- 
semhle in form the blade of a knife, hut it is a very 
short blade. They are bluish-green in colom-, and 
^terminate in a sharp bristle-like point. Flowers 



A. Jloribunda. — Phyllodes three to six inches long, 
linear, tapering at each end, light green. As its 
name implies, very floriferous. Spikes long, bear- 
ing a profusion of its rich yellow flowers during 
May and June. 




Fire King. 



Abutilons. 

Vexillaruim (variegated). 



are produced in long racemes in great profusion, 
globose, and rich yellow. Spring and early summer. 

A. Di'ummondii. — This forms a dense and compact 
shrub, and if only one species of Acacia can be ac- 
commodated in a collection, this should be the one 
selected. The leaves are pinnate, and dark green ; 
flowers, straw-colour, and borne on long cylindri- 
cal spikes in great abundance. Spring and early 
summer. 



A. grandis. — This and A. grandiflora are very 
similar plants, if not one and the same species. It 
is a dwarf, compact, twiggy plant, with small dark 
green pinnate leaves. The globular heads of yellow 
flowers are furnished with long petioles, or foot- 
stalks, and thus the whole plant presents a mass of 
golden-yellow bloom. One of the very best kinds. 
Spring months. 

A. graveolens. — A fine, bold-growing plant, with 



GEEEN- HOUSE PLAXTS. 



lanceolate ph^-llodes, up^vards of four inches long, green, furnished with a pair of long sharp spines at 

tapering at each end, and bright green. The the base ; flowers globose, on long foot-stalks, golc'en- 

globular heads of flower are usually produced in yellow. Spring and early summer, 

pairs from the axils of the leaves, bright yellow, A. platyptera, the Winged Acacia, so called on 

and sweet-scented. This is a ver^" effective kind, account of the broad leafy wing, which extends or. 

the shoots being clothed with racemes of bloom both sides of the stem ; flowers produced upon long 

twelve to eighteen inches in length. Spring months. spikes, rich deep yellow, very showy . March and May. 

A. lineata. — Phyllodes linear, lanceolate, and dark A. ovata. — A beautiful dwarf plant ; the phyllodes 
green. The globose heads of flower are briglit are small, closely set, ovate, and dark green; the 
yellow, on long foot-stalks; a very showy species, flowers are 1 right golden- yellow, upon long foot- 
flowering in the early spring months. stalks, and are freely produced. Spring months. 




Acacia Eiceaxa. 



A. longifoUa. — A fine bold-growing kind, with 
lanceolate dark green phyllodes ; the flowers are pale 
yellow, on long loose spikes. April and ^lay. 

A. lophantha. — This species is not remarkable for 
its beautiful blooms ; indeed, although they are pro- 
duced on fair-sized racemes, the colour is such a pale 
washed-out shade of yellow that they are by no 
means attractive ; as an ornamental foliage plant, 
however, it is quite charming. The leaves are 
broad, pinnated, and divided into numerous small 
segments, which are dark green ; when grown on a 
single stem it is most effective, and in its young 
state is admirably adapted for the deor)ration of a 
dinner-table. Xow named Albizzia lox)hantha. 

A. paradoxa. — Phyllodes oblong lanceolate, bright 
5 



A. Eiceana. — This species makes long pendent 
branches, which render it very suitable for training 
on a pillar or roof of a conservatory. "We are told 
that "it was discovered by Robert Brown gTOwing 
like a weeping willow upon the banks of the tribu- 
taries of the river Derwent in Tasmania ; " and 
certainly when trained to a roof, with its pendent 
branches loaded with its globose heads of golden- 
yellow flower, it is a picture never to be forgotten. 
March to June. 

A. rotund'ifoJia resembles in general appearance 
A. ovata; it is, however, larger in all its parts; 
phyllodes obliquely rounded, dark green ; flov.-ers 
globose on long foot-stalks, deep yellow. Spring 
and early summer. 



66 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXING. 



^-x. siculccformis. — Phyllodes long and narrow', ter- 
minating- with, a sharp spine ; deep green flowers on 
very long slender foot-stalks, golden-yellow ; a very 
distinct plant, and an abundant bloomer. Spring 
and early summer. 

A. SophoroR. — A ver}^ different plant from the pre- 
ceding ; here the phyllodes are some three inches 
long, broad, and pale green ; the flowers are borne 
upon cylindrical 
spikes nearly two 
inches long, light 
yellow, very show}'. 
Spring months. 

A. tmdulccfolia.- — - 
.A beautiful free- 
blooming species, 
with, oblong ovate 
pliyllodes of a glau- 
cous hue ; flowers 
numerous on long 
spikes, golden-yel- 
low. Spring and 
early summer. 

A. verticiUata. — 
Phyllodes arranged 
in whorls broadly 
linear, with a sharp 
spine at the apex, 
intense deep green ; 
flowers dense, on 
long cylindrical 
spikes, pale yellow ; 
a somewhat pen- 
dent plant, and one 
well adapted for 
training upon pil- 
lars and rafters. 
Spring months. 

A. vestita. — This 
handsome plant is 
a dense close grower 
and also a profuse 
bloomer ; the phyl- 
lodes are small, somewhat ovate, and slightly downy ; 
flowers globose, on long spikes, pale yellow. Spring 
and early summer. 

Acrophyllum. — This genus contains one species 
only, a native of Tasmania, It belongs to the order 
Cunoniacese, and although a somewhat difiicult 
plant to cultivate, it well repays any labour be- 
stowed upon it. The plant in question, known as 
Acrophyllum venosum, is a slender erect-growing 
shrub, the leaves sessile, oblong cordate, and coarsely 
serrated, arranged three in a whorl round the stem, 
and bronze-green in colour. The flowers are indi- 




Adexandea speciosa. 



vidually small, but being arranged in great numbers 
round the stems on the previous year's growth, 
they present a very beautiful appearance, which, 
makes the plant well worthy of cultivation. It 
blooms during the spring and early summer months. 
The soil should Tie peat and sand only, and the 
drainage of the pots must be perfect, or failure is 
sure to ensue. Introduced 1836. 

Adenandra. — 

A small genus of 
plants, all natives 
of the Cape of Good 
Hope. The leaves 
of this and various 
other allied genera 
are much, esteemed 
by the Hottentots 
to anoint their 
bodies, thought the 
perfume emitted is 
not welcome to 
European ideas. 

The soil they 
thrive in is sandy 
peat, to wMch may 
be added with ad- 
vantage a small 
portion of light 
loam. Adenandras 
arc very showy, 
useful ior "house 
decoration or exhi- 
bition purj)oses, and 
deserve more atten- 
tion than plant- 
growers give them. 
After flowering, the 
shoots must be cut 
back, and the plants 
subjected to a some- 
what closer atmos- 
phere than usual. 
This mode of treat- 
ment will induce them to break back, and produce 
a much, better furnished specimen than can other- 
wise be obtained. There are several species, those 
here noticed being the most desirable. 

A. fragrans.—A. dense-growing plant, clothed 
with an abundance of small, oblong, glandular, dark 
green leaves; the flowers, which, are produced in 
May and June, are terminal on the shoots, star- 
shaped, rosy-pink in colour, and highly scented. 
Cape of Good Hope, 1812. 

A. speciosa. — A more robust-growing plant than 
the pre%-iously-named species, having larger leaves, 
which are furnished with a small marginal fringe ; 



GEEEN- HOUSE PLANTS. 



67 



flowers bright pink, produced in terminal umbels 
during- April and May, Cape of Good Hope, 1789. 

A. unljiora. — Similar in habit to speciosa ; the 
flowers, however, are solitary upon the points of 
the shoots, white inside, outside stained with pink. 
April and May. Cape of Good Hope, 1775. 

Agapantlms. — These are old-fashioned flqwers, 
and unfortunately 
much neglected by 
plant - growers. 
They require so 
little care that any 
one can grow them. 
Although con- 
sidered green-house 
plants, they are 
really nearly hardy, 
and can be grown 
into good specimens 
by those amateurs 
who do not revel 
in the luxui-y of a 
glass-house. The 
plants make very 
stout roots, and 
therefore require 
plenty of pot-room. 
Drain the pots well, 
and pot into good 
strong loam. Dur- 
ing summer they 
stand in the open 
air, and in winter 
any shed or out- 
house will be suffi- 
cient protection, 
providing the frost 
does not reach them. 
They enjoy an 
abundant supply of 
water. Agapanthus 
means lovely flower, 

and it is popularly known as the Blue African Lily. 
The leaves are long and narrow, whilst the flowers are 
borne in large umbels, supported on tall slender stems. 

A. Kmbellatus. — A very old inhabitant of our gar- 
dens, and really a charming plant ; umbels of flowers 
large, bright blue. July and August. Cape of Good 
Hope, 1692. 

A. umbellatus albifloriis. — A smaller-growing form 
of the species, which produces white flowers ; it is of 
more recent introduction. 

A. umbellatus maximus. — A bold and robust grower, 
producing larger leaves and flowers than the other 
type, but scarcely so free-flowering. 




A. umbellatus variegatus. — A somewhat small- 
growing kind, having the leaves all striped with 
white, and although variegated leaves are extremely 
popular, this is the least desirable form of the species. 

Agathaea. — The name comes from agathos, 
"pleasant," and refers to the extreme beauty of the 
flowers. It belongs to the natural order Composita;^ 

and is easily in- 
creased by cuttings. 

A. ccelestis, popu- 
larly known as the 
blue Marguerite, is 
a showy plant, one 
that is almost 
always in bloom. 
Cape of Good Hope. 
1753. 

Agave. — A 

family of j^lants 
popularly, but er- 
roneously, known 
as "American 
Aloes," the true 
"Aloe" being'quite 
distinct from these 
in every respect. 
The leaves are 
thick and fleshy, 
and armed at the 
points and margins 
with stout sharp 
spines. Thej con- 
tain a great quan- 
tity of immensely 
strong fibre. At 
one time it was 
hoped this might 
become of com- 
mercial import- 
ance; but, although 
the yield of fibre 
was large, the plants were so slow in growth that 
the supply was soon exhausted. The Mexicans 
make, from very ancient days, an intoxicating drink 
called "pulque " from the juice of A. Americana. 

It is, however, as ornaments to our garden we 
have to treat of Agaves here, and certainly they are 
unequalled as bold and massive plants for the deco- 
ration of green-house or conservatory. They form 
noble ornaments for surmounting flights of steps on 
terraces during the summer months ; and, if space is 
limited in the green-house during winter, these plants 
may be kept with ease and safety in a shed or stable, 
provided they are quite di-y and nearly all light is 



Agapanthus umbellatus. 



68 



CASWELL'S POPULAR GARDEXING. 



excluded. Agaves have a special claim on small 
amateurs, whose business pursuits leave them but 
little leisure to attend to plants, for as the leaves are 
thick and fleshy, they do not feel the want of water or 
the sudden change of temperature in the manner that 
■other plants would, consequently they may he left to 



specting Agaves, \'iz., "that they flower only onie 
in a century." This may he accepted as truth, hut it 
must not he assumed that it takes a hundred years 
for them to an-ive at a flowering state, although they 
are extremely loiig-lived, and instances arc recorded 
of plants of the larger kinds being a century in ciil- 






Agave Amekicana. 



care for themselves with greater im]>unity. Although 
the large-growing species, A. Americana, is quoted 
as the representatiA'e of this genus, those which are 
limited to space can be easily accommodated, for the 
family is a very large one, and some of the smaller- 
growing kinds form exquisite specimens, never ex- 
ceeding one foot in diameter, or even less. 

A few words must be devoted to the old saying re- 



tivation without producing flowers. But when they 
do bloom, the spike springs fi^om the crown of the 
plant, and, after seeds are perfected, death ensues ; so 
that the plant onlj- flowers once in its life, and it 
would be equally true to say that it flowers only 
once in a thousand years. This latter statement, 
however, requires a little explanation, inasmuch as 
it is open to contradiction. The genus Agave belongs 



GEEEX- HOUSE PLANTS. 



69 



to the natural order AmaryUidacece, and may be di- 
vided into two sections — ^one of wliieh produces a 
ramose flower-scape thirty or forty feet high, resem- 
bling a large candelabrum, of which A. Americana 
gives an apt illustration ; the second section, of which 
A. Jilifera may be taken as a type, produces a simple 



flowered at an earlier date, but it would appear that 
these reports were incorrect, and refer to smaller 
species which had been introduced under the name of 
" American Aloes ; " and instances of their flowering 
are still so rare that w^hen such a fact is announced 
it never fails to attract a large concourse of visitors. 





Agave pilifera. a, flo'.ver; b, end of leaf. 



scape only, on which the flowers are usually densely 
crowded towards the upper part. In the case of the 
first section, death invariably ensues after flowering ; 
( but in the other, plants do sometimes survive the 
flowering state, when the spike is produced from a 
lateral and not the terminal bud. The American 
Agave appears to have first flowered in England 
about the year 1729. It had been reported to have 



The cultivation of Agaves is extremely simple; 
in fact, no class of plants can be managed so 
easily. The flrst essential is thorough drainage, 
without which these plants wiU. soon take on a 
sickly yellow hue and rapidly die ; but di-ain the pots 
well, use stiff j-ellow loam for the large-growing 
kinds, and a rather lighter loam for the less robust, 
and that is all that is required in the way of soiL 



70 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GARDENING. 



During summer expose them to the full influence of 
the sun without any shade, and give them an abun- 
dant supi^ly of water ; during winter, however, very 
little will be required, but they should not be 
allowed to dry sufiicicntly to shrivel their leaves. 
If Agaves have to be accommodated in a mixed col- 
lection of green-house plants, they should during 
winter be placed at the driest end of the house, and 
any damp or mildew kept from them. 

Selections. — The following are amongst the most 
attractive species, divided into two sections, large 
and small-growing, so that our readers may select 
for themselves according to the space at their com- 
mand ; — 

I. — Large-growing Kinds. 



A. Americana. 



A. 

A. amseua. 
A. Celsiana. 
A. coccinea. 
A. densiflora. 
A. ferox. 
A. Hookeriana. 
A. Humboldtiana 
A. Jacobiaiia. 



medio-picta 
striata, 
variegata. 



A. Jacquiniana. 
A. Karatto. 
A. Kellockii. 
A. macrocantha. 
A. Maximilliana. 
A. mitrseformis. 
A. potatorum. 
A. pugioniformis. 
A. Sahniaua. 
A. iinivittata, 
A. Xalapensis. 
A. Xylacantha. 



II. — Small-growing Kinds. 



A. Applanata. 

A. Besseriaua. 

A. „ Candida. 

A. Corderoyi. 

A. cuspidata. 

A. de Suietiana. 

A. ensiformis. 

A. filifera. 

A. Galeotii. 

A. gemmiflora. 

A. Ghiesbreghtii. 



A. horrida. 

A. liystrix. 

A. ,, Isevior 

A. Leopoldii. 

A. Poselgerii. 

A. Regelii. 

A. scabra. 

A. schidigera. 

A. Seeinani. 

A. Verscliatt'eltii. 

A. Warreliana. 



THE EOSE AND ITS CULTURE, 

By D. T. Fish. 



BUIAU AND OTHER STOCKS FOR ROSES. 
TT}0 prevent the possibility of mistake, the term 
X " briar " throughout this chapter is used in a 
technical sense, and may be said briefly to include ail 
wild Eases fit for stocks, with the single and most 
important exception of the Sweet-briar, which is not 
fit for the purpose, or rather makes such a bad stock 
as not to be recommended for use. More particu- 
larly, however, the term " briar " here is employed 
to denote one species of Rose, the Dog-rose, or Hosa 
canina, with its five or six varieties. This is un- 
doubtedly the best of all British or European wild 
Roses for stocks, though on the Continent several 
others are used, notably Rosa villosa, or any other 
free-growing wilding of the woods. 

The Continental demand for very tall stocks 
renders a wider selection necessary, and it is no 
uncommon thing in France to find standard or 



weeping Roses worked on stems from ten to fifteen 
feet high. The French seem to have been the first 
to introduce the fashion of standards, and they prob- 
ably excel all others in the matter of height. Their 
tall standards have been and still are popular, and 
have created a considerable trade as well as a rage 
for imitation in other countries. They also treat 
them differently, and manage to convert them into 
Rose-trees sooner than most others. Instead of 
waiting for the development of lateral shoots to 
receive buds at midsummer (see Budding, in the 
next chapter upon Propagating Roses) they place 
from one to a dozen buds on the upper jiortion of 
the main stem in the spring. These generally take, 
and the stock becomes a Rose before the English 
ones are fit to bud. 

Briar Stocks. — The only Rose stocks known 
or thought of a few years since were those tall 
wildings of our woods and hedge-rows. They 
were valued more for giving elevation to Roses, than 
as modes of rapidly increasing their numbers. A 
few were collected in the early winter, planted any 
time from November to February, budded the suc- 
ceeding June — thus simply finishing the matter of 
Rose stocks for the year. 

Now, briar -hunting, carriage, planting, and culture 
have risen to the dignity of a trade. Those not 
conversant with the magnitude of the Rose industry 
can have no idea of the thousands and tens of 
thousands collected and planted every year. Nvo-sery 
gardens have been crowded, and the surplus stock of 
briars have overflown into fields, and furnished not a 
few farms. And still the briar trade grows. Woods 
as well as hedge-rows are scoured every year all over 
the country, and few briars of any height or merit 
escape the keen eyes and sharp mattocks of the briar- 
men. On some lines of rail, truck-loads of briars are 
almost as plentiful in November and December as 
coals. And yet the more collected the faster they 
seem to grow, and next year, and again the next, 
the briar appears in larger quantity than ever. 

"WHiat may be called the natural supply of wild- 
ing stocks has hitherto satisfied the apparently 
insatiable demand for standard Roses, that is, such 
as are mounted on foreign stilts or stocks of heights 
varying from eighteen inches to seven feet. The 
majority of these standards, however, are between 
three and four feet high. 

Many attempts have been made of late years to 
laugh these tall Roses down. But it seems they only 
increase the faster. They appear to thrive on ridi- 
cule, and only to " take in " additional fields or 
farms, the more keen and sharp the ridicule becomes. 

Doubtless standard briars fill a usefxd place in the 
garden. Being also first in the field, they hold their 



THE EOSE AXD ITS CULTrRE. 



n 



0"wii firmly against all comers. Their mere eleva- 
tion imparts dignity to the Eose which crowns them, 
and they can he converted into a noble tree-rose 
within nine months or less of the time of planting. 

General Treatment of Standard Briars. 

— So soon as received trim and plant; if this is im- 
possible, lay in by the heels so soon as received. 
These briars have very few roots in the proper sense 
of the word, and the few they have are mostly air 
or sun-dried or frost-bitten before they reach the 
cultivator. Hence the greater need of prompt at- 
tention and planting. 

A thorough and proper pruning of standard 




Fig. 6. — Briar in its Natural State as 
dug up from Hedge-row. 



briars must precede the j)lanting, and extend to the 
roots as well as the tops. The former are often 
represented by large pieces of underground stems 
(Fig. 6). These may generally be shortened back to 
within, three or foiu: inches of the root-stocks or boles. 
The tops may also in most cases be shortened back 
so as to leave the stem tolerably straight (Fig. 7). 
All snags should also be cut or sawn clean off by 
the stem. The best implements for this sort of 
work are a small hand-bill and a handy pruning- 
saw. 

Best Place for Briar Stocks. — To grow Dog- 
rose stocks well, the soil should be equal to that re- 
commended for Eose-trees. They have been accus- 
tomed to endure hardness on banks and in hedge- 
rows ; but in the budding- grounds they must have 
something good to feed upon, if they are to form 
strong foster-mothers for the coming Eoser. A nice 
snug border in the kitchen garden suits them well. 



Distance to Plant Standard Briars.— 

A yard between the rows, and from six inches to a 
foot from plant to plant, are the usual distances. A 
better way is to plant two rows, the plants alternately, 
not oj)posite, nine inches or a foot apart, and leave 
a space of four or five feet between the dual rows. 
This affords greater facility of access for disbudding, 
budding, and other necessary operations among the 
stocks. 

Pirm Planting. — In order to insure this and 
to dispense with the need of stakes — and, indeed, 
these are impossible on a large scale — the tempta- 
tion is strong to plant too deeply. By thrusting 




Fig, 8. — Briar witli Eoot and 
Top grown on towards 
Buddable Condition. 

the root-stump into the earth a foot or so, and 
treading the soil firmly aroimd its stem, the stan- 
dard briar bears the wind with impunity. But on no 
account should they be planted more than half that 
depth, treading them in fiiTtily after being filled up. 
There should always be two to plant briar standards 
— one to use the spade, and the other to place and 
hold up the briar until the earth makes it secure. 
Amateurs who plant a moderate nimiber of briars 
should stake each one, or run a rail attached to a 
few tall posts along the line to keep the briars in 
position, not only when j^lanted, but afterwards 
when they have formed heads. 

Disbudding and the Removal of Suckers. 

— After planting, nothing more will be required till 
the spring. So soon as the buds begin to appear, all 
should be removed but two or three of the most 
forward and best-placed on the briar standard. As 
a rule these will be found.nearer the top of the briar. 




Fig. 7.— Briar witli Eoot and 
Top Pruned for Planting. 



72 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GAKDENING. 



not always, however; and the strongest and "best 
should be left wherever found, the stocks heing 
afterwards headed down to these. All suckers should 
be followed up to their originating roots, and re- 
moved close to the root-stocks. Were this simple 
plan invariably acted upon, the plague of suckers 
would be unknown among cultivated Eoses. 



up of standard briars, multitudes of roots of various 
sizes are met with. These, if carefully collected, 
cut into lengths of six inches or a foot, and planted 
at once, leading the upper ends an inch or so from 
the surface, will grow into good stocks for dwarf 
Eoses. The process of forming fresh roots and 
growing into plants will be much hastened if such 




EOSA BRUNOyil. 



Caterpillars, grubs, and other insects will some- 
times appear very early, and must be removed or 
destroyed at once. Thus treated the stocks will 
speedily grow into condition for budding. That 
fascinating art will be fully taught in our next 
chapter, on the Propagation of Eoses. 

Briar -roots. — These are far from ha\'ing re- 
ueived the attention they deserve. In the grubbing 



roots are jjlaced in warmth for a few weeks before 
planting. As they take no harm buried in the soil, 
they might remain thus till February, be laid in a 
gentle hot-bed all through March, and be either 
worked in that state and again subjected to heat, or 
planted out in April, and grown in the open a year 
or so before being worked. 

Briar Cuttings. — These now fai^ exceed in 



THE EOSE AND ITS CULTURE. 



78 



number and importance tlie standard briars, while 
briar-roots as stocks have never been popular. 
Entering some Eose nurseries towards the end 
of the year, one's first thought might well be, 
"They are going into the fire-lighting trade." 
Huge heaps of small pieces of stick from nine inches 
to eighteen or more long are scattered about, and 



With proper care in the selection, insertion, and 
after-treatment of the cuttings, the majority of these 
will root firmly, and the whole may be grafted or 
budded within one year, or at the most eighteen 
months or two years, of the time of insertion. Unless 
in very dry weather in the spring or summer after 
planting, when a good soaking of water might prove 




EOSA CANINA. 



little but the sharp sound of the bill-hook is heard 
as it chops away from morning to night, adding to 
the size of the heap. These are briar cuttings ; and 
presently after the chopping will come the planting ; 
and acre after acre of these will be planted in closely- 
crowded rows from eighteen inches to two feet apart, 
and from six to nine inches between the cuttings. 
These are generally dug and trod firmly in as the work 
proceeds, leaving from two to four eyes above ground. 



useful, all the attention these cuttings need till they 
are worked is keeping clear of weeds. 

Seedling Briar Stocks.— These are the most 
formidable rivals to standard briars and briar 
cuttings that have yet appeared. Were it not 
for the fact that the seeds vegetate slowly, and 
come up at irregular intervals over a period of 
two years, and that the plants in many localities 



74 



CASSELL'S rOPULAR GARDENINa. 



grow very slowly during their first stages, these 
seedlings would doubtless soon supersede all other 
stocks for Roses. As it is, they are multiplying 
in all directions, and one large grower for sale ad- 
vertises as the highest recommendation that all the 
Roses sent out from his firm are worked on the 
seedling briar. Others are equally enthusiastic in 
favour of briar cuttings. However, there is little 
doubt that the seedling briar will continue to be 
a favourite stock among rosaiians. 

The supply is virtually unlimited, for few plants 
seed more profusely than the Dog-rose. With a view, 
however, of having pure stocks, or strains of seeds, 
several nurserymen have begun to grow their own 
seeds. This is important, for in a bundle of seedling 
briars lately to hand there was a large percentage 
of Sweet-bx-iar, useless as a stock, and numerous 
other species of Rose besides that of liosa canina. 

Time and Modes of Sowing Briar-seeds. 

• — As to time, so soon as rixDe, or in the spring, are 
the only two seasons, and the first is the best. 
Nothing is gained — a good deal, the seed itself, may 
be lost or greatly injured — by being kept till the 
spring. Rub the seeds out of the hips, mix them 
with a little dry sand and part them from the chaffy 
matter that envelops them, and sow at once. This 
prevents the trouble and risk of drying, and the 
seeds are safer in the earth than in bags or drawers. 

On the Continent it is customary to sow the seeds 
under glass so soon as gathered, or in February or 
March. They vegetate much sooner under this 
extra warmth ; and as the season advances the glass 
may be almost entirely withdrawn. Place it over 
them, however, next winter, and the following spring 
line out the j)lants in drills a foot apart, and two or 
three inches from plant to plant. After a second 
season's growth most of them will be fit to graft or 
bud, and it is said that the French and other Con- 
tinental seedling briars are almost as large again for 
their age as the English. 

But the seeds may be safely reared in the open 
air, either sown when gathered, or in the spring 
after interlayering with sand through the winter. 
8ow the seeds broadcast in beds, covering with at least 
two inches of light compost, or in drills from two to 
three inches apart, and from six inches to fifteen 
between the rows. Keep free of weeds, and occa- 
sionally water in dry weather, not only as a stimulant 
to growth, but as a preventive of mildew. Some of 
the finest plants should be thinned out, and placed at 
wider intervals apart towards the end of the season. 
As many of the seedlings will be very small, and part 
of the seeds may not have yet vegetated, the safest 
way of removing the finest plants to new quarters is 
to thoroughly soak the seed-beds or rows, or choose 



a dripping time for the operation. Carefully loosen 
up beds or rows with a fork, and then draw out all 
the finest plants. A slight top-dressing and raking 
smooth afterwards will make the original seed-beds 
or lines safe, and the partial disturbance and dress- 
ing will act as a stimulant to growth. 

The plants removed will have their quill-like roots 
almost as long as the tops (Fig. 9, No. 1). These 




Fig. 9.— Seedling Briars, 1, root unprunecl ; 
2, root and top shortened ; 3, after bud- 
oing or grafting, and further growth, 
showing the modifying power of the 
Eose on the briar-root. 



should be pruned off within four or 
six inches of the root-stock or collar 
of the seedling, the collar being the 
dividing line betw-een root and stem, 
as in No. 2. After a year's growth, 
soon after budding or grafting, No. 2 ^\ill develop 
into a rooted state like No. 3. Plant at once in 
light rich soil, and should they do well many of 
these will be fit to graft by the autumn of the second 
year — the majority when three years old. 

These seedling briar stocks, if budded or grafted 
very low, seem to lose most of the rough, coarse and 
rambling peculiarity of Dog-rose roots, and form 
fibrous masses of rootlets more like those formed by 
Roses on their own roots, the tops thus perhaps domi- 
nating the root-form and development of the young 
foster-mother (Fig. 9, No. 3) . Certainly it seems that 
seedling briars worked early and worked low, almost 



THE EOSE AND ITS CULTUEE. 



75 



on the root-stock itself, lose their potency in the 
production of suckers. Further still, in confirmation 
of the change of root-form, and its natural results, it 
is found that Eoses worked early on the seedling 
"briar are more floriferous than those worked on 
other stocks, not even excepting the hriar cutting. 
Hence the very smallness of the stock in the case of 
seedling briars may cause the whole of it to he more 
thoroughly assimilated to the character and pui-- 
pose of the Eose — that of producing a profusion of 
hloom chiefly. Certain it is, that Tea-roses worked 
on seedling briars grow better and bloom more than 
those on any other stock. 

Other Rose Stocks. — Among these, almost 
the only one that threatens to rival those ah-eady 
named is the De la Grifferaie, a variety of the 
]\Iultiflora Eose, sent out many years ago. It 
is a good climbing Eose, blooming in large clus- 
ters, with a robust habit and fine foliage. Its 
chief merit, however, is its free-rooting, growing, 
and taking qualities, which render it valuable as a 
stock. It roots as freely as the INIanetti, and Tea 
and other Eoses worked on this stock grow as rapidly 
or more so than on any other. The old Celina, Coupe 
d'Hebe, Charles Lawson, Crimson Boursault, Pink 
and other Chinese or monthly Eoses, the Banksian, 
and such robust-growing Teas as Gloire de Dijon, 
and Gloire de Bordeaux, have likewise been used 
successfully as stocks. One of the newest stocks is 
that of Rosa polyantha^ a single white, sweet-scented 
Eose from Japan. This is a vigorous-growing, free- 
rooting Eose, the stems running up so raj^idly that it 
may even be useful for forming standards, and so 
become a rival to the natural briar of our woods and 
hedge-rows. 

The rapid production by artificial means of stems 
sufiiciently tall and strong for forming standardH, is 
still a desideratum in Eose stocks, and probably such 
s^Qoie^SiQ Rosa pohjantha, E. Briinonii (see illustration), 
R. Caucasia, and the Crimson Boursault might help 
to supply this want. There are almost any number 
of dwarf stocks to supply all the rosarian's needs ; but 
when he wants tall standards he must still betake 
him to the woods and hedge-rows in search of them. 
It seems high time that this haphazard hunting 
for briars should cease, and -that the trade should 
grow their thousands and tens of thousands of 
standard stocks, straight as arrows, and full of 
fibrous roots as the most exacting could demand. A 
good deal towards this much-to-be-desired result 
might be done by judicious selections of seeds from 
the best strains of the Dog-rose, Rosa canina (see 
illustration), not only throughout this country, but 
Europe. There are a good many varieties of this 
species, some more and others less suitable for 



stocks. Possibly a cross with some of our hardy 
climbing Eoses, or such sp)ecies as those just indi- 
cated, might result in stocks as long as fishing- 
rods, and almost as strong, within three years or so, 
just the strains for making standard Eoses. 

For dwarf Eoses the rosarian has a profusion 
of stocks, and is perplexed with the difficulties of 
selection. For open-air culture, probably the 
seedling briar, briar cuttings, the Manetti, and the 
De la Grifieraie are on the whole the best and 
the most easily provided, in quantity. Such semi- 
tender stocks as the Banksian, Teas, and Chinas, 
should be used chiefly for Eoses to be grown under 
glass. 

The Manetti Rose Stock. — This Eose is 
still grown by its thousands and tens of thousands. 
It is a free-growing Eose of Italian origin, in- 
troduced into this coimtry about forty years ago, 
and first brought into prominent notice as a stock 
b}^ the late ]Mr. Thomas Elvers, of Sawbridge- 
worth, Herts. Being a most luxm-iant grower and 
a free rooter from cuttings, and buds and grafts alike 
taking upon it with exceptional freedom, and grow- 
ing upon it with unexampled rapidity, it soon be- 
came a fashion, then a rage, almost a furore. It 
threatened to banish all other stocks for dwarfs out 
of the garden. For mere growth, and growing on 
light soils, perhaps, there is no stock to match the 
Manetti. It is still so good that no rosarian should 
be without it, as it has special merits of its own, 
already pointed out. Probably more dwarf Eoses ar;3 
on the Manetti at this moment than on any other 
stock, and hence a good batch of cuttings of it should 
be at once inserted. 

They may be made, planted, and treated exactly 
as seedling briars, November being the best month 
to make and plant Manetti cuttings. Custom and 
the most successf\il practice have also agreed in 
budding the Manetti low. This gives the Eose at 
planting two strings to its bow ; it may either use 
the roots of its foster-mother as permanent hel^js, or 
may starve them off so soon as it can form roots of 
its own. The Manetti stock is equally suitable for 
either method, or the modem one more generally 
adopted — that of running two sets of roots abreast, 
to the fuller feeding and more powerful stimulation 
of the Eose. 

Special Stocks for Different Roses.— 

In the present state of our knowledge compara- 
tively little can be said on this subject. Singulailv 
enough, however, some curious facts have been esta- 
blished. Such, for example, as that the Banksian 
has proved one of the very best stocks for the 
Marshal Xiel; that the seedling briar is, on the 



76 



CASSELL'S POPULAB GARDENING. 



whole, the best stock for Teas ; that the Manetti is 
admirable for Hybrid Perpetuals. Eoses on this last 
stock are also earlier than on any other, with the 
exception of the Gloire de Dijon, which is one of the 
e uiiest as well as very best stocks for early Eoses. 
But a halt must be called, lest the region of fact be 
forsaken for that of fancy ; as the question of special 
s:;ocks for particular Eoses is as yet in a nebulous 
state, and what is here stated is ahead rather than 
s;mply abreast of what is absolutely proved on the 
subject. The time may probably come when, instead 
of being dependent on wilding Dogs, the art of 
raising and selecting Eose stocks will have been so 
perfected, and their natural or acquired affinities so 
thoroughly understood and appreciated, that almost 
oveiy leading tyj)e of Eose will have its own stock, 
and thus be mated to the foster-mother that suits it 
best. 

" Tills IS an Art 
Which does mend Nature ; change it rather j but 
The Art itself is Nature." 



GAEDEN WALKS AND EOADS. 



BOADS AND LARGER WALKS. 

TO make a garden without providing sufficient 
means of ingress and egress, is like hanging 
pictures in a cellar with only one narrow staircase 
leading down into its dingy light. The pictures 
may be gems of art, but they cannot be seen to 
any advantage, nor visited with any ease or com- 
fort. It is just so with not a few gardens. They 
are full of gems of art and fine examples of natm-al 
beauty, but they cannot be ^dsited with any pleasure, 
unless during exceptionally fine weather. Even in 
summer, when the gardens are full of beauty, a pass- 
ing shower or day's rain renders the walks that lead 
to them soft and miry, and at times veritable sloughs 
of despond, from which ladies have been only too 
glad to escape, leaving their shoes behind them. 

Admitting that such very bad walks are rare, 
it is to be hoped that for all future time they 
will become impossible. A demesne without good 
roads, as a garden without good walks, is shorn 
of fully one-half its charms.' Facile and cleanly 
access to and return from house and garden are 
vital factors to their full enjojTnent. Much has 
been said and written about the line of beauty 
in both, and that we will endeavour to illustrate 
alike by precept and example ; but the direction is 
of far less moment than the quality. It is very 
much a matter of taste whether walks or roads 
should be straight or curved, stiff or meandering, 
offensively formal or softly melting into flowing lines 
of beauty ; but it is an affair of absolute necessity 



that they should be hard and dry, and inadhesive in 
all weathers. Even the Garden of Eden would have 
failed to give j)leasure had oui' first parents had. to 
walk ■ through its blissful bowers handicapped with 
half a stone of sludge on either fuot. 

The radical fault in road and walk making consists 
in trusting to the material employed rather than to the 
proper preparation of the ground as the basis of per- 
fection in either : because stones, brickbats, builder's 
refuse, burnt earth, gravel, are hard and porous, and 
a foot or more of these is used to form good roads or 
walks, therefore these must continue good and dry. 
This popular error has caused more failures in this 
useful branch of civil engineering than all other 
fallacies put together. To give another extreme 
example to illustrate our point : try these hard ma- 
terials on a swamp ; they would simply disappear, 
like the mountain of earth that George Stephenson 
tipped into Chat Moss before it would carry his rails 
or carriages across. In a lesser degree, but by virtue 
of the operation of similar laws, millions of tons of 
road and walk materials are being lost or utterly 
ruined every year through resting on wet bottoms. 
The process of deterioration is slower, but equally 
sure as if the stones were cast into a morass ; they 
simply sink into the mire ; or, by vii'tue of the con- 
stant filtration of earthy j)articles from the upper 
strata of the road or walk, or the passage of rain- 
water, the mass of the road materials become assimi- 
lated to the character and consistency of mud. 

The Foundation. — Another almost equally 
common and mischievous fallacy is that the materials 
are, in fact, the road, and bear the weight of the 
traffic ; on the contrary, these are so much dead weight 
added to the foundation of the road; that is, the 
earth. It is the latter, not the former, that carries 
the entire burden of the traffic, whether carriage 
or jjedestrian, plus the weight of the rubbish, 
stone, gravel, employed in making and maintaining 
the roads. Hence the vital importance of strength- 
ening the foundation of our roads and walks before 
j^roceeding to make them. Just as the stability 
of our noblest buildings depends on the solidity 
and massiveness of their foundations, so also does 
the excellency and dirrability of our roads and 
walks. As to mass of - base, we have a sufficiency, 
for the wide area of garden or demesne is at om- 
disposal. But we may add to the durability and 
buttress the solidity of our base in two ways : by 
intercejDting the surface water from above, and 
cutting off the rising water from below. The first 
is done by as nearly as possible rendering our road 
materials waterproof, and so placing surface drains 
as to remove quickly any excess of surface water 
that may lodge on the sui'face. Both of these, how- 



GAKDEN WALKS AND EOADS. 



77 



ever, may be more properly discussed under the 
heads of Eoad-making- and Maintenance. 

But the interception and removal of all earth 
springs, and thus laying and keeping the foundation 
of the road or walk dry, should precede any attempt 
at making- either. Hence the thorough drainage 
of the roadway is the first vital step in road-making ; 
so important is this, that if not taken the others 
should not be attempted. 

The deeper almost, in reason, the drainage can be 
carried the better, as the thicker the strata of dry 
soil beneath the roadway the better it will be, the 
longer it will last, and the less road material need 
be used to make and keep it good. The latter is a 
point of the utmost moment, as dry earth on the spot 
costs \drtually nothing, while stone or gravel may 
range in price from three to ten shillings per square 
yard ; and yet, bulk for bulk, dry earth forms as 
strong a foundation as either. 

In practice, it is found that a layer of dry earth 
under a road, from two to 
four feet deep, generally 
suffices for a solid founda- 
tion for the road material. 
Hence, a drain four feet 
deep will generally be 
found sufficient. This may 
be formed either of tiles or 
stones, and should be made 
with more than ordinary 
care, alike in regard to 
material and fall, as it is 

obvious that it cannot be got at afterwards without 
destropng the road or walk. (See chapter on 
Draining.) 

The best place for the drain is the centre of the 
road, and, unless in the case of very wide carriage- 
roads, terraces, or walks, one drain will prove suffi- 
cient ; where these, however, exceed twelve feet in 
width, and the soil is very wet or adhesive, one drain 
on each side may be necessary. 

The form of the earthy base of the road is the 
next point claiming notice. As a general rule, there 
is no sounder one in theory, nor safer one in practice, 
than that it should be an exact counterpart of the form 
of the surface, that is, slightly convex in the middle, 
the degree of convexity being determined by the 
width, a ratio of an inch to six feet being a good 
proportion. The earth should then be made as 
hard and smooth as possible, ramming in the soil 
over the drain with the utmost care, so that its 
subsidence should not destroy the form of the road 
afterwards ; and so likely is this to happen, con- 
solidate as we may by artificial means, that, where 
practicable, it is safe practice to excavate and drain 
the roadway on walks some time before they are 



Fig. 1.— Section of 

Convex Surface 



made. jSTeither must it be supposed that all roads 
and walks need deep drainage. On light, sandy 
soils, chalky gravel lands, the soil and subsoils 
are mostly sufficiently dry to carry roadways or 
walks, without this extra trouble and expense. But 
in nearly all heavy loams and clays, the first cost of 
thorough drainage will be found by far the least in 
the end. 

The Surface. — As to the depth of road material 
necessary, that varies somewhat according to its 
quality and the nature of the base on which it rests ; 
as already remarked, the drier the latter the less road 
material will be needed. Its function is simple, not 
compoimd. It neither carries nor is the road ; its chief 
function, like that of iron rails on the line, is to reduce 
friction to a minimum by its hardness, and prevent 
the wear and tear of the foundation of the road. 
Hence, the ratio of its thickness may be measiu'ed 
by the degree of its impenetrability : the harder it 
is the thinner it may be. 
Thus, six inches of gTanite 
on a dry base would form 
a better road than sixteen 
inches of mixed road mate- 
rial of indifferent quality. 

Uniformity of hardness, 
as well as of size and 
thickness of road mate- 
rial, are of the highest 
importance to the stability 
and uniform quality of 
roads and walks. The importance of the first and 
the last will be at once apparent to all. The impor- 
tance of uniformity of size is but little understood 
in theory, and still more rarely attended to m 
practice. But a moment's consideration will show 
that every time a carriage-wheel mounts on to the 
summit of a stone larger than the average, it gains a 
coign of vantage with which to come down with 
such additional force as to scoop out a hole more or 
less deep upon the general surface of the road. 
Hence the tendency of all such roads is to become 
worse and worse. The luts become deeper by every 
undue momentum of the revohdng wheels, and the big 
stones help to cut the smaller ones through, to the 
utter destruction of the road. Uniformity of size in 
the road material would remove the most potent and 
ever-present destructive force from our roadways. 
Uniformity of hardness is almost of equal moment. 
Supposing granite here, and hard flints or brickbats 
fm-ther on, the granite would become a powerful 
means of smashing the latter into sheer uselessness, 
all the sooner by the operation of the same causes 
and laws as those already described. Similar evils, 
though in lesser degree, would follow inequalities 




showing Level Ease, with 
and Drain at Side. 



78 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



of thickness : one part of the road would be worn 
through before the others ; the drawing strain on 
the horses increased, and unequally distributed; 
and the amount of friction, that is, the power of the 
road to resist the passage of the load over it, greatly 
augmented. 

Smoothness and hardness of surface are the next 
points of most moment. The more perfectly these 
qualities are develoj)ed the more nearly will the road 
itself be rendered waterproof, and consequently the 
greater its force of resistance, and the longer it will 
resist the wear and tear of traffic. Fortified by rest- 
ing on a solid dry base, and the materials of the 
roads compacted into a solid mass of uniform quality, 
thoy become well-nigh indestructible under ordinary 
traffic, while the smoothness and hardness of surface 
reduce the friction to a minimum. Such roads, with 
but slight repairs, last a lifetime ; whereas, those 
indifferently made are ever on the anvil of constant 
repair, and seldom or never in good condition. 

All these general principles of construction apply 
equally to much-frequented walks as to roads, and as 
the former have often to bear pony and hand carriage 
traffic for invalids and children, and in larger places 
not seldom regular carriage traffic, it is equally im- 
portant that they should be well made. Besides, the 
qualities here indicated are almost as important for 
pedestrian as for carriage traffic, and the strain of 
crowds of people on the walks of public and private 
g-ardens upon fete and open- day occasions, now for- 
tunately so common, is as great if not greater than 
that arising from moderate carriage traffic. 

Construction. — The following practical instruc- 
tions regarding construction will be equally ap23licable 
to first-class walks, and roads. The drainage and pre- 
paration of the ground have already been described. 
Instead of following the line of surface, some, how- 
Gver, prefer to make the base or earth line level or 
slightly concave instead of convex in the centre 
(a b. Fig. 1). This is suj)posed to insure more tho- 
rough drainage, the water falling from each side of 
the road into the middle and so into the drains. Per- 
liaps, indeed, this form is more generally adopted than 
any other. In the illustration only one drain is shown, 
and that at the side. But, where needful, another 
could be carried along the other side. From the posi- 
tion of the overflow drain under the grating, it will be 
seen that this may be carried along under the centre of 
the roadway, and thus help to drain the road, as welt 
as be placed in the best position for running drains 
into it from either side, as may be needful. The 
drains immediately under the gratings are carried 
deeper than the overflow drains for the collection of 
sediment, which can readily be removed, so as to 
prevent the main drain from being silted up. The 



prompt removal of surface water by some such 
means as this, is of immense importance in insuring 
the stability and durability of roads. The convex 
surface also enables rather more material to be used 
on the crown of the road, where it is said there is 
the most friction. This, however, is doubtful, and 
runs contrary to one of the A'ital principles abeady 
advanced — uniformity of thickness of road material 
over the entire surface. 

Then as to the depth of materials. As wide a 
range exists in practice as that included between 
nine and eighteen inches — a foot on a solid dry soil 
base is ample, nine inches being a good average. 
As to materials, anything from small fagots to the 
hardest granite, iron-slag, and the most binding con- 
cretes and gravel, is used. 

In situations where fagot-wood is plentiful and 
road material scarce and dear, a layer at least four 
inches in thickness of fagots may be used with 
advantage. Covered over with road material, and 
thus excluded from air and water to a great ex- 
tent, it is astonishing how long the sprigs of trees 
and shrubs will last under a roadway, and how 
noiseless and elastic such roads continue for a period 
of from twenty to thirty years. But the use of this 
— relatively to good stone such perishable material 
— is almost confined to carriage-drives and roads 
through woods, &c. 

A more common base for roads is a layer of ballast 
or burnt marl or clay. This is hard and porous almost 
as brickbats, forming a capital secondary base on the 
dry earth. Builders' refuse, the waste slag, clinkers, 
&:c., from iron furnaces and foundries, and stones of 
all sorts, the harder the better, should follow. Eoads 
subjected to hea^y traffic should have a sui'face 
stratum of from four to six inches deep of pure 
granite, or other hard stones, such as greenstone, 
porphyry, basalt, <S:c. ; neither can these stones be 
broken too small for the surface — from one and a half 
to two inches in diameter, the pieces weighing from 
four to six ounces, being the largest that should be 
employed. Where a surfacing of gravel is used 
over the granite, as is mostly the case in carriage- 
roads, the pieces may approach to double these 
weights and sizes. But the smaller the stones on the 
surface, the sooner they will blend into an impervious 
and impenetrable mass, and the longer the road will 
last. A road nine inches or a foot deep, with a 
layer of burnt earth and of hard stones of unequal 
size, the lower being the largest, and each layer as 
nearly as may be of uniform-sized stones, either with 
or without a surfacing of gravel, would be virtually 
indestructible under ordinary traffic, and with the 
slightest attention to repairs. 

As soon as finished, rake perfectly smooth ; water 
heavily should the material and weather be dry. 



GAEDEN" WALKS AND EOADS. 



79 



and roll until hard and smooth. The above ma- 
terials may be varied to almost infinity, still being 
guided by the same general jDrinciples. For ex- 
ample : in chalky districts, chalk and the flints with 
which it is generally sandwiched will form capital 
roads, with a surfacing of gravel. Those who use 
flints should see that they are well weathered flrst, 
as exposm-e to the aii' for a year or two hardens them. 
Chalk usually forms a capital base for roads. Stones 
also abound in many places ; gas-retort clinkers, iron 
furnace and foimdry refuse, in others : all these, or, 
indeed, any hard substances, may be used with or 
substituted for the granite and gravel already 
referred to. Common concrete, formied of six parts 
of coarse gravel or stone, and one of quicklime, 
forms a good road. The same may be said of tar 
and clinkers or slag broken fine, and mixed so as 
to set hard. The durability and smoothness of 
asphalte roads are well known. Most of these kinds 
of roads and walks have been condemned for gardens 
and demesnes on account of their appearance and 
smell. The latter may be entirely got rid of by 
using Eoman or Portland cement instead of tar, or 
by a hea^y surfacing of gravel. By choosing the 
colour of the gravel to taste, the colour diflSculty 
also disappears. 

The most perfect carriage-road ever seen by the 
writer was formed of concrete about six inches 
thick, made of the refuse of an iron foundry and 
gas-tar, and just before being firmly set a layer of 
finely-broken red sandstone was rolled into the road, 
the result being that the surface was vii-tually com- 
posed of minute pieces of the latter, the whole being 
as hard as iron, neither carriage nor hea\dly-laden 
waggon making the slightest impression on the road. 
A garden walk even more beautiful was formed of 
one part of coal-tar, and six of coal-ashes, heavily 
sprinkled with Derbyshire s^Dar before setting hard. 
At first sight this walk looked like an inlaid marble 
table ; it was as hard as granite, and glistened in the 
sunlight like flashing jewels on the brow of beauty. 

Taking into account that such roads and walks 
made once, may be said to be made for a lifetime, 
that they cost nothing for repair, need no keeping, 
weeds and worms alike failing to get foothold or live 
on such, it is astonishing that such materials are so 
little used for the making of carriage-roads and 
fronts, and garden walks and terraces. 

Width, of Walks and Roads.— As to the 

width of roads, that should be determined to some 
extent by their length. None, however, should be 
narrower than nine feet, few need be more than 
eighteen or twenty-four feet. The first is not 
any too wide for two carriages to pass each other 
with safety ; the second is suflBciently so for the 



longest road in a ducal demesne. From ten to 
twelve feet is a capital average width. Few things 
look more mean than a narrow carriage-drive to a 
large demesne ; nothing more snobbish than an 
eighteen or twenty-four feet road through a very 
small one — a pretentious stump perhaps not two 
hundred yards in length. The law of true pro- 
portion and congruity, if allowed free course, would 
prevent such mistakes. 

From twelve to eighteen feet are capital widths for 
carriage-roads, and none to private residences need 
exceed twenty-four; roads that width should be a 
mile or more — the more the better — in length. The 
road should also be of uniform width throughout. 
This is very often not the case : the road starts boldly 
from mansion or lodge, with a stately dignity and 
grandeur, and gradually narrows and narrows, as if 
threatening to end in a squirrel-track and run up a 
tree. Those who construct their roads thus are likely 
to bring down on their work more ridicule than those 
who begin to build and are not able to finish. Of 
course, there are at times local obstacles and circum- 
stances, such as rocks, rivers, ravines, hills, which 
render the narrowing of roads a matter of necessity. 
There is, in such cases, no objection to be taken on 
the ground of taste, as the reason is at once apparent. 
Bvit nothing can be in worse taste than boldness and 
breadth at one or both ends, and the utmost degree 
of narrowness and attenuation consistent with safety 
throughout the greater part of the road. AU car- 
riage-roads and roads in pleasure-grounds should 
also be made of easy gradients throughout ; and, for- 
tunately for their possessors, the line of safety is also, 
as a rule, the line of beauty. 

Carriage-sweeps. — The area of gravel ter- 
races or roadways in front of the main entrance 
should always be ample, but not excessive, and should 
bear a strict relation to the size of the house, breadth 
and length of carriage-road, requirements of the 
family, &c. As a rule, it should furnish standing- 
room for from six to a dozen or eighteen carriages. 
The space may therefore need to vary from three 
hundred to three thousand square yards. The first 
might sufiice for the front of a good country resi- 
dence, the latter not prove excessive for that of a 
duke or a prince. For Aolla, subui-ban, or other 
residences, sufficient space to reach the house, turn 
round, and depart in safety, is all that is needful. 
And for such, notwithstanding what has been said 
above, a road carried round a clump of di-essy trees 
or shrubs in the centre is not seldom the most con- 
venient, and almost the only practicable arrange- 
ment. The shrubs, when planted to form an ellipse 
or circle, at once define the course of the road, and 
effectually shut out the front door and windows of 



80 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENLN-G. 



the dwelling-house from the dust and publicity of 
the public street or highway. 

The range between five hundred and a thousand 
square yards will generally be found sufficient. It 
is most important that there should be ample space, 
without conveying impressions of excess ; besides, 
as carriage-sweeps should be particularly well made 
and kept, they are expensive luxuries if too large. 
To curtail this expense, and also improve their 
appearance in the opinion of some, circles, ellipses, 
or squares, in the middle of carriage-sweeps, have 
frequently been laid down 
in turf, or planted with 
trees and shrubs. Occa- 
sionally, too, handsome 
vases, fountains, or groups 
of statuary, are placed in 
the centre of the space ; all 
these are out of place in 
such positions, and seem 
exposed to so much danger 
as to mar one's enjojonent. 
Statuary in such positions 
is altogether too sugges- 
tive of the Italian boys 
with their trays of images 
on their heads to be per- 
missible. Better boldly 
reduce the space to the 
necessities of the family ; 
or, if this is impossible, 
give it all up to the use of 
the horses and carriages, 
with instructions that the 
whole is to be run over 
and kept in use for exercis- 
ing the horses rather than 
not at all. The pear-shaped 
sweep (Fig. 2) is one of the 
most common and con- 
venient. It should always 
he made of sufficient area 

to allow of a carriage and pair being driven easily 
round it. In this form of sweep it matters com- 
paratively little where the front door is placed, the 
latter being almost equally easy of access from any 
portion of the bend. Perhaps no form affords more 
facile access and egress in less space than some one 
of the many forms of the pear sweep. 

One most important point seems often overlooked 
in the formation of carriage-sweeps ; that is, thorough 
drainage below, and the prompt removal of surface 
water. Nothing contributes so much to the latter 
as a slight fall from the house to the further side of 
the space. Sometimes they are made to fall towards 
the centre — this is a most unsightly arrangement. 




Fig. 2.— Pear-shaped Sweep. 




Front Door 

Fig. 3.— Semi-ciectjlar Sweep. 



While the fall must be made efficient, it must on 
no account be excessive. As carriage fronts look 
best when apparently level, one inch or so to a yard, 
or even two yards, will suffice to remove the sur- 
face water if the surface is kept hard and smooth ; 
and even when or where river or sea-shore shingle 
is employed for surfacing carriage fronts, the water 
will freely percolate through on such gentle inclina- 
tions. Gratings may also be placed on the outer 
edges, or wherever the surface is lowest, to receive 
the surface water, as in Fig. 1. This matter of in- 
clination to insure the 
more thorough drainage 
and consequent drj-ness 
of carriage fronts is one 
of the most \dtal import- 
ance, as few things have 
a more depressing effect 
on the inmates, or con- 
vey a more painful im- 
pression of desertion and 
dilapidation, than stag- 
nant water on a carriage 
front right up to the 
front door. This is not 
seldom the result of im- 
perfect keeping, the allow- 
ing of ruts to be formed, 
and lea\'ing them for days 
or weeks unraked and 
unrolled; but proper 
making would reduce such 
discomforts and disfigui'e- 
ments to a minimum. It 
is also weU to delegate to 
some man or boy the duty 
of removing all manure or 
other litter fi'om the car- 
riage front once, or even 
twice a day. The time 
requii-ed is trifling ; but 
the difference it makes in 
tidiness, comfort, and good keeping is marvellous. 
If dmnng these processes the ruts, when needful, are 
also raked in, and a hand-roller run over them, the 
perfect keeping of the carriage-sweep will be insured. 

Shape of Carriage-sweeps. — This is of less 
importance than size ; squares or parallelograms 
are generally the most teUing, close to the archi- 
tectural lines of the house, or where the front is 
raised higher than the surrounding grounds, which 
is often the case, in order to bring it almost or alto- 
gether to the level of li^ang-rooms, and the whole 
is supported by a retaining wall. Any other form^ 
however, may be chosen that proves the most con- 



GARDEN WALKS AND ROADS. 



81 



■veuieDt. One of the most effective carriage-sweeps 
kno\sTi to the writer is sixty yards long by thirty 
wide, and six feet above the surrounding ground. 
The proportion of the length, double the breadth, 
looks well, and is found most convenient. Fig. 4 is 
one of the largest carriage-sweeps that can be re- 
quired for private residences. Were it found, how- 
ever, too limited for the congestion that might occur 
in the traffic at the sharp bend leading into the 
stable-yard, the carriage-road could be led right 
through the quadrangle on the line of the garden gate, 
and swept back to the stable-yard under the retaining 
wall, thus affording sufficient space for the traffic of 



piece of gravel constituting the carriage front, 
whatever its size or form, but more especially if 
square or oblong, forms a sort of secondary base tc 
the house, and must therefore be treated with the 
mathematical precision of architectural, rather than 
the freer erratic irregularity of picturesque prin- 
ciples. It is well to bear this in mind, as during the 
period of sudden re^nilsion from overdone art to 
more natural methods of gardening, it was no un- 
common thing to find magnificent mansions rising 
out of, rather than safely built upon, parks degraded 
into wild-looking commons, with furze, bramble, and 
wild bracken looking in at the drawing-room win- 



StRhle Shrubbery 
Yard 



Carriage Sweep 




RetcLining Wall crowned with Vases 



Fvj;. 4.— La£GE Rectaxgtjlab Sweep. 




a royal palace. As at present arranged, however, a 
block has never occurred, though at balls and public 
treats many hundreds of caniages have come and 
gone on a single day or night. On such occasions, 
however, not a few of these return, after depositing 
their fares, or are ranged on either side of the 
carriage-road at some considerable distance from the 
house. No doubt the sharp bend into the stable-yard 
is objectionable, and could easily be avoided by 
leading the road straight off the quadrangle of gi^avel 
into the yard. But the shrubbery is held in gi^eat 
veneration, as completely shutting out the staples 
from the house, and hence the sharpening of the bend 
into the yard. 

Semi- circular, and circular, elliptical, and other 
forms look well, and one or two are given as samples, 
as w^ll as to illustrate the best points of entering 
and leaving the carriage front. This should in- 
v.-riably be either in the centre, directly at right 
angles with the front door, or at either end. The 
6 



dows, and cattle, sheep, and deer browsing right ny 
to the front door. This was nature dominating art 
with a vengeance. Proper carriage fi'onts and ap- 
proach roads not only enable art to modify- natiire' 
in t"he immediate vicinity of the house, but also 
impart that sense of safety and seclusion which is 
not one of the least charms of every home, whether 
in town or country. Both, however, are overdone 
when the carriage front is shut in with gates and 
bars within sight of the house, giving the latter 
more the appearance of a workhouse, asylum, or 
prison than a home. Not only are gates and bars 
in such positions objectionable on the ground of 
taste and sentiment, but likewise from the incon- 
venience and danger they involve. Starting with 
spirited horses, it is no easy matter to pull up almost 
directly to open or close gates. So far as possible^ 
therefore, not only carriage-sweeps, but carriage- 
roads should be kept free from such constant sources ct 
friction, hindrance, and danger as gates across them. 



82 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAPtDENING. 



COMMON GAEDEN FLOWEES. 



ARABIS, ALYSSUM, AND AUBRIETIA. 

Arabis. — The "White Arabis, Wall or Rock 
Cress, is perhaps the most common, as it is as- 
suredly one of the most beautiful and useful 
plants in cultivation. It seems to thrive almost 
equally well in town and country, and there are 
few gardens, large or small, new or old, that are 
not lighted up in April by one or more plants 
of the White Arabis. 
It grows freely in either 
sun or shade, on the 
level as well as on raised 
mounds, or sloping 
banks, though it flowers 
most freely either on a 
raised hillock or bank, 
on good soil of consider- 
able depth. It is, how- 
ever, by no means parti- 
cular about soil or site, 
and will grow an;^'where 
and everywhere the com- 
mon daisies will thrive, 
and very often where 
these will hardly deign 
to live. The name of 
Wall Cress is supposed 
to be derived from the 
fact that the Arabis are 
often found in dry places, 
iSuch as on the debris of 
rocks, mouldering ruins 
or old walls. But in 
gardens the Arabis also 
thrives well on good soil 
of almost any sort. Some 
of the largest tufts of 

this fine old plant have been seen in kitchen gar- 
dens, a yard across, and as white as a sheet. Such 
large masses are most effective when slightly raised 
in the middle, or when facing the spectator upon 
sloping banks, either by themselves, or placed side 
by side with masses of Forget-me-nots or Aubrietias 
of almost equal size ; the snowy whiteness of the 
Arabis comes out with great force and distinctness 
under such treatment. 

But the Wall Cress thrives almost equally well 
under a system of annual division. The plants 
readily lend themselves to this mode of increase or 
of culture ; though not creepers, tlieir wide-spread- 
ing dwarf branchlets root readily as they closely 
hug the ground ; and should any of them fail to do so 
when attached to the parent plant, they root speedily 




Arabis albida maxima. 



and surely almost as soon as detached and placed 
firmly in the soil. The best time to divide Ai-abis is 
shortly after their flowers fade ; and as the different 
species flower from January to July, it is wise to 
note that they should be divided by condition and 
not by calendar. 

Cuttings will also root readily about the same 
stage of growth, if taken ofl^ with a small heel of the 
old wood, and placed in light, sandy soil, under a 
cloche or a hand-light. But as divided plants grow 
much sooner into flowering tufts of very effective 
size, it is scarcely worth 
while striking cuttings, 
unless where great quan- 
tities are wanted. The 
Wall Ciesses may also 
be freely raised from 
seeds, though the finer 
strains, such as Albida 
iitaxima, do ' not seed 
nearly so freely as some 
of the more weedy 
species and varieties. 
The seeds may be sown 
in the open air, either 
in the early spring or 
autumn, say February 
or August, as most of 
the species and varieties 
are perfectly hardy — 
though sometimes the 
finer strains are rather 
injured by frost, partly 
through being -over- 
excited by stimulating 
composts or rich soils. 
A rather fine, dry, poor 
soil should be chosen for 
sowing Arabis seed — ■ 
especially if it should 
be sown in the autumn ; as when forced up very 
rapidly into rank growth, even Arabis get much 
cut about in the winter or early spring. 

The plants belong to the great family of Cross- 
worts or Cruciferce, to which our Cabbages, Cauli- 
flowers, Turnips, Radishes, Stocks, Candytuft, 
Drabas, Nasturtium, Aubrietia, Alyssum, and hosts 
of other families and species belong. 

The finest species or variety of Arabis is albida, 
which was introduced from the Caucasus so early as 
1798. This, with a larger-flowered strain of Wall 
Cress, A. albida grandijlora, is without doubt the 
finest Arabis grown, and leaves little or nothing to 
be desired in the shape of dwarf white flowers. 
There has long been a variegated variety of this 
species, which is almost four inches shorter, and is 



COMMON GARDEN' FLOWEES. 



83 



altogether a weaker grower than the plain-leaved. 
This grows ahout eight inches high, and forms a 
pretty edging plant, either in or out of bloom. A 
still richer variegated Wall Cress is A. lucida rarie- 
gata. There is a coarser variegated Arahis — crUpata, 
the most effective of all on some soils. There are 
yet other variegated Wall Cresses, Arahis procurrens 
varicrjata, and A. prcecox varicgata, so that those in 
search of variegation have a rich find among the 
W^all Cresses. Arahis alpina is a good deal like, 
but is not quite so good as. alhida, and there is 
a superior strain of this species, called alpbia 
Chissiana^ introduced from Switzerland in 1596. 
A. lucida and the two Rock Cresses, A. Alpestris 
and Fetrcea, are also worth growing. There have 
long been purple and lilac-flowered Wall Cresses, 
such as aroiosa, pink ; cehennensis, pale red ; rosea, 
rose ; retrofrada, blush ; but hardly any of these 
iire worth growing. Quite recently, however, a 
charming species has been introduced from Cali- 
fornia, rejoicing in the name of Arahis hlcpharo- 
p)hijlla, or Rosy Rock Cress. In general style and 
appearance this new sj)ecies greatly resembles 
A. alhida, but it produces its rosy-purple flowers 
in May. Should it prove as hardy as the other 
species, this will prove a welcome addition to 
a useful family of plants, though lovers of old and 
common favourites will probably think and say 
that a purple Arabis is a Wall Cress spoilt. 

Aubrietias. — This highly ornamental family of 
old-fashioned plants belongs to the same great 
natural order of Cruciferce. The leaves are much 
smaller, the plants more dense and dwarf, with 
flowers also smaller and more numerous than in the 
Arabis. There is another great and broad distinc- 
tion : hitherto there has been no white Aubrietia, 
though now a white variety of A. deltoidea is re- 
ported ; and they are all very much alike in colour 
— that is, of a lilac-purple or violet shade, differ- 
ing somewhat in the depth of the shade only. 
The flowers also vary considerably in shape and 
size. The first-introduced Aubrietia v^as deltoidea 
— or Three-angled Flower — introduced from the 
Levant in 1710. The plant grows about four 
inches high ; and the small purple flowers are so 
closely packed over the silvery-greyish leaves, as 
to hide them beneath a sheet of bloom dui'ing the 
flowering season, which lasts from March till June, 
the Aubrietias lasting far longer in flower than 
the Arabis. A. p)urpurea is a slightly deeper purple 
than deltoidea, and flowers later and rather longer. 
The flowers are also of a different form, and a little 
larger in size, the deltoidea, however, being generally 
preferred. Auhrietia Kesperidiflora is another purple 
variety, more like iJ»2r?;^c?(rm than deltoidea. 



All these, however, will speedily be sui^ersedcd by 
two new varieties, A. grattdijlora and L'amphelld— 
both wonderful improvements on all iDrevious species 
and varieties. A. grandiflora is a larger and vastly 
improved edition of the original species. A. Camp- 
hellii is also of a deeper colour as well as of larger 
size, and is, without doubt, the finest Aubrietia in 
cultivation. Another variety, Grccea, is a better strain 
of deltoidea. A. Hendersonii is of a deex^er violet- 
purple than either of the others. Other and superior 
varieties are said to have been recently raised. The 
white sport or species will be most welcome, as there 
is no white common flower that quite matches the 
purple or violet Aubrietia. Even the smallest-flowered 
Arabis are too large, and also too tall in the stem, 
to run nicely with them. There are several par- 
tially variegated-leaved Aubrietias, but the varie- 
gation is neither so bold, striking, nor constant as 
in the case of the closely-related plants, the Arabis. 
The extreme smallness of the leaves, unless the 
variegation is very striking, as in the case of the 
Golden Lemon-thyme, is also against its effective- 
ness ; and at present Aubrietias are more grown for 
their flowers than their foliage. Nevertheless, the 
variegated variety of A. purpurea — which is boldly 
margined with white — is frequently used as an 
edging plant. 

The Aubrietias are perfectly hardy, and will 
grow in almost any soil, though, like most other 
common flowers, they pay well for a bit of good 
light loam, with a dash of leaf-mould in it, and 
fair culture. In good soil, with a dash of water 
in a dry season, Aubrietias are seldom out of 
flower throughout the year. On poor dry soil^ 
the bloom is less dense, and the time they last in 
bloom is very greatly curtailed. From the dense 
trailing habit of these plants, they propagate 
themselves with amazing rapidity, rooting their 
stems as they run, so that the one speedily becomes 
any number at the will of the cultivator. 

As to the best time for dividing Aubrietias, most 
authorities recommend spring and autumn. Neither 
of these is the best season, but rather about mid- 
summer. Spring division injures the flower for that 
season ; autumnal division does not afford sufficient 
time to permit of the plants being well established 
before winter, and the flower-buds developed and 
filled for spring blooming. Divide as soon after 
flowering as practicable, and the plants will get 
rapidly established, and will have sufficient time 
to recoup themselves from the check, and bloom the 
following season as if nothing had happened. 

Propagation is also effected by cuttings. Small 
pieces of the half- ripened wood placed under a hand- 
light or in a close frame will root freely. As soon 
as rooted, harden off by partially removing the glass 



84 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXIXG. 



every day when it is mild, and plant them in the 
open so soon as hardened off. Any light sandy soil 
will do in which to root the cuttings. It should be 
made firm, the cuttings needing the compression to 
force the emission of roots. Late cuttings should 
be inserted where they may have protection in winter. 

Aubrietias do not ripen seeds very freely, except- 
ing just here and there in warm and sheltered 
localities. Where they do so the seed should be 
sown very thinly and as soon as rii^e. These plants 
do not come very true 
from seeds, but main- 
tain general uniformity 
of height and colour, 
and within these narrow 
bounds the more variety 
and individuality the 
better. The genus was 
named after a French 
botanical draughtsman, 
M. Aubriet, and the first 
Aubrietias were intro- 
duced from' the Levant 
in 1710. They now 
abound in all directions, 
and hundreds of gardens, 
large and small, would 
look poor and stale in 
the spring if the Aubrie- 
tias were withdi-awn. 
They look well almost 
everywhere, anyhow, in 
large tufts Or wide 
edgings, in juxtaposition 
with such plants as the 
Yellow or Eock Alyssum 
and the early Forget-me- 
not, Myosotis dissitiflora. 
With alternate ]5atches 
of these, few plants can 

equal Aubrietias for the clothing of raised banks or 
rockeries, or intermixing with choice hardy ferns. 

The Alyssum. — For a brilliant display of Hght, 
almost fluffy, golden flowers throughout April and 
May, there is nothing to equal the grand old Alyssum 
saxatilc, or Eock Alyssum, or Madwort, as this magni- 
ficent spring border flower is called. The name is 
derived, so it is said, from the supposed efficacy of the 
Alyssum to allay anger or rage. Were this true, this 
plant, popular as it is, would no doubt soon be more 
so. But this particular species at least is, we fear, 
too brilliant to exert any such soothing tendency. 
And yet yellow, although oftentimes associated with 
jealousy, is not the coloiu" that is chosen to indi- 
cate rage or passion : scarlet, and the proverbial red 




AUBRIETIA CaMPBELLII 



rag, are too well established to be dethroned by 
any and every shade of yellow or orange. And 
the yellow of the Alyssum is a specially soft and 
soothing colour. Almost everybody admires it, and 
it contrasts and yet blends adnrirably with almost 
all other colours. The Eock Alyssum enjoys light 
and air thoroughly. To flower it in bright masses 
it should be grown quite in the open, and in no 
way overhung with shrubs, trees, or tall herbaceous 
plants. It enjoys a fine dry and open position, where 
every ray of the spring 
simshine can be utilised 
and converted into 
waving plumes of golden 
beauty. Its flowering 
season is from April to 
June. In warm situa- 
tions it flowers even 
later, but it is seldom 
seen in bloom till to- 
wards the middle or end 
of April. It refuses to 
thi'ive in a wet, sour soil, 
but if it only be dry it 
grows well and blooms in 
perfection, however poor 
the ground may be. The 
species reaches a foot to 
fifteen inches in height, 
its character being shrub- 
by, not unlike that of 
Sage. There is a varie- 
gated variety which is 
equally beautiful. There 
is a smaller and more 
compact variety exactly 
like the species, only con- 
siderably smaller, Alys- 
sum saxatile compactum. 
A. montanttm is a native 
of Germany, and was introduced in 1713. It is of a 
dwarf semi- shrubby habit, and the flowers are much 
smaller than those of A. saxatile. It flowers in April, 
and hardly seems so hardy as the more robust and 
popular saxatile. Alyssum argenteum and alpestris are 
a good deal alike, but neither of them is at all equal 
to A. saxatile, or the mountain or rockj^ Alyssum. 
Alyssum sp'mosum deserves growing for its foliage 
rather than its flower. It forms a tiny silvery- 
looking plant of about six inches high, and is one of 
the neatest and most imique things in cultivation. 

These shrubby and herbaceous Alyssums are pro- 
pagated by cuttings, root-division, and seeds. They 
are not, however, by any means so easily increased 
as the two other families of plants here classed with 
them amonff common flowers. The wood of these 



THE LIFE-HISTOKY OF PLA:NTS. 



So 



Alyssums is hard and semi-woody, and takes a long 
while to root\ Flowering so profusely as A. sax at He 
and other kindred species, the plants grow slowly. 
Cuttings should be put in, in May, on a gentle 
hot-hed, and hardened o:ff and planted out as soon 
as rooted. Thus treated they will bloom next year. 

The best of the Alyssums do not readily lend them 
selves to root-division. But when this is possible, 
it affords a ready means of increase, which should 
never be over-looked or neglected. Some species 
seed rather freely, but as a general rule, and in 
most gardens, the better species of Alyssum seldom 
seed very fi^eely. When seeds do ripen, save, and 
sow as soon as ripe, 
choosing a nice shel- 
tered place for them, 
and sowing the seeds 
thinly to give the 
plants the full benefit 
of light and air fi'om 
the fii^st. It is bad 
practice to sow Alys- 
sums under glass or 
in any confined place, 
as the plantlets are 
most impatient of con- 
finement, especially in 
their infantile state. 
To have them in per- 
fection, they should 
know no overcrowding 
from the time they 
break groxmd as seed- 
lings until they die 
of old age. 

What is popularly 
knovrn as the Sweet 
Alyssum in gardens 

is a free -blooming, honey-scented white annual, 
the mo 4 popular of the family, extensively used for 
small beds and edgings. Its botanical name is 
Alyssum maritimum. It should be so^tl in the open 
air, where it is to bloom, at any time from February 
to May. AA^hen once introduced into a bed or 
border, it mostly reproduces itself, and holds its 
own, with little more trouble. There is a variegated 
variety of this, mostly propagated by cuttings, and 
kept over the winter under glass, the same as 
verbenas or other bedding plants, though this is also 
hardy in mild localities. This is known as the 
Eoniga maritimum variegaticm, grows to a height of 
from six to nine inches, has small white not very 
conspicuous flowers, but its narrow leaves are edged 
with silver, and it is altogether a very neat yet 
showy plant, well worthy of cultivation for small 
beds or edgings. 




Alts:-iim Saxatile. 



THE LIFE-HISTOEY OF PLANTS. 

By Dr. Maxwell T. Masters, F.E.S. 

GE-RMI-NATION. 

HAVING- assisted at the launching of the ne^ 
growth, whether of seed or of bud, and ha\dng 
indicated the natm-e of the mechanism, and of the 
processes concerned in that growth, we are now in a 
position to trace the subsequent career of the leaf- 
bearing shoots which originate in the manner already 
described. 

Taking the seed first, the result of the processes 
before alluded to is 
made manifest in the 
germination, not of 
the seed, as we fami- 
liarly but very incor- 
rectly say, but in that 
of the embryo plant 
within the seed. So 
long as it remains in 
that position it may 
be called the embi yo ; 
when it is set free and 
begins to take on an 
independent existence, 
it may be' called a 
seedling ; from that 
stage to that of the 
young plant, and ulti- 
mately to that of the 
adult plant, bearing 
fruit and seed, it 
passes in one conti- 
nuous chain, without 
definite limits between 
the several stages. 
The first step in the germination 



The Radicle.- 



of the embryo jp^ant is invariably the protrusion 
thi^ough the ruptin-ed seed-coats of the radicle or 
primary root. While still wrapped up within the 
seed, the point of the radicle is in most cases 
directed towards a small opening in the seed-coat, 
called technically the "micropyle." Thr ough that 
aperture, which very speedily becomes enlarged 
and lacerated by the swelling of the tissues of the 
seed and of the embryo plant, emerges the radicle 
(Fig. 12). 

It is usually of thread-like form, with a pointed 
end covered and shielded by a thin extinguisher-like 
cap, which preserves the young root from injury, as 
it is thr^ust from above downwards into the soil. Why 
the root descends more or less vertically into the 
son — why it should not grow on sideways, or up- 
wards, according to the position of the seed — is a 



86 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXING. 



Fie 



problem not yet completely solved ; how it does so is 
more apparent, and the results are of course obvious. 

The reasons for its descent are to be found in 
tho circumstances by which it is suiTOunded, by 
its structure, and by its mode of growth. Gravi- 
tation has been shown by Thomas Andrew Knight 
and many subsequent observers to influence the 
downward course of roots, or rather, it has been 
proved that where the effects of gra\dtation are 
counteracted, the roots do not grow downwards. 
Knight sowed seeds on the outer side of a wheel 
kept rotating in a vertical direction. By these means 
tho force of gravitation was overcome or replaced by 
centrifugal force, or the tendency to separate or fly 
off from a revolving body. Under these circumstances 
tho roots always turn outwards, away from the centre 
of the wheel (Fig. 13). When the seeds are sown 
on a horizontally moving wheel, the roots assume an 
intermediate position between 
horizontal and vertical, as the 
result of a compromise between 
tho tendency of gravitation to 
puU them down, and the tend- 
ency of centrifugal force to keep 
thorn horizontal (Fig. 14). The 
quicker the rotation of the 
whoel, the more horizontal the 
direction of the root. 

The presence of air is es- 
sential to the roots, and also 

the existence of moisture, provided that it bo not 
stagnant or excessive. Then it is well ascertained 
that the growth in the length of roots occurs chiefly 
in one particular part of the root, and that the 
jjortion just above the root-cap or shield before 
mentioned. 

How the Radicle Penetrates tlie Soil — 
Movement of the Hoots. — The conical point cf 
the root, thus protected, is thi'ust forward, or rather 
downward, into the soil by the lengthening that 
takes place just above it, the body of the seed and 
the superincumbent soil acting as the " fulcrum," or 
point of suiDport. 

And now comes into operation a very marvellous 
process, only lately brought to light, chiefly by the 
patient experiments of Darwin. It may be premised 
that all the growing parts of plants are endowed 
with a power of movement, now in this direction, 
now in that, and varying in direction and amount 
according to circumstances. These movements are 
not readily visible to the naked eye, except in some 
marked cases, but by various contrivances it is an 
easy matter to prove the fact. For the moment we 
confine ourselves to the movements observed in the 
radicles of seedling plants. 




. 12.— Germination 
coats are torn, the 
and tile arch of the 



A short hair-like thi'oad of glass, with a minute 
piece of black sealing-wax, was attached to the 
radicle by means of shellac in solution. By its side 
was placed a stick bearing a card with a black dot 
upon it. Then, by observing at stated intervals 
under a magnifying-glass the relative position of the 
fixed dot, and of the bead affixed to the radicle, the 
movements were rendered aj)parent, and, indeed, 
were " j)lotted " out as on a map. In some cases the 
radicles were allowed to grow over plates of smoked 
glass. As the tips of the roots moved they left a 
track in the soot by which the glass was covered, 
and theu' movements were thus rendered ajjparent. 

It may then be taken as proved that one means by 
which the radicle penetrates the soil is by virtue of 
the iDOwer of rotary movement with which it, like all 
the other growing parts of plants, is endowed, and 
by means of which it penetrates the soil as the 
jjoint of a cork-screw enters 
a cork. The pressui'e of the 
soil above and the weight of the 
seed give the requisite bearing, 
such as is afforded in the case 
of the screw by the pressure 
of the hand. 3Iany radicles 
are invested with a fringe or 
sheath of fine " root - hairs," 
which grow out fi'om the sur- 
face of the root and give that 
cobweb-like appearance which 
is so commonly seen when roots have access to mois- 
tui-e or to rich food. These hairs, of which we shall 
have to make mention later on, help to keep the 
root in position ; and, moreover, they are endowed 
with the same gp-atory motion as other growing- 
parts. While increasing in length, the root in- 
creases in thickness also, especially above, so that its 
wedge-Hke or conical form is increased, and the 
force exerted by the groviing root constantly in- 
creased ; hence roots act, as Darwin says, "like a 
wedge of wood, which, whilst slowly diiven into a 
crevice, continually expands at the same time by the 
absorption of water, and a wedge thus acting will 
split even a mass of rock." 

This power of movement depends probably upon 
variations in the cmTcnts of liquid passing from cell 
to cell, causing tm-gidity now of this i^art of the 
root, now of that, and on the periodic passage fi'oni 
one cell to another of its contents ; matters which 
will be spoken of later on. 

Sensitiveness of Hoots. — Before quitting the 
subject of the penetration of the soil by the root, 
it is necessary to allude to another marvellous pro- 
perty possessed by the growing tips of the roots, and 
exercised by them, in conjimction with the power of 



of Bean. The seed- 
radicle is protruded, 
canlicle is visible. 



THE LTFE-HISTOKY OF PLANTS. 



87 



movement. We allude to the property of sensi- 
tiveness. 

AAHien an organ is iiTitated by any cause and 
movement occurs as the consequence, the part is said 
to be sensitive. The tip of the root has been proved 
to possess this sensibility to impressions. -A slight 
touch, the application of 
caustic, or the removal 
of a thin slice from one 
side, have all been 
proved to be productive 
of movement. But this 
sensibility is confined to 
the tip of the radicle for 
a very minute space, the 
consequent movement 
taking place at some 
little distance from the 
point of irritation. Thus, 
if the tip of the radicle 
be irritated, the portion 
bends away from the side 
which has been irritated. 
These cm-vatures are 
only manifested when 
the roots are growing- 
under natural conditions. 
If the soil be too hot, or 
too cold, the movements 
are not observed. The 
curvatm-es resulting- 
fiom contact are not 
always observable at 
once, but only 
after the expi- 
ration of some 
hom-s. As. the 
tip, says Dar- 
win, " is always 
endeavom-ing to 
bend to all sides, 
it will press on 
all sides, and 
will thus be able 
to discriminate 
between the 
harder and 
softer adjoin- 
ing surfaces. 

. . , Consequently, it will tend to bend from 
the harder soil, and it will thus follow the lines 
of least resistance. So it will be if it meet with a 
stone, or the root of another plant in the soil. . . . 
If the tip were not sensitive, and if it did not excite 
the upper part of the root to bend away, whenever 
it encountered at right angles some obstacle in the 



to be doubled up in a 




Fig. 13.— Knig-ht's AVheel, f-liowiug the effect of growiug 
Seeds ou the surface or a vertically rotating Wheel. 




Fig. 14.— Effect of growing Plants oil a horizontally rotating Wheel 



ground, it would be liable 
contorted mass." 

Above the apex, the radicle is also sensitive, but in 
this case the effect is to cause the radicle to bend, 
not away from, but towards the obstacle, so that it 
cmis round it and gets on the other side of it. 

In cndeavom-ing to 
give an idea of what 
goes on in the tip of the 
root, and of the way in 
which it is thereby en- 
abled to penetrate the 
ground, we may avail 
ourselves of the com- 
parison made by Darwin 
between the snout of a 
mole or other burrowing 
animal and the ti^) of 
the root. By continual 
movement of the head, 
the animal feels any 
stone or other obstacle, 
as well as differences in 
the degree of compact- 
ness of the soil, and he 
will turn away from the 
harder side to that which 
is softer and moister. 

The Oaulicle.— 

While the radicle is 
pursuing its downwai-d 
course provision is being- 
made for the 
upraising- of the 
seed-leaves, or 
cotyledons," 
and of the bud 
or " plumule," 
which is des- 
tined to leng- 
then into the 
stem. Yery 
fi-equently, but 
not universally, 
there is a little 
stalk interven- 
ing- between the 
radicle and the 

seed-leaves ; or it may more correctly be said that 
it always exists, but is sometimes so small as not 
readily to be visible. This stalk is the " tigellirm," 
or " caulicle." It constitutes the whit>e stalk which 
supports the seed-leaves of Mustard and Cress, 
and is particularly well seen in the French Bean 
or in the Melon (Figs. 15, 16, 17). It may be 



88 



CASSELL'S POPrLAR GARDEmNa. 



known fi'om the radicle in this early stage of growth 
by its cylindrical form destitute of branches (as a 
rule) and root-hairs. If, instead of being cylin- 
drical, it tapers to one end so as to resemble a length- 
ened cone, the point of the cone is directed up- 
wards in the reverse dii^ection to that of the root. 
From its internal structure, absence of root- 
hairs, and other considerations, it is apparent that 
this caulicle, which most persons would confound 
with the root, is really not a root, and has not the 
office of a root. What the caulicle does is to ujDraise 
the seed-leaves, or at least the plumule (for the seed- 
leaves sometimes remain below the surface), to the 




Pig. 15.— Germination of Bean, further advanced than at 
Fig. 12. The root has peuetrated some distance and 
given off branches ; the caulicle, still arched, has up- 
raised the cotyledons and the plumule. 

light and air. Later on it very frequently serves as 
a reservoir or store for water, or for nutritive sub- 
stances ; thus, the so-called roots of Tm^nips, Carrots, 
Radishes, Beet, &c., consist in part, at least, of de- 
velopments of the caulicle filled with food substances 
destined for the use of the growing plant. So also it 
often happens that the root-stock, or " rhizome," is 
in part, at least, a development of the -caulicle serv- 
ing as a store-place for food, and indicating to the 
practical man that the plant possessing it under- 
goes a period of comparative rest, obtaining its 
supplies, till growth again begins, from its own 
resources. As it bursts thi'ough the seed- coats the 
caulicle has an arched form (Fig. 15), but as its tip 
becomes liberated from the seed-coat, it straightens 



itself, and by its upward growth thrasts the plumule 
into the light and air (Fig. 16). 

Movements of the Caulicle. — While growing 
it worms its way upwards with the same gjTating 
movement that has been mentioned in the case of 
the radicle, though the movements in this case are 




Fig. 16.— Seedling Plant of Melon. The primary ro't l"s 
decayed, but numerous branches have been formed, and 
the caulicle upraised to bear two leafy cotyledons, aud 
the first bud or i^lumule. 

less clearly \isible and less distinct, owing to the 
counteracting influences of the soil, &c. 

3j means of the wiiggiing force exerted by the 
arching caulicle, the seed-leaves are at length dragged 
out of the ground, and the tigellum now straightens 
itself, by additional growth along the concave side, 
so that the convex side is, as it were, pushed into 
a straight position by the greater force of growth 
on the opposite side. Once straight and fi^ee, the 
cardicle moves more fi^eely (Fig. 17). 

The arching form of the caulicle (a fonn assumed 
also in many cases by other parts of the plants as 
they emerge from the soil) tends to protect the young 
growing point from abrasion, and not only, so, but, 
as Darwin points out, the arching form, coupl:d 



THE LIFE -HISTORY OF PLA^^TS. 



89 



with growth, at hoth ends of the arch, confers greater 
power in, as it were, upheaving the plumule. In 
the seed, the ladicle, tigellum, and seed-leaves are 
often so placed as to be in one straight line; but 
when such seeds begin to germinate, the arched 
appearance of the caulicle is as marked as it is in 
those cases where the 
embryo plant is natu- 
rally coiled up in the 
seed. 

The necessity for a 
fulcrum or bearing of 
some kind has been 
alluded to, and the way 
in which that necessity 
is met in ordinary 
cases. But it may be 
well to call attention 
here to a peculiar ar- 
rangement first ob- 
served by M, Flahault 
in the seedlings of 
Cucurhitaccce (Melon, 
Cucumber, &c.). 

In this case, the 
seed -coats are held 
down by the aid of a 
httle hook or peg, 
which protrudes from' 
the upper part of the 
radicle or lower por- 
tion of the caulicle, and 
■ becomes hitched over 
the lower part of the 
split seed-coat, fasten- 
ing it dowa, as it were, 
and thus giving 
greater grip to the 
descending radicle and 
to the arching caulicle. 
In accidental cases 
where this peg is not 
developed, or is by 
some means prevented 
from effecting its pur- 
pose, then the cotyledons are uplifted with the seed- 
coats still attached to them. 

It- is very probable that other arrangements of 
this nature exist in plants, but they have as yet 
hardly been looked for, though obviously the matter 
is one of some practical importance. We may con- 
clude this portion of our subject by giving the 
substance of Darwin's illustration of the way in 
which the seedling plant breaks through the earth. 
Let us suppose a man to be thrown on his hands and 
knees, and at the same time to one side, by a load of 




rig. 17. —Seedling Bean further advanced, showing the radicle, 
the caulicle, the cotyledons, and above them the plumule, 
here lengthened and bearing a i>air of leavss. 



hay falling on him. He would first endeavour to get 
his arched back upright, wriggling at the same time 
in aU directions to free himself a little from the sur- 
rounding pressure . , . The man, still wriggling, 
would then raise his arched back as high as he 
could, and this may represent the growth and con- 
tinued gyi-atory mo-^-e- 
ment of the arching 
caulicle before it has 
reached the surface. 
A.S soon as the man 
felt himself at all 
free he would raise 
the upper part of his 
body, while still on 
his knees, and still 
wriggling ; and this 
may represent tiie 
bowing backward of 
the basal leg of the 
arch, which in most 
cases aids in the 
withdrawal of the 
seed-leaves from the 
buried and ruptured 
seed - coats, and the 
subsequent straighten- 
ing of the whole 
caulicle^ the wriggling 
movement still con- 
tinuing. 

The Seed-leaves. 

—The lengthening of 
the caulicle, as just 
alluded . to, libei atcf 
the seed - leaves or 
cotyledons, concern- 
ing which organs we 
must say a few words. 
In the seedlings of 
all flowering plants, 
disregarding a few 
exceptions insignifi- 
cant in number, there 
are either ♦^wo seed-leaves or one. Our great 
English naturalist, Ray, was the first to make 
this very important generalisation. Plants \\dth 
two seed-leaves are technically called Dicoty- 
ledons or Dicotyledonous ; plants with a single 
seed-leaf are called Monocotyledons or Monoco- 
tyledonous. This was a very important generali- 
sation to make, because it is associated with other 
characteristics of leaf, stem, and flower, of external 
appearance and internal structure ; so that a mere 
e-lance at a leaf or a flower is in most instances 



90 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXINO. 



quite sufficient to show whether the plant is a 
Dicotyledon or a Monocotyledon, without seeing the 
seedling- at all. On the other hand, a hotanist can 
safely predicate from the presence of two or only 
one seed-leaf, as the case may be, what the natui-e of 
the leaf and flower is likely to be. Of coui^se, allow- 
ance must always be made for exceptions, but in this 
case the proportion of exceptions to the rule is very 
small indeed. 

The cotyledons vary very considerably in appear- 
ance in different plants, so much so in fact that it is 
impossible to allude to all their variations of form. 
Those that are purely hereditary we may in this place 
pass over, but those which, by their special adapta- 
tion, facilitate the present life-work of the individual 
plant need some mention. From this point of view 
the most important thing to note is the leafy or the 
fleshy character of the seed-leaf. In some cases, as 
in Mustard, or in the Melon, and many others, the 
seed-leaves are little different save in form from 
ordinary leaves. (See Fig. 16.) In other cases, as 
in the Acorn or Almond, they are thick, white, and 
fleshy, so unlike ordinary leaves that by any casual 
observer they would probably not be considered to 
be leaves ; nevertheless their position, mode of growth, 
and essential structure are those of leaves, so that 
no doubt whatever exists as to their real nature. 
This difference in character points to an important 
diversity in office. 

The thick seed-leaves of the Acorn or Bean are 
filled with nutritive matter for the use of the young- 
seedling. How that insoluble matter is rendered 
soluble and available as food has been indicated in 
a previous chapter (page 24). The thin green seed- 
leaves have no such store available, but they are so 
constructed as to be able to acquire food for them- 
selves directly they are placed under conditions to 
obtain it. These differences are thus obviously con- 
nected with the circumstances, that as a rule the thick, 
fleshy, white cotyledons, as of Acorns, &c., remain 
below ground (hypogeal), while the thin leafy ones 
are invariably pushed up into the air and light, to 
put their green colom-ing matter into use at once in 
a manner we shall have to speak of in considering 
the office of the leaves (Fig. 16). The seed-leaves of 
the French Bean are thick, but they are often raised 
above the surface, and thus seem to be exceptional ; 
but it will generally be found in such cases that the 
exception is more apparent than real, inasmuch as 
such seed-leaves, athough thick, are green or be^ 
come so. 

Movements of the Seed-leaves. — The seed- 
leaves, like all other growing parts, are the subjects 
of movements such as have been described in the 
radicle and caulicle, but regulated by their position 



and attachments, as well as by external conditions — 
temperatui-e, &c. In addition to these movements 
are certain others, called by Darwin " sleep move- 
ments," and which have been observed by him in a 
large number of plants of different orders. The 
effect of these movements is to place the two seed- 
leaves, which pre\dously approximate to the horizontal 
position, in a more or less vertical direction, and 
nearly or quite in apposition. The object of these 
movements seems to be to jprotect the upper sm-face 
of the seed-leaf and the plumule fi-om the effects of 
chilling by radiation. AVhen leaves which usually 
close at night were prevented from so doing, the 
amount of dew upon the leaves forcibly kept apart 
was found to be great, while there was little or none 
on the closed leaves. "The position of the leaves 
at night affects their temperatm-e thi-ough radiation 
to such a degree that when exposed to a clear sky 
dui'ing a frost it is a question of life and death." 
If this be so ^\dth ordinary leaves, it is likely to be 
so to a greater extent with the seed-leaves. Attention 
to little points of detail of this character, at present 
almost wholly unobserved, will doubtless serve to 
explain many peculiarities now vaguely set down to 
differences of constitution or habit, and ^dll suggest 
to the thoughtful gardener the appropriate treatment 
in doubtful cases. 

Practical Inferences from the foregoing 
Statements. — More obvious are the indications 
afforded by the different character of the seed, thick 
or thin -rinded, large or small, with thick or with 
thin seed-leaves, remaining below or thrust up 
above ground. 

By an attentive consideration of the requirements 
for gei-mination in general, of the physical and 
chemical changes that take place duiing the opera- 
tion, and of the peculiarities of form and organi- 
sation of different seedling plants, the gardener may 
obviously, gain many hints as to the best method 
of insm-ing the germination of the seeds entrusted 
to him. 

The matter has also an important bearing on the 
question of adulteration or wilfixl seed-killing ; thus, a 
perfectly sound sample placed under suitable condi- 
tions may be expected to produce 90 — 95 percent, of 
seedlings, or, in fact, not one may fail. The same 
seeds put into the hands of an unskilful practitioner, 
or in less favoui-able conditions, may not grow more 
than 50 per cent., and this from no fault of the seeds- 
man, and no defect in the seed. 

The variation observable in the length of time re- 
quired for germination depends also, doubtless, in a 
measure, upon the condition of ripeness of the seed. 
Thus, it has been shown that seeds of j)eas, beans, 
wheat, &:c., ripen before the seed-vessel containing 



THE ^'IXE AXD ITS FRUIT. 



91 



tiiem, and even before they have obtained their full 
size. In other cases the seeds do not ripen till after 
the fruit or seed-vessel has attained its matm-ity. 
Hence, whilst some seeds require to he sown at once, 
others germinate better if allowed to remain out of 
the ground some time, so as to allow of the slow 
changes in the seed pre'viously alluded to. "WTiere 
seeds quickly lose their vitality , as by dr^-ing, the pro. 
cess of stratification, or packing in earth kept just 
moist, is adopted, and this method is also one of the 
best to secure safe transit of seeds from the tropics. 



on the shores of the Caspian, in Armenia and Cara- 
mania, and is indigenous to a large portion of Asia, 
whence it was introduced into Egypt, Greece, Spain, 
Italy, and France. Its introduction into Britain is 
shrouded in doubt. Some old writers think it was 
brought over by the Romans a few years after the 
Christian era, while others assert that it was not 
grown in this country before the year 280, when 
Probus, a great patron of agTiculture in all the 
Roman pro^-inces, was EmjDcror. Some have at- 
tempted to make the Phoenicians immortal by sapng 




Fig. 1.— Leak-to Vikert. 
A A, Border; b b, drainage ; cc, ventilators ; d, passage ; oo, pipes. 



THE YINE AND ITS FRUIT. 

By William Colemau. 

INTROBJJCTORY. 

THE Tine. Vifis vunfera, is one of the oldest, as it 
is certainly one of the most graceful fruit -bear- 
ing trees we have in cultivation. Readers of the Old 
and Xew Testaments are well acquainted with the 
fact that its culture and uses were understood before 
the time of the Deluge, and that Xoah, after leaving 
the Ark, planted for himself a vineyard and made 
wine — pure and unsophisticated, no doubt, which is 
more than consumers of the present day can say. 
In the Book of Exodus we learn that the spies sent 
by Moses into Canaan retm-ned with an enormous 
bunch, borne between them on a staff. David often 
speaks of the vine, and finally, the Saviour Himself 
makes every Christian believer acquainted with it by 
His beautiful similes, and the way in which He has 
commanded us to make use of the wine in remem- 
brance of Him. According to Sickler it grows wild 



they brought the vine in the time of Solomon, 
when they visited the southern shores of this island 
for tin. Be this as it may, the Venerable Bede, a 
reliable authority, assures us that many vineyards 
existed in this country in his time (731), and when 
the Isle of Ely was Icnown as the Isle of Vines, from 
which the bishop of that diocese received an an- 
nual supx^ly of wine by way of tithe. William of 
Malmesbury, in the twelfth century, speaks highly 
of the county of Gloucester as a wine-growing dis- 
trict, where, as in the adjoining county of Hereford, 
traces of the flats or slopes on which the ^-ines were 
grown not only exist, but still bear the name of 
The Vineyard." We learn that excellent Bur- 
gundy was grown by the Duke of Xorfolk at 
Ai-undel, in Sussex, while Pains Hill, in Siu-rey, was 
noted for the quality of its champagne. AValham 
Green, Rotherhithe, Bury St. Edmunds, and Belvoir 
Castle, on the borders of Lincolnshire, are also men- 
tioned as having been famous for the excellence of 
thf ir wine, which was little, if at all, inferior to that 



92 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



grown in France. Such being the case, the Marquis 
of Bute's attem]3t and partial failure at Castle Coch, 
near Cardiff, in our own day, coupled with the fact 
that grapes now rarely ripen on south walls or shel- 
tered gables north of London, can only point to the 
one fact, that our climate has greatly deteriorated 
since the time of the Romans, or, later still, since the 
advent of the Normans. It cannot be that the hand 
of the British cultivator has lost its cunning, as he 
is not in the habit of turning back when he has set 
his mind on the attainment of a certain object; 
neither can it be that the old varieties, still in 
existence, are less hardy than they were eighteen 



The largest vines in this countiy — including the 
fine old Hamburgh at Hampton Court, planted in 
1769 ; the parent of the above, planted in 1758, at 
Valentines, in Essex, and said to be the oldest vine 
in England; the magnificent Hamburgh at Cum- 
berland Lodge, Windsor, which fills a house 130 
feet in length, produces more than 1,000 pounds 
of grapes annually, and supplies Her Majesty's 
table during her autumnal sojourn in Scotland ; 
the Hamburghs at Eastnor Castle and Finchley, 
from which the finest exhibition grapes are cut by 
the hundredweight; and the Muscat at Harewood 
near Leeds — are. mere pigmies compared with the 




Fig. 2.— Hip-roofed Vinery. 
A A, Border ; ■ b b, drainage ; c, ventilator ; fl, iiassage ; oo, pipes. 



hundred years ago. A good deal, however, must be 
attributed to the fact that our forefathers' out-of-door 
grapes had not to contend against those of such 
superb quality as are now grown in vineries, and 
hence, no doubt, much more care was taken to select 
the sweetest and most luscious. 

Large Vines. — In America it is no unusual oc- 
currence to meet with vines, Vitis labrtisca, three feet 
in circumference, with branches 200 feet in length. 
Evelyn, in his " Sylvia," speaks of vines of immense 
size, the timber from which was used for columns in 
the Temple of Juno. He also states that the great 
doors of the Cathedral at Ravenna were in his day dis- 
covered to have been made of vine planks, twelve feet 
in length and fifteen inches wide. Pliny mentions a 
vine that was 600 years old, and Strabo throws our 
own experience into the shade by giving the measure- 
ment of a vine as being twelve feet in circumference. 



vines of the past. But when it is borne in mind 
that these veteran timber-trees were grown in tlie 
open air in countries to which they were indigene;: s, 
where the soil and climate were congenial to thi ir 
requirements ; and that the vines of which we are so 
justly proud are cribbed and confined under glass 
roofs — great credit is due to the British grape- 
grower, who aims at the quality of fruit rather than 
the quantity of timber, and sets as much value nn 
the size of his berries as he does on the weight of 
the bunches. 

Large Bunches. — It must not, however, be in- 
ferred that the Leviathans of the past did not jield 
large bunches and enormous berries, as we read that 
vines in the islands of the Archipelago produced 
bimches a yard in length, weighing 30 to 40 lbs. ; 
and travellers in Asia Minor state that they saw 
grapes growing in the neighbourhood of Damascus, 



THE TIXE AXD ITS FEUIT. 



93 



fclie berries of widcli were as large as pigeons' eggs. 
SpeecMe)', the gardener at Welbeck, towards tlie 
end of the last centur}', succeeded in growing a 
bimch of the Syrian grape which weighed 19i lbs. ; 
and several eminent grape-growers of the present 
day have repeatedly produced enormous bunches, 
which have never before been surpassed, if they have 
been equalled. About the middle of last century, 
the cultivation of grapes under glass in the gardens 
of -the wealthy became pretty general ; but it was 
not until timber and glass became cheaper that hot- 
house building became an important trade. This 
soon brought about a great alteration, not only in 
the mode of culture, but also in the varieties which 
were considered worth growing in heated houses. 



the style of house, aspect, and mode of heating and 
ventQating. For very early forcing, as well as for 
the production of late crops of grapes, which are 
usually allowed to hang fi-om the time they are ripe 
in September until they are cut and bottled in 
December, the lean-to -vdnery — that is to say, a 
house built against an existing wall — is in many 
ways the cheapest and best-adapted structure that 
can be used ; as the substantial wall, which affords 
shelter from north winds, prevents sudden de- 
pressions of temperature in our fickle climate at a 
time when the tender growths are most easily 
injured or destroyed by cutting draughts, which 
camiot be so readily excluded from the nov fashion 
able span-roof. 




A, Area 



Fig. 3.— Semi-spait-koof Tixert. 
B B, 'border ; c c, drainage ; d d. Tentilators ; 



e, passage ; oo, pipes. 



Down to that time all the vaiieties had been intro- 
duced from abroad, but now we have numerous 
Enghsh seedlings of the highest merit, which 
growers cultivate by the ton. It is estimated that 
English gi'owers in 1886 sent 400 tons of grapes to 
market; Jersey growers supplied about 500 tons; 
and one tradesman in Kensington disposed of 
40,000 lbs. to private customers direct. Houses of 
large size are springing up in every part of the 
Tnited Kingdom, and the growth of the finest 
grapes in the world, with which our markets are 
supplied aU the year round, now forms a \ery im- 
portant item in our commercial enterprise. 



HOUSES FOR GRAPJE-GROWING. 
To have first-class grapes aU the year round, con- 
siderable skill and judgment are required on the 
part of the cultivator, not only in the selection of 
varieties suitable for the different seasons at which 
the grapes may be required in perfection, but also in 



This house (Fig. 1) may be of any length and 
width, but a fair size for a private garden is 40 to 50 
feet long, by 15 to 18 feet wide. The angle of the 
roof should not be less than 35°, neither should it be 
more than 40°, as sharp-pitched houses are always 
sensitive and difficult to manage in early spring. 
In modern gardens, where a lofty back wall would 
be objectionable, Fig. 2 will be found neat, compact, 
and well adapted for the growth of early or late 
grapes. It is a section of a house designed and 
built by the writer of these pages more than twenty 
years ago ; and having given entire satisfaction, it is 
strongly recommended to the amateur or professional 
grower. The front faces due south, and forms what 
is termed a fixed roof, with sash-bars 18 inches 
apart. The glass is 21 oz., British sheet. The front 
lights work on a central bar of gas-tubing, and the 
top ventilator, which is hinged to the ridge-tree, 
is thrown upwards by lule- jointed elbows, firmly 
ke^-ed to another bar of tubing running the whole 



94 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAPDEXING. 



length o£ the house, with a short lever and handle, 
also keyed to the rod in the centre of the house. 
The front sill is placed on piers 4 feet apart, and the 
vines being planted inside, about 1 8 inches from the^ 
front, have the run of external and internal borders, 
as shown in the section. Many grape-growers 
object to internal borders, because, they assert, the 
roots of the vines are always found more plen- 
tiful in the outside than they are in the inside 
borders ; but this is a delusion, or a condition 
brought about by mismanagement, as vines in all 
stages of growth require copious supplies of water, 
and when this important element is withheld from 
internal borders, they very naturally struggle to get 
a share of the refreshing moisture that is so plenti- 
fully poured upon the external roots by the hand 
of nature. 

Fig. 3 is an illustration of a house also built upon 
the same principle for the growth of Muscats on the 
south, and that fine, but rarely well-managed grape, 
Black Morocco, on the north. The glazing and 
ventilating are in every respect similar to that in 
the preceding house ; but the pipes, as will be seen 
on reference to the section, are differently arranged, 
and the border on the north side is cut off from the 
Muscat border by means of an area (marked a), 
which can be filled with fermenting material, run- 
ning under an iron grating, which forms the path or 
gangway through the centre of the house. Although 
mid-season or late grapes can be grown in this house, 
it is not so well adapted to early forcing as the 
lean-to, owing to the large area of glass being 
exposed to the sudden changes of temperature we 
experience from the time early houses are started in 
December until the fruit has passed all the most 
critical stages in April. But for Muscats, which 
revel in an abundance of sun, heat, and light, and 
which usually have the best part of the summer for 
making their growth, the hip-roofed house, facing 
the south, has more advantages than the lean-to, 
while its appearance is certainly more graceful and 
pleasing to the eye. 

Fig. 4 represents a true span-roofed vinerj% which 
may be erected in any part of the garden, as the en- 
tire structure can be supported on either brick piers 
or cast-iron columns, rising to the surface of the 
borders. It is usual to set these houses to face east 
and west, that is to say, one end to stand north and 
the other due south, an arrangement which exposes 
the vines on each side to an equal share of sunlight, 
while the whole being glass, an abundance of air and 
light, so essential to the perfect growth and matura- 
tion of the wood and fruit, can at all times be ob- 
tained. This style of house is by no means new, as 
some of the finest and oldest vines in Gi-reat Britain 
are now growing under a span-roof. Neither is it 



expensive, unless the o^wner feels inclined to increase 
the cost by ornamentation to meet and blend with 
the surrounding buildings. One thing, however, be 
the house plain or ornamental, is very important — 
the quality of the materials of which it is composed. 
None but the best seasoned red deal should be used ; 
all ornamentation should be secured by means of 
moulding or chamfering the solid wood in pre- 
ference to putting on mouldings ; all flat surfaces 
calculated to hold water or condensed moisture 
should be avoided, and none but the best Biitish 
sheet-glass, white lead, and oil should be used for 
resisting the elements. If proof of these remarks 
should be wanted, the reader has only to go into the 
market-growlers' establishments, where a shilling is 
never spent if a smaller sum will suffice, and where 
hundi'eds of houses of this kind are now producing 
tons of the best grapes in the world, to satisfy 
himself that the man who lives by his intelligence 
and industry, while building upon the plainest lines 
imaginable, uses the very best materials that money 
can buy. 

From the foregoing pages it will be seen that 
direct sun-heat and light are of the greatest import- 
ance ; but there is no rule without an exception, as 
good Hambro' grajoes can and have been grown 
under glass where the aspect has been due north. 
Of course, the heating and ventilating must be 
in every way jperfect, and the borders should be 
internal, not over- wide, well raised, and thoroughly 
drained. 

Trellis for the Vines. — The trellis on which 
the vines are to be trained forms an important part 
of the structure. In old, heavily-timbered houses, it 
was usual to place three wires 9 inches ajoart and 
about 12 inches below the glass under each rafter ; a 
system which answered fairly well when the squares 
were small, and every lap admitted a current of air : 
but under the modern mode of close glazing with, 
lairge squares, a greater distance is now allowed, for 
the tw^ofold purpose of admitting a free circulation 
of air above the fully-developed foliage, as well as to 
prevent scorching when the moisture is obliged to find 
its way to the apex ventilators before it can escape 
from the house. Many give preference to galvanised 
wires, running longitudinally the w^hole length of the 
house, 10 inches apart, and 18 to 24 inches from the 
glass. The mode of supporting the wii-es is entirely 
a matter of taste. Some use long iron pins, with a 
mesh at one end for screwing on to the rafters, and 
an eye at the other for carrying the wires, and when 
neatly fixed they look light and pleasing. But a 
plain substantial trellis can be secured by running 
flat iron bars, 1^ inch by ^ inch, from the fi'ont 
mullions to the back wall, 18 to 24 inches below^ the 



THE VINE AND ITS FRUIT. 



95 



apex, and supporting them in the middle with a light 
screwed pin, passed an inch or more into the rafters. 
These hars being of uniform length, with holes 
drilled through them 10 inches apart for carr\dng 
the wires, form a framework which cannot give way 
under the heaviest strain that is likely to be brought 
to bear upon it. As many plant and fruit growers 
do not approve of galvanised wire for training pur- 
poses, their objections can be easily overcome by 
giving the trellis two or three coats of paint after it 
is fixed. For conveniently carrying out the extension 
•or long-rod system of training, the longitudinal- 
wired trellis is infinitely superior to the cross trel- 
lises, composed of three wires placed under each rafter. 



number of houses have to be heated from one stoke- 
hole, fitted with a pair of boilers working separately 
or together, the saddle and the Trentham are un- 
surpassed for power and economy. In the arrange- 
ment of the pipes, the fitter must, of course, be 
guided by local conditions and the purpose for which 
the house is required. As heated air naturally 
ascends, it has hitherto been thought advisable, 
while avoiding too close proximity to the stems of 
the vines, to place the stacks or tiers of pipes near 
the ground-line and in the coldest part of the house. 
For early and Muscat houses, more piping is required 
than in mid-season houses ; but to insure an abun- 
dance of heat in severe weather, and to avoid over- 




Fig. 4.— Span-roofed Vinery. 
A, Area ; b b, border ; c c, drainage ; d d, ventilators ; e, passage ; oo, pipes. 



Artificial Heating. — Though there are several 
modes of applying artificial heat to vineries, it is not 
necessary to touch upon any of the old systems long 
jsince superseded by the introduction of hot water, 
which is at once the cleanest, neatest, and most 
efiicient arrangement yet introduced to the horti- 
culturist. Unfortunately for the amateur, the 
number of boilers before the public is so numerous 
that he will find it difi&cult to decide upon the best. 
During the last thirty years a great variety of cast- 
iron boilers have been introduced ; but, owing to 
unequal contraction and expansion, the metal is 
liable to crack, and the apparatus is then rendered 
useless. Having before them the disastrous results 
produced by these mishaps, nearly all practical 
growers are now using wrought-iron boilers, of 
which the terminal-ended, welded saddle boiler, and 
the Trentham, or improved Cornish boiler, are by 
iar the best. In large establishments where a great 



heating at all times, the shrewd economist will 
always furnish his houses with ample piping. As a 
guide to those w^ho have not had much practical 
experience in heating, "Hood's Tables," for finding 
the length of four-inch pipes required to heat 1,000 
cubic feet of air per minute to from 45" to 90°, the 
temperature of the pipe being 200°, will be found 
useful and reliable. 



Temperature 



Temperature at wMcli the House is to 
be kept. 



External Air. 






55° 


60° 


65° 


70° 


75° 1 80° 


85° 


90° 




rt. 


Ft. 


Ft. 


Ft. 


Ft. 


Ft. 


Ft.' Ft. 


Ft. 


Ft. 


10° 


126 


150 


174 


200 


229 


259 


292 1 328 


367 


409 


20° 


91 


112 


135 


160 


187 


216 


247 I 281 


318 


358 


32° 


54 


75 


97 


120 


145 


173 


202 j 234 


269 


807 


33° 


47 


67 


89 


112 


187 


164 


198 i 225 


259 


296 


40° 


18 


37 


58 


80 


104 


129 


157 i 187 


220 


255 


50° 






19 


40 


62 


86 


112 ' 140 


171 


204 



96 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENIXG. 



To use this table, look for tlie lowest temperature 
in tlie left-hand column, and at the top for the 
highest temperature at which the house is required 
to he kept, and where the two columns intersect will 
he found the numh-r of feet of 4-inch piping- required 
to heat 1,000 cubic feet of air per minute. Ex- 
ample : — A house containing 10,000 cubic feet of aii-, 
which it is required to keep at 70°, taking the ex- 
ternal air at 32°, will requii'e 1,6-iO feet of 4-inch 
piping to heat it. 



GEOUND OPERATIONS. 



TRENCHING. 
rr^HIS is one of the most important preliminary 
-L operations within the whole range of horti- 
cultural practice. If the maxim "Dig deep to find 
the gold " be true, and it is, how much more gold may 
be — is, in fact — found by trenching for it ? No one 
can say how much, though without doubt it may be 
reckoned by millions and tens of millions sterling.. 
For the statement that "mass is might " is as true 
of the earth as of mechanical force. The productive 
force of the earth may, in fact, be measured by its 
mass plus its quality. Now the very germ and 
substance of all good trenching is to add to the bulk 
of the cultivated earth, and improve its quality, by 
converting a certain amount of hard subsoil into 
porous surface soil. 

Mere Inversion of the Soil not G-ood 
TrencMng. — Mistakes about trenching have pre- 
vailed to such an extent as almost to upset its true 
theory, and arrest its practice. The simple turn- 
iag of the earth upside down may be good or bad 
according to circumstances, although it has been 
mostly and almost everywhere bad= For it must be 
a very wetched sui'face soil, indeed, that would not 
prove something better than that found a yard lower 
down. Effeteness or sterility alone is not likely to 
contribute much productive force to surface tilths, 
and the lower-l}^g layers are mostly the worst 
soils or subsoils. Even the worms, the last dis- 
covered, though doubtless the first great creators, 
transposers, and transformers of sui'face mould, 
can make little or nothing of the harsh, sterile sub- 
soil, but confine their operations chiefly to the sur- 
face, and the strata in semi-transition in dkect 
proximity to it. 

Natui^e, the great teacher of the cultivator, never 
attempts to improve her surface tilths by inversion. 
"Under the economy of nature, surface soils are 
grown slowly but surely fi'om the suirface down- 
wards, rather than fi'om their base upwards. The 
gradual decomposition of the roots and tops of 



plants, the disintegrating and enriching forces of the 
atmosphere, the deposits left by water and the heat of 
the sun, all work from the sui'face downwards ; even 
the woims always spread their rich excretions on 
the surface, thus being the fii-st to teach the great 
modem art of top-di-essing land. iSubsoils are 
gTadually transfonned into soils in a similar order ; 
the soluble substances held in suspense by the 
surface mould — and these are. ever the most ^-alu- 
able — are carried down by the rains into the subsoil, 
and gradually though sui'ely convert these into sui'- 
face mould. 

It is most important to bear all this in mind in 
order to gain all the solid advantages, and run as few 
risks as possible of injm'y to the sm-face by trenching. 
The first example of trenching ever observed by 
the author, proved such a failui'e that the soil had to 
be untrenched, to coin a word, before it could be of 
any use. It was simply inverted and turned over to 
a depth of four feet, the last two being sheer clay. 
Duiing the winter and early spi-ing the clay was 
as plastic as bii'd-lime. As the di'ought and heat 
of summer came it hardened into something akin 
to brickbats. Planted with broccoli, by means of a 
crow-bar, these simply refused to grow, or made 
such little progress as to be useless. The ti'enching, 
in a word, had ruined the soil. So the following- 
winter it was retui'ned, and carefully mixed dui'ing 
the process ; and the whole mass, by the addition of 
enormous masses of stable manm-e, in a rough state, 
was converted into faii'ly productive growing soil. 
However, the xital mistake of mixing an excess of 
clay with the sui'face staple made the whole difficult 
to work, and imsuitable for garden purposes for 
years. 

Tentative Deepening of Soils the only 
Safe and Profitable Trenching. — ^As we have 
already seen, trenching proceeds in an oiDposite com'se 
to natm'e in the deepening of soils. That suggests 
the necessity of the utmost caution, and hence the 
importance of proceeding a little at a time. The 
fimdamental error in most trenchings may be said to 
lie in looking upon them as something done once for 
all, and not to be repeated for many years; and 
hence the temj)tation to trench too deeply. Of 
com'se it is often useful to practise trenching in this 
sense ; in the planting of fruit-trees and bushes, 
for instance ; as fortunately for such pm-poses it is 
not needful to trench so deeply as for the cultivation 
of less dui'able crops of vegetables and flowers. As 
little as eighteen inches or two feet is sufficiently 
deep for most of the fonner, and thus a fair soil or 
subsoil may usually be secured without serious dan- 
ger of converting fruitful fields into barren gardens 
or orchards thi'ough heavy deposits of barren earths 



GROUND OPERATIONS. 



97 



on their surface. But vegetables should have a sur- 
face tilth of from three to four feet when possible, 
a^ this can be gradually and surely formed by 
successive trenchings without lowering the fertility of 
the 'sui'face during the process of adding to its mass, 
to the consequent augmentation of its power. 

The best way of doing this is to practise trenching 
as a mixing and deepening, rather than an inversive 
process, and a thing to come into the regidar course 
of cultivation at intervals of three or five years, 
rather than to be done once for all for a whole 
generation. 

Tools. — Having, it is hoped, made the object and 
general principles of trenching sufficiently clear, an 
attempt will now be made to teach the general 
reader how to trench. The tools wanted for the 
operation are a garden-line, a measuring-rod, a set of 
stakes, a barrow, and a spade. 

Garden-lines are made of varied lengths and stout- 
ness, and are wound on a reel at one end, and fur- 
nished with an iron pin at the other. Handy lengths 
range from ten to fifty, or even a hundred yards, 
according to the size of the garden. In large 
gardens, however, several sizes are used, and long 
lines should never be employed when short ones will 
suffice, as masses of cord, especially when wound round 
a reel, are a long time drying. In all gardens, a 
proper garden-line should be used, as nothing looks 
more slovenly, or is in the end so wasteful, as the 
use of two sticks for a garden- line. The lines should 
be wound or unwound carefully, taking care not to 
twist the strands in the process. The less garden- 
lines are used in wet weather the better, and should 
they get wet by any chance, they should at once 
be promptly dried. When in use they should never 
on any' account be left out at night, as the night 
dews or a passing shower will so contract the line 
as either to draw the pins or snap the line asunder, 
or so strain it as to ruin its quality. 

Measuring -rods. — One or two should be found in 
every garden. They are most convenient in lengths 
of five or ten feet. The first is handy for short 



I i I I I I I I I 1 ! I I 

Fig. 7.— Measiiring-rod, 

measurements, and the second is as long as light 
splints can well be made without warping. The 
whole length should be marked in feet, half-feet, and 
inches (Fig. 7). 

Stakes. — A set of about six or a dozen stakes are 
also most useful for setting out ground for digging, 
trenching, draining, and other purposes. Straight 
deal stakes pointed at one end, and ranging in length 



from three feet to four, nicely made and painted, 
will last a life-time, and are far more convenient and 
workmanlike than the common bits of hazel or 
other such light sticks so generally used, and often 
not to be found when wanted. 

Barrows. — There are many different sorts, sizes, 
and materials. Garden barrows should be light, 
neat, and, relatively to others, small. Of course this 
does not apply to grass and leaf barrows, which 
cannot well be too large, but to those for earth and 
manure. The sides should also be so much sloped 
as to allow them to be emptied with ease. This is 
a point that it is difficult to get carpenters to attend 
to in the making of barrows, as the more the front 
and sides are bevelled, the more difficult to makj. 
Hence, and also through fancy and habit, the 
majority of garden barrows have their sides and 
front too straight, which makes them difficult to 
empty ; soil and manure ha\'ing often to be removed 
with fork or spade, to the loss of time and labour. 
This becomes serious when repeated, as in moving 
soil for short distances, which may happen several 
himdreds of times in the day. There should also be 
thi^ee or more clear inches between the wheel and 
the front board of the gai'den barrow, to prevent its 
getting clogged on wet soil. 

The Spade. — This is to ' horticulture what the 
plough is to agriculture, by far the most impor- 
tant implement in the garden. So much is this 
the case that, furnished with a good spade, the 
expert cultivator needs few other tools. It is most 
important that spades and their handles should be 
light and strong, and of such good quality that they 
not only last long, but improve by the wear and 
tear of frequent and constant use. Spades are made 
of different sizes, from sixteen inches deep and ten 
broad to nine inches by five. A capital size for 
amateurs is a foot deep by eight inches broad. The 
best spades mostly measure an inch or so less at the 
point or cutting surface than at the upper or tread- 
ing part of. the spade. All the best garden spades 
now are faced with steel, the back being iron ; and 
this juxtaposition of two metals of such imequal 
hardness results in the iron wearing away fii'st and 
leaving the thin steel plate almost as sharp as a 
knife for cutting its way thi'ough the soil. The top 
of good spades is furnished with a plate, called 
the treader, which increases the power of the foot in 
thrusting it into the ground, and also protects the 
shoes in doing so. Laboming men, however, often 
strap an iron treader under the sole of theii- boot to 
prevent the latter being injured or worn out in the 
act of trenching or digging. 

In good spades the handle consists of two parts — 
the iron sheath and receiver, consisting of two sheaths 
with holes for three or more rivets through them, and 



98 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



the handle, mostly made of the best seasoned ash, 
finishing with a hand-piece at the top, the whole 
being about two and a half feet in height. Blade 
and handle may either be made straight or with 
various curves or inclinations. A slight cm-ve 
will add to the ease and force with which the 
spade may be used. The great secret of keeping a 
gpade in good order is frequent use, and perfect 
cleanliness and di-yness when not in use. A spade 
should be as carefully cleaned, and sharpened if need 
be, after use, before being hung up, as a carving- 
knife, if it is to prove efficient when wanted. Skilled 
workmen often keep their spades as bright as theii" 
master's plate, rubbing them with tallow to prevent 
rust when they are put aside for any length of time. 
It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of pre- 
venting the waste of physical force by such simple 
contrivances ; and it is no exaggeration to add that 
a keen-edged bright spade will do double the work 
with one-half the exertion a dirty, blimt, rusty one 
requires. The merest tyro in gardening has only to try 
the difference for five minutes to determine him to 
take, for all future time, as much care of his spade as 
of his carvers. One more hint maybe given here. 
Those about to begin gardening should look about 
among their laboui'ing neighbours for a clean, well- 
worn, second-hand spade, presenting them with a fii'st- 
rate new one for it. To dig or trench -^ith a new 
spade is horses' w^ork, and has cooled the enthusiasm 
of many at the \qvj thi-eshold of horticultm'al 
pui'suits. 

Methods of Trencliing. — Assuming that a 
piece of ground twenty yards wide and thirty long 
is to be trenched, there are two distinct ways of set- 
ting about it. ]\Iark a space off at one end a yard 
wide at the narrowest — foiu- feet would be better — ■ 
and commence to take out the trench, as it is called, a 
yard wide and deep, and wheel the whole of it to the 
far end, placing the opening soil, if possible, clear 
of the ground. This ]3lan answers very well, but 
it involves the removal of twenty or more cubic 
yards or cart-loads of earth, that is, say one hundred 
and fifty good barrow-loads, for a distance of thirty 
yards. Until quite recently this seemed to be the 
most orthodox mode of commencing. With the idea 
of limiting the labour of transporting such a con- 
siderable mass of soil from one end to the other, 
not a few trenchers contract their opening as much 
as possible, leaving barely sufficient space to invert 
the soil. This, as we shall see, is so mischievous that 
such trenching is almost better dispensed with. 

But now a much easier method is adopted thus : 
divide the twenty or any number of yards to be 
trenched into two equal parts as by the line ab 
(Fig. 8). Then the ground on one half — say from a 



to c — is trenched first, and the soil from a, instead of 
being wheeled to c, is thi-own on the adjoining 
ground, h. When the last trench, c, of the first haif- 



^ \ f \ 9 



Fig. 8.— Trencliiug, 

area is reached, the soil out of d is taken to fill it up 
and finish from a to c, and the process continues back 
to Zi, where the soil first thrown out is found ready to 
fill-in the last opening and finish the work. Tlio 
saving of laboui' is not the only advantage of this 
method. Nothing injm-es soil more than the 
wheeling of heavy weights over it when at all 
wet ; and as trenching is mostly winter work, it 
follows that the harrowing of tlie soil for the opening 
over the smiace not seldom puddles the ground, and 
thus probably inflicts more hann than the trenching- 
does good. 

As to the trenching itself, the narrowest opening 
jDracticable is a yard ; but if the trenching is to go 
deeper than a yard, a good rule is to make the width 
equal to the depth. Having determined the width of 
the trench to be first opened at a (Fig. 8), measure it 
oft and drive a stake at each end, stretch a line fi'om 
stake to stake, and cut a mark with the spade all 
along. Next proceed to dig out all the contents of 
the trench to the prescribed depth, removing 
the earth to either h or c as already described. The 
" opening," as it is called, will now be clear and 
empty from top to bottom ;- the operator will stand 
with the ox^en trench in front of Mm a yard across, 
and the rest of the ground to be trenched in his rear; 
and the operation of " trenching " consists in placing 
all the soil from a second strip of ground, e, the same 
width as the trench, into : of a third, /, into e ; g into 
/, and so on ; in doing which the whole of the soil 
and subsoil is more or less inverted, transj)^^^*^' 
re-mixed. 

Before proceeding fm-ther, loosen up the base of 
the empty trench with a pick to a depth of six or 
more inches. It is good practice to apply a heavy 
coating of maniu-e in the trenching of garden ground, 
and it will be assumed throughout that this whole- 
some practice is followed. The method, however, 
should be in all other respects the same, whether 
mantu-c is used or not. Assuming that it is, place 



GROUND OPERATIONS. 



99 



a layer of rough rank dung two or three inches thick, 
if it can be afforded, on the top of the freshly-stirred 
subsoil. Then a yard of the ground (as at e) is marked 
off in the manner already described for the opening 
«; and this second strip is to be either simply 
inverted — which may be sufficient for shallow 
trenching in good ground — or skilfully manipulated 
and mixed in transferring it, "into the opening. Of 
course, as the partly-moved soil will be lighter and 
looser than when it lay solid, it will occupy more 
space, and the ground will be raised even if no 
manure is used. In most cases the soil is simply dug 
out and thrown down in one mass, the top " spit " * 
being thrown into the bottom of the opening, the 
second following, and then the third ; the soil 
being thus inverted as well as transposed. But 
this is the worst method, and the evil of bringing 
the lower layer to the surface may be reduced to 
a minimum by working each trench after the first 
opening in two halves, as shown by the dotted line, a, 




Pig. 9.— Half-trenching. 

in Fig. 9. Here, instead of digging out the whole 
yard at once, half a yard is taken at a time. As this 
half-yard is used to fill up a trench of double the 
width, it will only fill it half full as at b. This half- 
stage is a good point at which to apply another 
dressing of manure ; and then, when the second half- 
yard is taken and thrown on b, this top layer of new 
ground will also consist of half surface soil. The 
freshly-moved earth at h is always to be kept more or 
less on an incline as shown, which will also, for 
obvious reasons, favour the more thorough mixture 
of " tops " and " bottoms," the great end in all good 
trenching. When e (Fig. 8) is cleared, / is taken in 
the same way, and so on till the whole ground is 
gone over. 

During the whole of the process of trenching, 
the crumbs— that is, the fragments that fall off 
the full spadefuls and from the edges of the cuts- 
should on no account be thrown out. The majority 
of workmen take out a full spadeful all over the 
trench, and then, either ^dth spade or shovel, remove 
the crumbs, leading the ground firm and clear for a 
second full spadeful, and so on until the bottom is 
reached. By acting thus, one most potential means 
of thoroughly mixing all qualities of the soil and 
subsoil into one homogeneous mass is thoughtlessly 

* A " spit " in gardening is the ground dug by one depth 
of the spade. 



lost. Let the crumbs find their ov^ti level from top 
to bottom, and all the way through the work ; and 
not a few of them ydW be found at the base of the 
trench, mixing, freely with and forming powerful 
factors in the conversion of sterile subsoils into 
vegetable mould. 

Keep the liTew Surface on an Inclined 
Plane. — This has already been mentioned, but is 
one of those matters of detail that is likely to be 
overlooked by all but those having much expe- 
rience in trenching. The simplest way of laying 
the work on an incline is, to allow the last thrown- 
in three feet of earth to overlap the open trench by 
a foot or eighteen inches. The space will not thus 
be quite filled up to the level of the new ground. 
Hence, part of the next or third yard-space may be 
pitched over to form the surface of the first opening, 
while the major portion will go into the second 
trench in exactly the same way as the soil of the 
second filled the first. And, of course, by trenching 
each alike, the whole of the newly-trenched ground 
will be very much of the same quality. 

Importance of Rough Surface. — It is quite 
a mistake to break ground fine in the process of 
trenching, unless in the case of very strong adhesive 
loams or clays, which may be improved by some 
slight subdivision, freely introducing old mortar, 
rough sand, or other disintegrators in the process. 
The majority of soils should be trenched in imbroken 
spadefuls, and especially should these be left as 
rough and whole as possible on the sui-face (Fig. 10). 




Fig. 10.— Eough Surface. 



As these masses or clods, as they are called, are 
mellowed down by time and other influences, the 
work of incorporation and thorough mixture of soil 
and subsoil will be complete, and the surface will 
gradually become fine. 

"What to Do with the Stones. — Unless very 
large, i.e., exceeding two or three pounds in weight, 
leave all the stones alone in the lower strata. They 
are useful in keeping hea\y soils more open, and in 
retaining moistm-e in light ones. "Within a foot or 
so of the surface, all the larger stones may be re- 
moved. But unless the ground is very full of them 
indeed, it would be well to return most of those 
picked out to the lower strata. Not a few will con- 
demn this ad%'ice as heterodox and injurious. It may 
be the former, because cultivators have been trained 



100 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



to look upon stones in the soil, or subsoil, as their 
natural enemies ; whereas, in moderation, experience 
has proved them to be among our best friends. Had 
the cost involved through incessant stone-picking 
been devoted to the deepening and enriching of sur- 
face tilths, it is probable that the produce of fields 
and gardens might have been doubled years ago. Of 
course, there are soils so much over-stoned as to be 
inconvenient for garden purposes; and in such, the 
operation of trenching will be made a means of 
reducing their numbers. But as a rule, in gardens, 
little or no stone-picking need follow or proceed 
abreast of trenching. 

The Time to Trench, and After-treatment 
before Cropping. — October or November, or 
even earlier, should the crops have been pre\iously 
cleared off, are the best months for trenching. The 
whole of the winter will at such seasons lie before the 
newly-trenched surface, and what that means must 
be seen to be appreciated. It is hardly too much to 
say that frostings and thawings, solvent showers and 
drying winds, convert sterile earths into fruitful 
surface moulds, and endow our semi-dead soils with 
life-sustaining energy and productive force. All 
these beneficial influences are enhanced if, some 
time in February or early in March, the newly- 
trenched soil is forked over in the opposite direction 
to what it was trenched, and once more the sm^face 
left rough, though on the whole even or level. 
The phrases seem contradictory, but they are not. 
Even very large clods may be so distributed that as 
they break and mellow into smoothness, the ground 
will be found sufficiently level for cropping purposes. 

The Time to Repeat Trenching.— This wiU 
vary very greatly in different soils. Some soils that 
stand in great need of di-essing ma}^ be trenched 
with advantage every third or fourth year ; others 
may not need trenching again for eight or ten years. 
Hence a plan of all gardens should be kept, giving 
the date and a few other particulars, such as the 
time every portion of the ground has been trenched, 
drained, or specially treated. Such memoranda 
would prove invaluable indices and guides to future 
treatment, and explain many apparently inexplicably 
varied results to be noted in the same garden. 

The ground should either be trenched backwards 
or across the next time, thereby insuring its being 
more thoroughly mixed. Generally, too, a gain in 
depth of fi'om four to six inches may be safely made 
at each trenching, especially when a layer of manure 
has been spread over the subsoil. The greater per- 
viousness of trenched lands allows of more air 
and water passing through ; and these must carry 
some enriching elements with them, besides those 



gained from the chemical properties of the manure. 
AU these begin so soon as liberated the apparently 
hopeless task of converting the barren, inert subsoil 
into fruitful mould. The earth-worms also work 
deeper, and grow fatter and stronger in trenched 
than in untrenched land, and hence exert a far more 
potent influence than they did before in the fuilher 
improvement and emichment of the ground. 



THE FLOWER GAEDEN. 

By William Wildsmith. 



SUMMER BEDDING. 

THIS term is applied to that mode of flower gar- 
dening which consists in putting out plants of 
a more or less tender nature during the month of 
May and beginning of June; a method that has 
done more to foster a love of flowers and of garden- 
ing in general amongst the gi-eat mass of the people, 
than the most elaborate scheme — devised with that 
intent — could have been expected to accomplish. 
The system has its detractors, but those who would 
wish it discontinued have not yet told us, or shown 
us, an alternative way to produce the same pleasing 
combinations as is done by summer bedding ; and 
till that time we must continue to plant out as usual, 
making such improvements as we can and shall, 
from lengthened experience, as to material and ar- 
rangement. 

We ought, however, to note one or two of the 
principal objections to summer bedding, and thefii'st 
is, " The plants are too tender, too short-lived," put 
out in June to be destroyed at the end of Septem- 
ber. This we are compelled to accept as a valid 
objection, but it is to a large extent capable of 
remedy ; though, certainly, the application of the 
remedy must be at the expense of some loss of coloiu-. 
A little colour-, however, can be well spared, for 
gaudiness is not beauty : a fact, which, if thoroughly 
recognised, with special reference to this matter, 
would tend to the reduction of gaudiness, and to 
greater refinement of arrangement. Hardier plants 
might be used more freely, of which there are num- 
bers most suitable for the purpose now available, but 
which was not the case when summer bedding fii-st 
came into vogue. 

Another objection is on the ground of sameness, 
monotony — " One garden is just like another," and 
so on. To this the answer must be, blame not the 
system itself for this, but those who have the work- 
ing out of the scheme. Why should two gardens be 
alike ? Even if the same kinds of plants be used, a 
very moderate amount of indi\idual originality will 



THE FLOWER GARDEN. 



101 



meet this objection, and if put into practice would 
prove a complete remedy. 

The last objection is that of the labour and house- 
room required to propagate and house the plants. 
This is the most valid objection of all, and relief can 
only be found by freer adoption of the plan named 
to meet the fii-st objection, viz., increasing our use of 
hardy plants. A great advance is being made in 
this direction, and if it is still pushed on, summer 
bedding will ultimately be just as economically done 
as any other description of flower gardening. Even 
if it were not, however, so long as it is appreciated 
as it is at present, that appreciation is justification 
sufficient for its continuance. 

Appropriateness. — Summer bedding is adapt- 
able to any position where flowers are wished to be 
grown, yet is always most pleasing in a garden of 
formal design, the reason of this doubtless being, 
that for the most part the plants used are dwarf 
growers, of uniform habit and evenness of outline. 
Developing the same characteristics, they thus har- 
monise with the regularity and imiformity of the 
formal parterre ; and here it may be remarked that, 
much as lovers of " hardy" flowers insist that their 
pets are just as well suited for this kind of garden 
as are ordinary bedding plants, we cannot accept an 
opinion so at variance with experience. They lack 
that evenness of outline, or balance of vegetation 
and colouring, which should characterise a garden of 
formal design. Hardy herbaceous plants, much as 
they may be supplemented with evergreen varieties, 
and suitable kinds of shrubs, are so irregular in their 
season of flowering, height, and general character, 
that they cannot be relied on to produce these 
effects. So long, therefore, as geometrically designed 
gardens exist, just so long will it be in good taste to 
furnish the same with plants that are at least amen- 
able to something approaching uaiiformity in general 
appearance, and more especially so in regard to con- 
tinuity and season of flowering. 

Other appropriate places than a geometrical par- 
terre are, each side of straight walks ; or on a rising 
piece of ground that can be seen from the walks ; or 
the opposite of this, a low and concealed part of the 
gi^ounds, where the garden cannot be seen till 
reached, and then to be viewed from an elevated 
point. This latter sort of arrangement may be 
called a surprise garden ; at the first sight of which 
the most cynical critic of bedding-out would be lost 
in admiration. 

Colour.— In this respect tastes vary greatly, but 
there can be no doubt that the " quieter " the beds 
are, the more lasting and pleasing is the effect. The 
everlasting repetition of scarlet, yellow, and blue, 



which one occasionally sees, is so gaudy— not to say 
vulgar — that there is no wonder if, when such a 
sample is quoted as an average one of summer bed- 
ding, everybody possessed of the least good taste 
should repudiate the system. But then it is not an 
average sample, and happily the little there is, grows 
less and less every year. The colours which produce 
satisfjdng effects for the longest period are greys, 
blues, pinks, violets, and whites. Not that we would 
disparage high colours, such as scarlet and yellow ; 
but, if we may use the term, these colours so over- 
power all others, that they should be used in less 
proportion and as centres, by reason of theii- superior 
vividness or weight. 

We shall best make plain our meaning as to what 
is meant by the latter term "weight," as applied to 
colour, and what by that of " quietness," by saying 
that the two primary rules which a good flower gar- 
dener follows are designated Contrast and Harmony. 
Supposing a bed to be arranged after the first-named 
rule, it might be as follows : — scarlet, white, blue, 
orange ; or again, bronzy-black, yellow, violet, green ; 
and so on thi'oughout all intermediate colours. Thus 
it will be seen that the rule of " contrast " is simple 
in the extreme, so far as concerns the selection of 
colours. Proportion, however, is not quite so readily 
determined, and it is very difficult to give any precise 
direction how it should be arranged, excepting to say 
that to avoid loe'ightiness — or excessively high colour- 
ing — the lighter colours should predominate in the 
proportion of about three to two. 

Harmony of colouring is usually the most satis- 
fying. The term means — if one may so express it — 
the insensible blending of one colour with another, 
or what may be expressed as the gentle leading vp of 
one colour to another. To give an example : we 
begin with, white, then salmon, or light pink, dark 
pink, rose, light red, scarlet ; thus making a transi- 
tion from white to deep scarlet ; which to write it 
seems as violent, as it really is imperceptible and 
pleasing when practically tested. 

Those blessed vdth a keenness of perception for 
coloiu- will not need such aids ; but any who mistrust 
their ability in this direction should get a box of 
variously-coloured wafers, and spread them out in 
a strong light, till they get the colours arranged in 
such a way as best suits their taste. The veriest 
novice may with confidence resort to this simple 
expedient, in full assui'ance that he will be rewarded 
for his pains. 

This much as to colour in detail ; now as to the 
colour' of the ivhole, that is, of the whole garden. 
Every bed, border, and vase should be arranged fi-om 
this standpoint ; for no matter how beautiful one bed 
or series of beds may be, if an adjoining set does not 
harmonise with them, there will be (to the educated 



102 



CASSELLSS POPULAR GARDENIXG. 



colourist) vexation of spirit for tlie wlxole season. 
There is nothing like bujdng one's experience dearly 
to make us more cautious about f utui-e f ailui-es ; and 
ha^ing■ had thus to buy more than once, the fol- 
lowing rule is the result : — Give no special prominence 
to any one colour-; or, in other words, the various 
colours must be so dispersed over the whole garden, 
that 'if asked to decide which was the prevalent 
one we could not easily do so. The endeavoui- to 
carry out such a rule wiU , of itself prevent any 
abruptness of colouring, and eventually perseve- 
rance will be rewarded by the realisation of the ideal. 



Arrangements. — The arrange- 




ECALE OF FEET 



Plans and 

ments of indi- 
\'idual beds, as 
being likely to 
be of most ser- 
vice to the 
general reader, 
will here be 
treated of ; and 
if the rule of 
no prominence 
be kept upper- 
most, it will be 
imnecessary to 
say anything 
further in re- 
spect of the 
more general 
arrangement of 
the above, ex- 
cept that all 
geometrical 
patterns should 
have their 
counterparts 
planted in ex- 
actly the same way, and there should be no cross-corner 
arrangements, such as some people seem to have a 
special affection for, but which surely cannot be real, 
and must be only occasional freaks of eccentricity. 

Till recently it was the general practice in all ar- 
rangements of summer bedding plants, to have no 
standard, or what we should now call seiitincl plants, 
to break the siu-face-outline of pelargoniums and 
other similar dwarf plants. This notion of arrange- 
ment is totally at variance with good taste, or the 
charm w^hich is always, and with truth, said to ac- 
company vaiiety ; and yet the practice of so breaking 
the sm-face is, even now, an\i;hing but as general 
as it ought to be. The prominence given to such 
leading plants in the following arrangements will 
show that we, at any rate, do not consider the point 
a matter of little moment, but rather one which, 



whilst it insures variety, produces a tone of refine- 
ment throughout the whole, and effectively disposes 
of gaudiness and monotony of outline ; whilst it is 
just as suitable for application to the most severe 
geometrical pattern as for the plainest sjTnmetrical 
one. 

It is also necessary to observe that the arrange- 
ments shown are made with a view of lasting for the 
longest possible period, independently of the weather ; 
on this account many plants are set down here as 
summer bedders, which are not generally recognised 
as belonging to that order ; but it may be as well to 
say that none are enumerated except such as have 
been practically tested as being in e^-ery particrdar 

good compa- 
nions for bed- 

(iiiig plants 

16 generally. 



Fig. 1. — 1, Box edging ; 2, ground-work of Herniaria glabra ; 3, Echeveria secunda 
glaiica (slightly raised) ; 4, Alternanthera parouychioides ; 5, Mesembryan- 
themum cordifolium variegatum ; 6, large plant of Ecbeveria metallica, alter- 
nating in otber beds with E. glauca metallica; 7, Sempervivum Calif omicum 
(slightly raised); 8, Sedum acre elegans; 9, Ketinispora phimosa (about 18 
inches high) ; 10, Sedum glaucum ; 11, Cupressus Lawsonii erecta veridis 
(about 18 inches high) ; 12, band of Pyrethrum— Golden Feather ; 13, Lobelia, 
dark blue, and light blue Viola (alternated) ; 14, Pelargonium Mauglesii varie- 
gata and Sophia Dumaresqne (alternated); 15, yellow Mareuentes (Chrysan- 
themum Koi d'Or) and Blue Marguerites (Agathea cselestis) ; 16, single 
Dahlias in several colours, tied in spreading fashion to hedge; 17; hedge of 
Cupressus Lawsonii (5 feet high). 



Design 
Fig. 1 is given 
as being a fair 
illustration 
both of the 
value of sen- 
tinel, standard, 
or " dot " 
plants, and a 
long season 
of effectiveness 
from a free 
use of hardy 
plants, more 
especially in 
the front parts 
of the design. 
These are so 
arranged that 
when the ten- 
der plants have succumbed to fi'ost, the border 
still presents a fui-nished effect, only partially per- 
haps, but still suflScient to render it an object of 
beauty the whole winter thi-ough. The winter 
effect can easily be made still more beautiful, by 
planting " dot " plants (say small Heaths) in 
No. 6, and after clearing away the ILc&emhryan- 
tlicmum and Alternanthera in Nos. 4 and 5, sur- 
facing the ground with cocoa-fibre refuse, or better 
still, lapng down flakes of Sedum glaucum, or 
in fact of any other variety. We have also used 
with excellent effect smooth tiu-ves of heather cut 
from a common — that which has been bitten down 
closely by rabbits is the best. The small shrubs 
in Nos. 9 and 11 root in such a thick fibrous 
manner that they can with safety be moved at any 
season, or twice or thiice in the season, if required ; 



THE FLOWER GARDEN. 



IOC 



their colom-s are so charming-, and their habit of 
growth so dense and spiral, that they deserve to be 
noted as amongst the finest of shrubs for bedding- 
out pm-poses. It will be noted that No. 1 is a 
Box edging, and that there is a boundary hedge 
of Cicpvessus Zaicsoiiii, - 'No. 17. Both of these 
might be dispensed with ; and if the bed is on 
turf, No. 1 must be so, while No. 17 is only suit- 
able for positions where it is desirable to conceal 
a fence, road, or — as in this case — the vegetable 
garden, it being an actual arrangement on each 
side of the central walk in the kitchen garden, 
and repeated, almost in toto, of shorter length, as a 
boundary border at the end of a terrace garden, the 
tine spread of tm-f in fi'ont there being infinitely 
preferable to the gravel walk. 

Though we have thought it best to set down all the 
plants actually used, were it intended to repeat the 
design we should exclude the Lobelia in No. 13, 
using only Yiola, solely on account of the failure of 
the former before the end of the season. 

The marking out of this plan preparatory to 
planting is almost self-explanatory, the most par- 
ticular part being the central line running through 
Nos. 6 and 9, by which the panels, circles, and ob- 
longs are formed. Measure oif the correct distance 
from the centre of one circle to that of another, and 
the size of intervening ground-work ; and with two 
strings reaching to these points and running round 
the pegs, the circle is formed by the shorter string, 
and the oblongs by the longer. It then only re- 
mains to rub out the straight lines enclosing the 
panels on the space for ground-woi-k plant. No. 2, 
and the design is completed. 

Design Fig. 2. — This is an excellent design for 
placing on each side of a long gxassy glade, and 
equally so on but one side of a walk, if the opposite 
one be furnished with shrubs ; or it may form one of 
the piincipal groups of beds on the x>arterre, the 
planting and size being varied according to taste and 
the position it is to occupy. It is designed with a 
view of showing how to combine two very opposite 
sections of plants — flat-growing foliage, and taller- 
growing flowering kinds. A further combination 
being, that whilst (like the preceding plan) it may be 
of any length, it may just as appropriately be either 
of one, two, or three panels (circles) in extent. 
" Sentinel" or dot plants, except in the very centres, 
have been purposely excluded from this design, for 
the reason that the heights of the plants themselves 
which are employed in it are sufiiciently varied in 
that respect, and also because the narrow ovals, Nos. 
o and 6, are not good shapes for them, as they do 
not look well if they overhang or exceed the bounds 
of the panels in which they are placed. 



In Fig. 2, the edging, No. 1, is raised four inches 
above the tui'f , the mode of doing which we shall deal 
with pi-esently ; meanwhile, it must sufiice to say that 
om' opinion is, that all edgings should be thus raised. 
The enclosing band. No. 2, of Veronica repens 
(green), whilst not objectionable near thetui-f, owing 
to the upright edging of grey and pm-ple being be- 
tween, renders the design adaptable to being sur- 
rounded by gravel. The ground-work, No. 4, en- 
closing the circles, being of a greenish-white in 
colom', and running thi'ough colom-s of blue, white, 
and dark pm-ple, we get a combination of colom-ing, 
showing both hannoni/ and contrast in the same bed, 
which must be seen for its beauty to be fully realised. 
Then the plants in Nos. 3, 5, and 6, being of higher 
growth than Nos. 2 and 4, if kept even in outline, 
and tapering to the centres of their respective plots, 
the imdulations caused by Nos. 2 and 4 are of the 
most pleasing description. It will be observed that 
the plants in Nos. 1, 2, and 4 are quite hardy ; and 
also the middle plants, Nos. 8 and 3, may be arranged 
with the hardy British plant, Ajuga rcptans purpurea ; 
then, when frost cuts oif the flowers, a very mode- 
rate amount of ingenuity will be able to either 
wholly or partially fill out the beds for the winter. 

The marking out of this design is just about as 
simple as the previous one. Run a line through 
the middle of the border ; then draw circles to the 
enclosing horizontal lines : divide these circles into 
fom- parts at the outer edges ; from each of these 
four points draw other circles, and thus is formed 
the half-circle on each side of the design. 

Design Fig. 3. — This is of a less elaborate 
nature, but arranged on the same principle as the 
foregoing, and is a very suitable arrangement for 
placing in an isolated position where it is desii-ed to 
have a bed of a formal description. We have seen 
and admired this pattern on the plateau of a \illa, 
and have also made use of it in a large garden. 
In this latter connection, its most telling position 
is between beds of similar size which are filled 
^\'ith plants of one or two coloui's only, and which 
need some assistance in the way of refinem.ent and 

dressiness,'''' other than the extreme of that which 
regular " carpet-bed " patterns produce. As regards 
size, that may be of any extent proportionate to the 
place it is to occupy ; but if very large we should 
di\T.de it into six or even eight parts, instead of four, 
and thus have six or eight beds ; and the middle 
circle would also, of com'se, have to be enlarged. 
The eye would be the best judge of proportion for 
any particular spot it is to occiii^y. 

Design Fig. 4 is a still simpler design, but none 
the worse for that ; for, as a rule, the least complicated 



104 



CASSELL'S POPULAB GARDENINa. 



patterns are tlie most effective, and as to their requir- 
ing less labour to plant and keep, that goes without 
saying. It is sometimes difficult to give a reason wJiy 
ceitain designs and arrangements, which are neaily 
allied in every particular, have very different effects 
when placed in juxtaposition with other beds ; but 
this and the preceding design shall illustrate our 
meaning. Both of them have been used in the posi- 
tions mentioned as best for Fig. 3, and also as 
*' breaks " between the most formal carpet patterns, 
and both answered their intended purpose very well. 
But every one was struck with the superiority of 
effect which Fig. 4 had over Fig. 3, when in close 



done by the late Mr. Beaton, which simply consisted 
of the old but still valuable Verbena venosa and 
variegated Pelargonium Manglesii. The light pm^ple 
flower of the Verbena, the white and green foliage 
and light pink flower of the Pelargonium, mixed in 
about equal proportions, in a bed some twelve feet 
long and eight wide, produced a picture which, for 
softness and chasteness of colouring, may have been 
equalled but has never yet been excelled. Great 
advances have been made in other directions ; but 
this piece of colouring was perfect at first, and could 
never be improved. Viola Blue Bell, and Pelargo- 
nium Flower of Spring ; Purple King Verbena, and 



2 



SCALE OF FEET 

2 4 6 8 



Fig. 2.— 1, Eaised edging of Sempervivum Californicum and Sedum glaucum ; 2, band of Veronica 
repens (green) ; 3, Alternantliera magnifica, or, iu cold district, Ajuga reptans purpurea; 
4, ground-work of Sedum acre elegans variegata ; 5, dwarf Ageratum ; 6, dark blue Lobelia ; 
7, Gnapbalium lanatum (pegged); 8, a central plant of Yucca recurva, and the bed filled out 
witb pink Pelargoniums and Agatbea caslestis ; and, in alternate beds, a central plant of 
Eetinospera plumosa aurea, and the bed filled out with dark red tuberous Begonias and rose- 
coloured Pelargoniums. 



proximity to the carpet-beds. One can only surmise 
that this was owing to the simpler lines of Fig. 4 
being in greater contrast to the more intricate lines 
of the "carpet" patterns. Such an occurrence only 
shows how much has yet to be learnt before the per- 
fection of flower gardening is attained. 

Any other illustrative plans are unnecessary for 
this section of bedding-out. The four examj^les 
given, and the hints as to colour, particularly with 
respect to the garden as a whole, ought to be a suffi- 
cient guide for any one that knows anything at all 
about flower gardening. 

Shot- silk Beds. — We will, however, note one 
or two mixtures, or what the late Mr. Donald Beaton 
christened " shot-silk beds;" not a bad name either, 
for if well done, the coloui's, when seen from a 
distance, present the characteristic of changeable- 
ness, as do those of a shot-silk dress. Fortune 
favoured the writer to see the very bed, and indeed 
to plant it once, in the same way as it used to be 



yellow Calceolaria ; Centaur ea candidissima (white), 
and pink Pelargonium, all make excellent " shot- 
silk " arrangements. For a very large bed or border, 
the following mixture is grand in the extreme: 
— pink Pelargonium, Coleus Verschaffeltii (dark 
brown), Crystal Palace Gem Pelargonium (golden 
variegated, with rose-coloured flowers), and Agera- 
tum Imperial Dwarf (light lavender), with standard 
plants of light-flowered Fuchsias a yard apart. 

The same plants are also very telling arranged 
after " the ribbon border style." These mixtures 
are every way to be preferred to large masses of one 
coloui' together, no matter whether they be high 
colours or the reverse. 

In closing our remarks as to arrangements, that 
the injunctions as to variety and interest to be 
derived fi'om a free use of standard plants through- 
out the garden may not be forgotten, we add a list 
of plants which may be used for that purpose: — 
Abutilons, Acacia lophantha (seedlings), Cannas, 
Dracaena Australis, Fuchsias (tall), Grevillea robusta, 



THE FLOWER GAEDEN". 



105 



Mumea elegans, Hicinus Gibsonii, Solanum robustiim 
and Solanum marginatum^ Wigandia Caracasana, and 
several kinds of evergreen and variegated shrubs. 

Planting the Beds.— This of course implies 
that they have been properly prepared, and that 
according to the requirements of the particular 
plants. Thus another matter turns up, Adz., that the 
beds should be marked as to the plants they are to 
be planted with, before the preparation of the soil 
begins. All large foliage plants, most of the ery 
tender kinds — Violas, Verbenas, and Calceolarias — ■ 
ought to have abundance of manure and deep tilth. 



for digging. For long and square beds, and all beds 
■with straight edges, a plank is fixed edgeways, by 
driving pegs into the turf ; then the soil being made 
fine and sprinkled, it is trodden against the plank till 
of the right height ; the plank is then removed and 
the edge is complete, except a bit of levelling at the 
surface of the beds. It is necessary to plant such 
edgings as soon as made up ; otherwise it is diffi- 
cult to do, as the soil gets hard and crumbly. The 
Hemiaria, besides being the best, is a most accommo- 
dating plant for this work, as it splits up so readily, 
and every particle will grow. Edgings four inches 
in height should have two rows of these particles 





SCALE OF FEET 



Fig. 3.— 1, Eaised edging of Hemiaria glabra; 2, ground- 
work of Sedmn glaucum ; 3, edge of Mesembryauthe- 
mum cordifolium variegatum, and filled in with, dwarf 
blue Ageratum; 4, Dracaena Australis lineata; 5, Eu- 
onynius aurea variegata ; 6, scarlet and rose-coloured 
Pelargoniums intermixeci ; 7, Ajuga reptans ijurpurea ; 
8, pink Pelargoniums and white Viola (Mrs. Grey), 
Uitermixed. 



Fig. 4.— 1, Edging of Sedum acre elegans variegata; 2, 
band of Alternantbera amabilis ; 3, gi'ound-work of 
Cerastium tomentosum ; 4, edging of blue Lobelia, and 
filled in with tricolor Pelargonium ; 5, Grevillea ro- 
busta — single plants ; 6, edging of Colei.s, and filled in 
with pink Pelargonium ; 7, Abutilon (Boule de Neige) 
—single plants ; 8, edging of Erica herbacea purpurea, 
filled in with Fuclisias of any colour in mixture. 



Ageratums, Pelargoniums, Pettmias, and the great 
bulk of the common bedders, flower most freely 
when the soil is not over-rich. 

The edgings of all beds that are on turf should be 
raised at least three inches above it. All oui' own 
are thus raised, and are every one planted Tvith 
Hemiaria glabra (green). ^Ve have tried many 
kinds of plants for this purpose, but this excels all 
others. The edgings are made up as follows : — The 
soil for about eighteen inches round the bed is forked 
up, weeds and small stones are picked out, and the 
soil sprinkled ; then, in the case of round beds, it is 
trodden an inch or two over the turf, and made finn 
to the height desired ; then the circle is struck from 
the centre of the bed to the edge of turf ; the soil 
being cut away with the edging-ii^on, or a sharp 
spade, and throT\-n into the bed, which is now ready 



put in ; one row would do, but it is desirable to get 
the edgings covered as soon as possible to prevent 
cracking of the soil. 

The planting out of bedding plants should never 
be hurried. Careful planting has its reward in 
forcing the plants to start away into growth at once. 
Thorough watering ought to be a first consideration 
before a plant is put into the ground ; for shoidd 
they go in dry, in that state they will remain, so far 
as the balls are concerned, the whole season. Again, 
the soil ought to be well compressed round the 
plants, and icith the hands too, not with the trowel. 
After planting a good watering is desii-able, which 
aids in settling the soil about the plants ; and if a 
surface mulching can be at once given either of fine 
soil, vegetable mould, or cocoa-fibre, it will conduce 
to the advancement of growth. 



106 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



THE KITCHEN GAEDEN. 

By William Eaeley. 



SHAPE, DISPOSITION, AND FURNISHING. 
The Shape or Form. — The shape or form of the 
kitchen garden often varies of necessity, in accordance 
with the extent of ground, &c, ; but where a given 
space can be set a^^art for it, I consider an oblong 
square with the corners taken off is far the best for 
wall-fruit culture, for securing the largest number 
and extent of good aspects, both for tender border 
vegetables and for wall-fruits ; to say nothing of the 
fact that the deeply-shaded, valueless, and extremeh' 
ngiy corners connected with high square walls arc 
entirely neutralised. It is full time, however, that 
old notions and practices in connection with the 
matter were exploded, once for all. If an oblong 
with its corners taken off is better than the old 
square, an ellipse would certainly exceed in utilit}^ 
the latter, and there can be little or no reason why 
such walls cannot be so built. By this means sun- 
shine . would be more general on the least sunny 
aspects, and a more general diffusion of indirect 
light be always insured. A merging of the ad- 
vantages possessed by individual as]Dects will be 
secured, to the disadvantage of none. Indeed, such 
an arrangement will be to tlie especial advantage of 
winter, early, and tender vegetable crops. By the 
simple process of squaring the walk around- the 
outsides, more extensive space at the better parts 
will be assured. East and west will be brighter, 
and the northern aspect less dark and dull, without 
interference with the centre, or main shape inter- 
nally. The larger " quarters " should be square, 
walks being made centrally east to west and north 
to south, traversing each other centrally ; other, or 
duplicate walks, as required ; where large gardens 
exist, being so arranged as to maintain the divisions 
of quarters in square form also. Finally, whatever 
shape be em]Dloyed for the chief wall, which should 
not be less than twelve feet high, I again advise, 
in preference to the accustomed practice, that the 
aspect selected be one south-east, as against that 
of south, commonly employed. The morning and 
full-day Sim will act more beneficially throughout 
the day on the former than on the latter choice 
of aspect. 

The Disposition and Furnishing The 

disposition and furnishing of the kitchen garden 
follow readily on the " maj)ping," cr pegging out, 
of the pathways. A favourable addition to the sur- 
face soil is first made by wheeling the soil from 
out the walk-spaces thereon, removing a depth of 
at least one foot of such soil to make ready for the 
walk-constructive materials proper. As the entrance 



into this area will be, as pre\aously intimated, from 
convenient centres and a back way, ample opportunity 
will be given for carting in rough materials for the 
base of the walk, and all manure and other such 
correctives, already described, as may be needful, 
all of which should be performed whilst the walks 
are in the roughly-prepared but unfinished state. 

It is desirable, either by the aid of the soil re- 
moved from the walk-spaces, or by carting in good 
yellow fibrous loam from some pasturage, to afford 
more favourable root-soil to wall-fruit trees and 
tender crops to be grown at their base ; and also so 
elevate these side borders as to give them a nice 
slope from the wall-base towards the walk. The 
roots of choice fruits planted thus on an elevation 
above the mean ground-level, always give increased 
favourable results. 

Having planned out the main walks, which are 
essential to all gardens, not alone in matter of ap- 
pearance but also jDractical utility, it will then be 
easier to observe whether any subsidiary or minor 
cross-walks are necessary. The fact must not be 
overlooked that an excess of walks deprives the 
garden of much valuable room, and that for main 
crops in bulk, goodly-sized quarters are needful. 
Besides, so-called alleys can be made at "vvill, 
periodically or otherwise, according to the season> 
able crops grown and the cultural attention they 
require, be it more or less. The fact must not be 
overlooked that free access to all parts of the garden 
and all crops, both for culture and subsequent 
gathering, is of the utmost importance, especially 
during seasons of rain, &c., without which work 
cannot be done so rapidl}^ and well, and the main 
walks cannot be maintained clean and in good order. 
A^Tiilst, therefore, the main, open, and best quarters 
should be retained for the best main-crop v egetables, 
side-slips or irregular spaces, which exist in most 
gardens, are devoted to bush-fruits, such as currants, 
gooseberries, tfcc. The fact that an eligible sunny 
site must be set apart to the formation of a frame- 
ground, and sheds, to say nothing of sea-kale, 
rhubarb, &c., which should be contiguous to the 
frame-ground and the entrance whence manures are 
carted in, often causes such irregular slips, even 
where square spaces have to be dealt with. These 
are increased in instances where glass structures, 
pits, &c., all so desirable for winter work, are added 
to the whole. 

Where the extent of wall is limited, surrounding- 
ground can be utilised for this purpose, in the form 
of a " slip," or addition to the main garden. When- 
ever it is convenient to utilise a space of ground 
beyond the main garden in connection with the 
back entrance, it Avill be very advisable to do so on 
the score of neatness, as the crops last referred to, 



THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 



107 



when forcing operations are carried on, often cause 
much litter and untidiness around. 

The Tcg-etable garden would prove, apart from all 
considerations of necessity, of somewhat uninterest- 
ing contour without the addition of a limited numher 
of trained fruit-trees beyond such as are grown 
against the walls. Thus, adjoining or skirting the 
walks, espalier trees should be planted, at about 
three feet distance from the two sides, with, if need 
be, a row of dwarf-trained or cordon Apples midway 
between these and the walk. Space so occupied 
reduces the main quarters considerably in extent, 
bringing them into convenient size for working. 
Either stakes or a neat iron-wire fence will be 
needful upon which to train such espaliers. Im- 
mediately on the inner sides, therefore, will be a 
suitable space for the formation of alleys, which are 
convenient both for the culture of the quarters 
and for training the fruit-trees. Frequently dwarf 
pyramidal fruit-trees are planted in preference to 
espaliers ; • and where dwarf cordons are dispensed 
with, such minor spaces are conveniently devoted to 
the growth of herbs, &c. 

The width of the main quarters should in no case 
be less than twelve or fourteen feet ; but if double 
this size it will be preferable. "Wall borders are 
generally found to be of advantageous width when 
they equal the height of the wall. By this means, 
also, the roots of wall-fruit trees have an opportunity 
to extend in size, equal to the branches, when the 
latter reach the top of the wall. 

Fruit-trees, on the above hypotheses, being very 
essential furniture in kitchen gardens, to carry out 
the matter very efficiently in all detail will neces- 
sitate special preparation or adaptation of soils to 
different kinds of fruits. Thus, for wall borders 
wherein Peach, Nectarine, and Apricot-trees are to 
be grown, the soil should consist of a porous loam, 
comprising one part sandy loam, and three parts 
sound fibrous maiden loam from a pasturage, well 
mixed together. Such a mixture or compost will 
i)rove ultimately, when manure of a good and well- 
decomposed kind is also added and forked into it, 
very excellent for early crops of tender vegetables 
and salads, to which reference is made under the 
proper headings. Apples, Cherries, and Apricots 
require a somewhat stilfer loam; in their case the 
sandy soil above referred to need not be added. 
Currants and Gooseberries delight in soil of a some- 
what stiff nature also, but with a very abundant 
supply of manure intermixed. 

Thus will different portions of the garden and 
varying aspects require such a variety of soils, for 
such furniture as described, as will, with foresight 
and care, within even a limited area, suffice to grow 
all descriptions of vegetables upon, on the lines or 



suggestions which will attach to each separate kind 
when treated of subsequently. In a few gardens, 
of course, especially such as arc upon undulating 
ground, something in the way of such variety may 
already exist. Where this is not so, however, it is 
highly desirable, when forming the garden, to as far 
as possible give such variations. 

Walks and Edgings. — Walks are an impor- 
tant feature, both from considerations of ornament 
and utility, but are more fully dealt with in separate 
articles. 

The Cultural Treatment of the Soil during 
all subsequent time is a very important factor in 
connection with the maintenance of a garden in a 
highly fertile state. Arable or kitchen garden land, 
being in such an artificial state, must be employed 
in full activity, or this fertility cannot be main- 
tained. It may not be overgrown with weeds ; and 
to have it lying indifferently, even with the surface 
clean, is to engender sourness, owing to excess of 
humus within it. All parts therefore must, under 
such a system of culture, be turned up as soon as 
possible after the removal of any crop ; the action of 
the air will thereby sustain its proper sweetness. 
Such parts as are under crops will in like manner be 
supported thus by the action of the roots. 

In old gardens the surface soil often becomes poor, 
the roots of the limited number of kindred plants 
grown having deprived it greatly of the particular 
class of nutriment adapted to their own particular 
wants. Under these conditions a studied system of 
occasional trenching should be followed, in such 
manner that all large quarters devoid of fruit-trees 
and fruit-tree roots should be alternately dug and 
trenched to a depth of two feet, then to a depth of 
three feet, &c. Thus will the poor and most ex- 
hausted surface soil be deposited below ; the bottom 
spit thereby placed upon the surface wHl contain 
new food for root-growth, and prove very advan- 
tageous to the crops grown upon it. Furthermore, 
such old worn soils as exist in these old gardens 
will be greatly aided by the addition of fresh loams. 
Such an addition, given in liberal quantities, would 
suffice, when properly mixed up with the older soil, 
somewhat in lieu of the supply of manure usually 
given at certain seasons. 

Manuring or Enriching kitchen gardens 
must not be performed thoughtlessly and without 
judgment. The variety or quality of the soil in each 
separate garden should be well studied and treated. 
Its peculiar constituents indicate what is really 
necessary. Very light stony grounds, known often 
as ''hungry grounds," are an exception to a general 



JOS 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



rule. These cannot well have too much manure of 
any kind. Good loamy soils of moderate consistency 
should not receive such in excess. For this grade a 
moderate dressing often, is preferable to very heavy 
dressing at any time. Excepting in the case of the 
very light soils, previously referred to, fermented or 
thoroughly decomposed manures are always pre- 
ferable, and they should be well divided before 
being dug into the ground, so that perfect mixing 
with the soil in process of digging or forking be 
assured. It is preferable, in connection with all 
areas under able culture, to dig the manure into the 
ground during the winter, or at least some time 
before the period for actual planting arrives. This 
can be better done, besides, in relation to the 
soil and its needful mechanical firmness, which has 
been treated of under its proper head previously. 
Some crops, such as Onions, Peas, Potatoes, &c., 
having the space prepared for them roughly dming 
the winter, would also receive great assistance from 
a thin mulching of thoroughly decomposed manure 
scattered over the surface of the soil, immediately 
before the superficial forki/ig up, which should 
invariably take place when seed-sowing is about to 
be done. Too much manure in any ground, it may 
be observed, finally destroys its mechanism, causes 
it to become soddened and sour, whilst giving 
increase to worms and innumerable minor insect 
pests. Certainly, a very dry hot season may correct 
this ; but should a rainy one take its place, a loss of 
quantity, as well as a great lowering of quality, will 
result to all crops. Artificial manures are generally 
beneficial to all soils, especially during rainy seasons. 
It must not be overlooked, however, that they do not 
possess the moisture-retaining power, with the root- 
food-in-readiness capacity, which all stable manures 
retain, even during arid periods, and when of so 
great import to all crops. 



THE CULTURE OF VEGETABLES. 

Bean, Kidney Dwarf {Phaseolus vulgaris). 
French, Sarlcot ; German, Bohn ; Spanish, Fri- 
jorenano. — The Dwarf Kidney Bean, often impro- 
perly called " French Bean," a tender annual plant, 
introduced from India, is one of the most productive 
and useful within the range of cultivated plants 
used for food in a green state. Requiring little 
culture, provided the land is well drained, moder- 
ately light, and enriched, it produces heavy crops 
of its seed-pods on dwarf plants grown very closely 
together with very limited attention. This species 
is so tender that the slightest frost will injure or 
destroy it. For this reason it should not be sown or 
planted before the end of April, or the first week in 
May; the object being to defer germination and 



subsequent groM'th until perfect security against late 
spring frosts exists. Such late frosts often occur on 
May 18th to 20th; sowings made as above will 
therefore escape them. 

So valuable is this crop, however, that sowings are 
made in pots or boxes, and the plants grown on 
therein to the third leaf by the latter date named, 
when they are transplanted into favourable sites for 
fruiting; such a favourable site bein?; one on the 
southern aspect of wall or fence, having protection 
from east winds. For the earliest crop the soil 
cannot be too light and dry. Later or summer 
sowings succeed better in somewhat stiffer loams 
and more exposed sites. The seeds should be sown 
in rows two feet apart, the seeds to be two inches 
apart in the row and two inches deep. 

So soon as the seedlings appear above ground and 
begin to form the third leaf, well mould them up on 
both sides, by dra wing an equal quantity of soil to 
each, after having first well hoed between them. 
The only subsequent attention they require is an 
occasional hoeing between, an operation which 
should not be undertaken whilst the plants are damp 
either with rain or dew, as they are very susceptible 
of injury from bruising, and most so at such a 
time. 

For successional crops, sow more rows according 
to demand, immediately preceding sowings are w^ell 
above ground. The last sowing should be made not 
later than the first week in August. The two best 
sorts are Canadian Wonder^ strong, tall, and mid- 
season, and Negro, which is a very prolific one and 
dwarf. 

Dwarf French Beans force well, and are gener- 
ally utilised in this manner where convenient glass 
structures exist. The practice is to sow three or 
four seeds in sixty-sized pots to the number requi- 
site. First crock and three-parts fiU each pot with 
turfy loam and leaf-mould, or decomposed manure ; 
press it down firmly, drop the seeds thereon^ and 
cover over with more soil an inch or two deep. 
So soon as germination takes place, and the young 
plants appear above ground, place the pots near to 
the glass in a light place. "V^^hen the third leaf is 
formed, procure large thirty-two or twenty-foiir- 
sized pots, three-parts fill with similar soil, but more 
turfy or in lumps, and firmly plant the young plants 
therein, without in any way breaking the ball of 
soil, or injuring the young roots. Tie each plant 
separately to a stake, and keep freely watered and 
syringed overhead, maintaining a moist temperature 
of 60'^ to 75°, with air as freely about midday as 
possible. When flowering takes place and pods 
form, give manurial waterings alternately. The 
variety named Newington Wonder is adapted for 
this purpose. 



THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 



109 



The crop is greatly enhanced, both natural-grown 
and forced, by early and regular gathering of the 
pods. It is an error to defer this until such times 
as the produce is actually required for use, the result 
being anything but tender vegetables, which, grow- 
ing too long, tax the plants and limit the after- 
supplies beyond what can be imagined. As a novelty 
in this class, the American Black Wax, or Butter 
Bean, possessing yellow, waxy, transparent pods, is 
appreciated loy some people. In the same category 
may be placed the "White Marrowfat, for use in the 
shelled state, both green and dried. 

The best modern varieties are : Canadian Wonder, 
Fulmer's ]Monster, 



Negro, 
Ultra, 
House. 



Ne 
and 



Plus 
Sion 




Bean, Runner 

(Phaseolus multi- 
florus). French, 
Haricots d Ravies ; 
Spanish, Judias ; 
German, Stangen 
£ohne.— The Eun- 
ner. Climbing, or 
Pole Bean, known 
commonly as the 
Scarlet Runner, is 
a native of South 
America. The 
name " Scarlet 
Runner," though 
intended to be ex- 
planative, should 
cease to be used, 

if but from the fact that a white-flowered variety 
— known as the Dutch Runner — is more or less 
grown. A sport from the former also gaining favour 
amongst growers, having parti- coloured blooms, is 
named Painted Lady. 

The Runner Bean, as its native babitat suggests, 
is not so tender as the Dwarf Kidney Bean, though 
it cannot withstand the injurious effects of more 
than two or three degrees of frost. Both as a 
garden and a field crop it is very general, its pods 
being highly nutritious, and appreciated, owing to a 
peculiar roughness they possess on the palate. It 
will never, however, take the same place in uni- 
versal estimation occupied by the highly succulent 
and tender Dwarf form. 

Though the plant is hardier than is the Dwarf, 
the seeds, nevertheless, are more liable to rot when 
placed in the ground ; for which reason, rather than 
from any other, sowing is deferred until later than 
is always necessary. In light sandy soil this con- 



DwARF French Bean, Ne Plus Ultra. 



method is employe 
ture for market. 



sideration is not so important. A light sandy loam, 
and deep, is most suitable to it. When sown in such 
soils as are naturally damp and tenacious, it is an 
excellent plan to place a little dry ash in the trenches 
or holes along with the seed at the time of sowing. 
To neutralise the effects of too much latent moisture 
in the soil, it should be dug up during dry weather, 
a short time only before seed-sowing, digging in 
manure of any kind freely. On any consideration 
such late sowing as is often practised is not de- 
sirable. Even should the young plant push through 
the ground, and in its seed-lobe or most tender state 
receive injury, the seed below has the power to push 

forth duplicate 
growths, which 
often prove more 
productive than 
the earlier one. 

Two distinct 
systems of culture 
are commonly 
practised, i.e., pole 
and dwarf culture. 
In the former 
system the young 
plants have poles 
or high sticks to 
climb upon ; in the 
latter, without such 
aids, the plants are 
kept "stopped," 
the young growing 
_ shoots being cut 

off as quickly as 
any are seen to 
form. This last 
in connection with all field cul- 
The result is, crops are much 
earlier and more abundant, as many more plants 
occupy a given space of ground, the whole strength 
of each plant being thrown into flower and pod 
formation. In due time this method will entirely 
take the place of pole culture. 

For pole culture, parallel rows should be four feet 
asunder. Place the seed in drills, two inches deep 
and four inches apart, scattering some kind of dry 
material over them, and draw the soil lightly over 
them. This might be safely performed on IMay 1st 
to 5th. When germination takes place, and the 
plants are well above the ground, mould them up 
deeply and well, place the poles to them, using care 
not to injure the roots, and place a row of sawdust, 
bran, barlej^ awns, or wheat chaff all around, to 
deter slugs from injuring them, which they in- 
variably do, if not prevented. \ATien the plants 
are about three feet high, pinch off their points. 



110 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



With, dwarf culture, sow the seed in a similar 
manner, and at a similar date, three feet asunder in 
the rows. Mould up the young plants so soon as 
the third leaf shows. Im- 
mediately a shoot is seen 
to spring forth from 
amongst the young leaves, 
take its head off, and as fast 
as duplicate shoots or 
laterals form, treat them 
similarly. Do not neglect 
to do this throughout the 
whole season of growth. 
The handiest way is to walk 
along the rows with a sharp 
long-handled knife, and to 
behead each with a swing 
of the knife. To secure 
successional crops perma- 
nently, it is desirable, after 
pods are once formed, to 
gather such as are fit for 
use twice a week; indeed, 
if the x5ods are left any 
time ungathered it destroys their 
edible qualities very materially. The 
full summer culture consists solely 
in preventing weeds from growing 
amongst the crops. By keeping them 
well hoed during the month of June, 
however, little outlay of labour beyond 
is requisite. 

With regard to varieties, the old 
scarlet - flowered, and white - flowered 
Dutch, are of equal merit. Painted 
Lady is slightly more tender than 
either. There are improved, longer- 
podded varieties of the two former in 
commerce, viz., Scarlet Champion, 
Princess (a stringless variety), and 
Mont d'Or, the Butter Bean, possess- 
ing yellow pods. 

Beet [Beta vulgar is). French, Bet- 
teravc ; G^exmoji, Runl-el Rube ; Spanish, 
Betteraga. — Beet, a name derived from 
the Celtic for red, in reference to the 
colour of the roots of this species, is 
nevertheless the name in use also for 
the white species, to which reference 
■\stI1 be presently made. It is a vegetable root of 
some moment, both for comestible purposes and for 
the manufacture of sugar — an industry, new that 
science has found means to eliminate certain ob- 
jectionable adherents to its saccharine projperties, 
likely to be greatly increased. 




"White Beet 




Eed Beet. 



Its culture is both simple and easy upon soils 
suited to it. These consist of such as are light and 
sandy, which should be well dug up during the 
autumn months, and left 
roughly exposed to the 
influences of frost during 
winter. At the time of 
digging, place a good layer 
of manure about eight or 
ten inches deep. This is 
easily done by deep and 
clean digging alone. A 
good open trench should be 
kept, and after each spit- 
ful, manure should be 
placed in the bottom 
from whence each is taken. 
Early in the month of May 
of the spring following^ 
the space should be lightly 
forked over in such a 
manner as not to interfere 
with, the manure below. 
In doing so, break the soil 
lip finely and level it neatl}-. A 
dry period should be chosen for 
this OjDeration. Drill sowing is the 
niodo best adapted. The drill rows 
.sliould be from nine inches to a 
foot ajoart, and two inches in 
depth. The seeds, which are some- 
what large, should be dropped 
into the drills at distances of about 
three inches apart, so as to insure 
a "good plant." When the 
plants have attained three or four 
leaves, thin them out in the rows 
to six or eight inches apart, dib- 
bling in an occasional strong plant 
which has been removed in pro- 
cess of thinning, into all vacant 
spaces, should any seeds happen 
to have failed so as to occasion 
such. From thence, throughout the 
whole of the summer months, give 
such periodical hoeings as will 
suffice to keep the soil loose and 
fresh, and thoroughly eradicate all 
symptoms of weeds. Great care 
must be taken during the hoeing 
not to cut and so injure the sides of the roots which, 
are forming, not an infrequent occurrence when 
clumsy workmen are employed. 

It is important to take up and harvest this croi> 
before any symptoms of frost occur in the early 
autumn, else will danger of actual injury exist, and 



THE KITCHEN GARDEN, 



111 



the roots besides become harder, or more fibrous, and 
less tender when cooked. 

In taking them up out of the ground, great care 
must be used not to wound or break off any of the 
roots. Each root should be separately lifted with a 
five-tined fork, taken up in the hand, divested of all 
soil by the aid of a blunt stick, the leaves being then 
twisted oii with the hands in a manner not to 
injure the crown — they must not by any means be 
cut across with a knife — after which they are care- 
fully stored away for winter use. Modern varieties 
are greatly improved both as regards colour and 
quality, the form of the root being excellent in some 
instances. Such 
varieties are those 
known as Pine- 
apple and Nut- 
ting's Red. The 
Egyptian Turnip - 
rooted variety is 
also a very excel- 
lent type. Being 
in the exact Turnip 
shape, it is better 
suited to shallow 
grounds than arc 
long-rooted ones. 

Beet, White 

[Beta cic^a). French, 
Poiree ; , German, 
MangoldKraut; Ita- 
lian, Biettola. — The 
Great White, or 
Sweet Beet, is 
cultivated mainly 
for the midribs of 
the large and or- 
namental leaves, 
which, with the 

green portion {lamina) removed, are cooked and 
served, under the name of Chard, in the same 
manner as Asparagus. The ordinary White Beet, 
which also possesses more abundant and larger 
leaves than the Red Beet, is grown for the leaves, 
which are used in soups, and in the same way as 
Spinach. A generous culture is desirable in con- 
nection with both varieties. Small beds only are 
needed as a rule. Sowings may be made broadcast 
during both March and September, thinning the 
plants out to eighteen inches apart. Delugings 
with water are beneficial in the summer months. 
The leaves are occasionally appreciated more in the 
way of the Chard by being somewhat blanched, 
which is easily done by placing between and among 
tbem, to a third or more of their depth of leaf- 




Beoccoli, Early White. 



growth, dry fallen tree-leaves, &;c. The frequent 
gathering of the outside leaves will induce the 
plants to form others of a more tender and succulent 
kind the more quickly. 

'Bvoccoli {Br assicaoleracea,\ax. hotrytis). French, 
CJioH hrocoli ; German, ^parcjel-Kold ; Spanish, Broculi. 
— The Broccoli may be described as a hardy form of 
Cauliflower, and one which, owing to the climatic 
influences derived from its native country, and the 
natural period of flowering there, adheres to its prac- 
tice of flowering to date (whether that be midwinter 
or spring, judging the seasons as exj^erienced) here. 

Originally im- 
jDorted from Cyprus 
towards the end of 
the sixteenth cen- 
tury, other forms 
in duplicate were 
received from Italy 
somewhat later. 
Being hardier than 
the Cauliflower, and 
capable of with- 
standing the sharp 
frosts of our win- 
ters, especially now 
that such excellent 
white - flowered 
forms exist, it is 
one of the most 
valuable and reli- 
able vegetables. 
It requires and 
deser%^es gener- 
ous culture. A 
somewhat stifl: 
heavy soil suits it 
the best, having 
a moderate sup- 
ply of good manure intermixed therewith. 

In view of securing a successional supply for a 
lengthened period, commencing with the month of 
October, and continuing onward throughout the 
winter until about June of the following year, it is 
necessary to grow several varieties and to sow the 
seeds, plants, &c., at different seasons. 

Seeds of the following varieties have to be sown 
early in the month of April upon a warm sunny 
border, viz. : Snow's Winter White, Walcheren, and 
Grange's for autumn and winter use. Dilcock's 
Pride, Penzance, Miller's, and Wilcove's during the 
third week in March for a later or early spring and 
early summer supply. The seeds should be sown on 
well-manured, finely-raked and broken-up ground. 
Sow them broadcast, and simply draw the rake to 



112 



CASSELL'S POPULAR G-ARDEXIXG. 



and fro over them. So soon as tlie young seedling 
plants are well atove ground, prepare a space for 
them in an exposed part of the garden, by digging 
it up deeply, after having first placed a layer of 
manure over the surface. It is well to dig the 
ground thus early, to give it time to settle down 
somewhat before planting. In the case of very light 
soils, it is preferable to dig them up in the autumn, 
and to subsequently only hoe over the surface at the 
time of planting. 

So soon as the plants are large enough, having 
formed five or six leaves, carefully draw them from 
the seed-bed, after having first loosened up the soil 
with a foi'k ; choosing the larger plants only. By 
leaving the smaller plants in the seed-bed, giving 
them a watering should the weather prove at all 
dry, and making subsequent plantings of them as 
they become large enough, a successional crop will 
be secured. When a very large and very constant 
supply is required, it is customary to make suc- 
cessional sowings during the month of May. For 
all ordinary purposes, however, the sowings and 
transplantings recommended above give an excellent 
supply. A much coarser variety of Broccoli, used 
chiefly as a "green" during the winter months, or 
before flowering has commenced, is the Purple 
Sprouting. It has precedence over most " greens " 
in the metropolitan markets, and is considered to 
be worth gTOwing; the treatment above given is 
suitable to it. 

Plant all three feet asunder between rows, and at 
least two feet between plant and plant in the rows. 
Broccoli is often planted more thickly than this, but it 
is at the expense of a good crop and the maturing of 
the plants so that they are capable of withstanding 
severe wind-frosts. The summer culture following 
planting, consists in simply moulding the plants up 
when active growth commences, and in so hoeing 
amongst them subsequently as to prohibit all weeds 
from growing. The autumn and winter varieties 
will require, during all sharp weather, to have a 
httle loose litter jDlaced between the plants and 
slightly over the crowns, if they are at the bloom- 
ing stage and the weather increases in rigour. It 
will be necessary also occasionally to examine the 
plantations, picking out such as are well-hearted, 
drawing the whole plant up for use, or to hang in a 
cool place until required for use, beyond reach of 
frost. The later spring kinds are often advan- 
tageously laid on their sides at the approach of 
winter. This is known as "heeling in."' A spit of 
soil is removed from the more northward side, and 
the blade of the spade is then inserted on the other 
side and forced over, so as to cause the head to fall 
over to northward, the object being to lay it on its 
side towards that aspect without greatly injuring the 



roots, soil being placed over them to give them and 
the stem additional protection. 

The following, some of which are referred to 
above, are desirable varieties : — 

For autumn use: — Backhouse's Protecting, 
Grange's Cauliflower, Snow's AMiite and Walcheren. 

For spring use: — Adams' Early "\i\Tiite, ChappeU's 
Early WTiite, Cooling's Matchless, Dilcock's Biide, 
Leamington and Penzance Early White. 

For late spring use : — Cattell's Eclipse, Monarch, 
Goshen, Miller's Dwarf ^\Tiite, Model, and Wilcove 
Improved. 



GARDEN-POTS AOT) POTTING. 



POTTIXG FLAXTS. 

SO -vitally important is judicious potting to cul- 
tural success, that it can hardly be too carefully 
or fully treated. L'nfortimately, like a good many 
more operations in gardening, it can hardly be fully 
taught in books. The art may be minutely de- 
scribed, but the pi-actice not fully taught by words 
or illustrations. Xothing seems more simple than 
the shifting of a plant out of a small pot into a 
larger one, but in reality no operation within the 
whole range of horticulture is more complex, or 
compKcated by a greater variety of side and main 
issues. To attempt to grapple with aU. these would 
only bewilder the uninitiated, and provoke the oppo- 
sition of not a few good cultivators. But a few of 
them must needs receive a passing notice. 

The pots themselves are the first disturbing ele- 
ment, inasmuch as they are very far from being of 
one uniform quality or thickness. Some of these 
will absorb, others evaporate, double the amount of 
moistm-e through their sides that others will. 

And then the roots of plants are as infinitely 
varied in their structure, character, and wants, as 
the tops are in their modes of growth, forms of 
foliage, colours and shapes of their flowers, and 
qualities and sizes of their seeds or fruits. Yet, not 
a few go on potting plants as if the roots were 
wholly or almost all alike. 

Then, again, the soils of no two gardens, nor the 
peats, loam, nor sands from any two places are ever 
exactly alike. The disturbing power of sand alone 
in composts is incalculable. T/tis is pure silica, as 
nearly as may be ; it acts mechanically, as a good 
sand should ; that, which looks so pure and white, is 
largely impregnated with salt, lime, or white clay. 

Then take the different degrees of solidity in 
potting itself, which are about as variable as the 
number of potters, since no two men ram the earth 
round the sides of the pot or the roots of the plant 
WT.th the same force. 



GAEDEN-POTS AND POTTING. 



113 



But it is hardly necessary to suggest the clifficul- 
t-es of perfect potting at any further length. To he 
forewarned is to he forearmed ; and these are named 
to prom.ote care and caution, and not to produce 
timidity or lack of confidence, as expert and firm 
handling are among the first qualifications for good 
potting. 

Dibbling in. — This phrase is ahnost confineu. to 
the insertion of cuttings. These are invariahly put 
into hard s indy soil surfaced with silver sand, with 
a small sharji-pointed stick from three to six inches 
long, called a dihher, or dibhler. This tiny stick is as 




12 3 

Fig. 12.— 1, Small diblser for pricking off seedlings or put- 
ting in cuttings ; 2, common garden dibber j 3, Po- 
tato dibber. 

unlike as can well he to the common dihher, formed 
of part of a spade-handle, used for planting Cabbages, 
&c., or the foot-dibber, mostly shod with iron, used 
for the insertion of Potatoes, or other seeds. It 
however gives its name to the operation of inserting 
cuttings, and is, in fact, the only possible way of 
putting them in properly. The chief art in dibbling 
is to make the cutting, or seedling, solid at its base. 
Many dibble all their lives, and never leam that 
simple art. They concentrate all their efforts on 
making the stem or the surface firm, which the 
first watering will do better. Make the base firm, 
and all will be well with the cutting ; leave it loose, 
and the very firmness of surface or of stem often 
suspends it in the soil, leaving a vacuum at its base 
that is fatal to its forming roots. 

ViTasMng in, or Flooding Home. — On the 

heels of the dibber comes the fine-rosed watering- 
pot. The rose can hardly be too fine for small 
cuttings, as a heavy shower would displace rather 
than further solidify the cuttings. It needs con- 
siderable patience and skill to flood cuttings in. 
Continue to pour the water on steadily till the whole 
surface is flooded ; then leave the pots where watered 
8 



until the water subsides. In cases where extra 
solidity is desired, a siii/ple mode of obtaining it is 
to gently ta]3 the pots on the bench, keeping them 
quite at right angles with it, just as the last of the 
water is disappearing. This operation needs careful 
timing and execution, as otherwise it may disturb 
the cuttings, and do more harm than good. When 
the pots are properly prepared and filled with the 
right compost, surfaced with sand, the tapping while 
wet is better dispensed with, unless done by skilful 
hands. 

Pricking off or out. — These terms are ap- 
plied to the removal of small seedling plants from 
their seed-pots, pans, boxes, or beds into others, to 
develop their strength and multiply the number of 
their roots. It is also used for very small cuttings, 
though not very often. In a general way, the term 
and the practice are applicable to all plantlets that 
need thinning, and are not sufficiently advanced to 
have a pot or separate growing - space allotted to 
them. Hence, all the Cabbage tribes, and such 
vegetables as Celery, are pricked off their seed-beds 
into others, and placed at distances of from two 
to three or four inches apart. These are called 
nursery-beds, as from these the plants are finally 
transplanted into their growing quarters. This ex- 
ample will make the meaning and the use of pricking 
out obvious. 

The idea of nursing runs through the whole. The 
plants support each other, and tender and delicate 
plants, after pricking out or off, should have almost 
as genial treatment as cuttings (see Propagation) 
until re-established. 

As to time for pricking off, so soon as they can 
be handled, is the usual rule for attending to this, 
and in this case it is absolutely right, as well 
as the very essence of common sense ; for it could 
hardly be done earlier, if we would, and the 
earlier it can be done the better. Another rule 
with many plants is, so soon as they develop a third, 
or more correctly speaking, one proper leaf ; for 
the two cotjdedons are rather rudimentary appen- 
dages to the embryo root and stem — that is, in 
botanical terms, the radicle and plumule — than 
proper leaves. That they cannot be trusted to 
perform the functions of the latter is proved by the 
disappearance (by withering up or falling off) of 
the cotyledons soon after the appearance of proper 
leaves. Hence the vital importance of waiting for 
one or more of the latter before pricking oft' young- 
plants. 

Important as this operation is, it may often be 
rendered unnecessary hy thin sowing, and plants 
specially impatient of disturbance in a young state 
should be sown so thinly as to enable them to stand 



114 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING 



in their seed-beds, until suflSciently large to he 
placed singly in pots, or in their growing quarters 
in the open air. In regard to the latter, the best and 
safest way with many plants is to sow the seed in 
their blooming and fruiting quarters. Washing home, 
or establishing the plants in their new quarters, is 
almost as important in regard to pricking off as to 
dibbling in. 

Potting oflF. — This term is applied to the re- 
moval of cuttings and seedlings from their rooting 
nursery or seed-bed into single pots. The process 
is somewhat analogous to the promotion of a child 
from the nursery to the schoolroom. After potting 
off, the plant must stand alone to some extent, and 
has to thrive or fall by itself in its own pot or space : 
from being one of a mass, it is made an independent 
individual, and great care is needed in the first pot- 
ting off. In seed-pans and nursery-beds the roots of 
different plants get very much mixed. The evil is 
aggravated by the plants standing too long and being 
placed too closely together. The process of root dis- 
entanglement is difficult and dangerous. The deli- 
cacy or the brittleness of the roots of many plants 
causes not a few breakages, bruises, and many severe 
losses of roots. The best way of preventing these 
is by potting off early. So soon as fairly rooted, 
pot off. 

Size of Pots. — These can hardly be too small, 
provided they are of sufficient area to receive the 
roots without bending them back upon themselves or 
twisting them round. The plants should be lifted 
out of their nursery quarters, each wdth its roots and 
the ball of earth into which they have run intact. 

The best way of insuring this is to slip the fingers 
of the left hand carefully under and through the 
plants, so as to retain them in the mass and form in 
which they are growing. Invert the pot, give it a 
gentle tap on the potting- table, or bench, to loosen 
the pot from the compost ; remove the pot or pan, and 
carefully place the plants without the pot in their 
original positions. Then, w4th or without the aid of 
the small pointed stick or dibber already described, 
begin at one side, and carefully separate the plants, 
retaining as much soil as may be to each. With 
more common plants, it is a common practice to re- 
turn the plants to the bench with a sudden jerk, which 
will break the nursery-soil or ball into fragments, 
each retaining its plant ; or the ball may be divided 
through the centre, and each plant separated from 
its neighbour by the skilful manipulation of j)ractised 
fingers. 

The potting off of each plant into a single pot 
must proceed as rapidly as possible until all are 
finished. It is very important in- this first potting 



that the roots should be caref uUy distributed through- 
out the compost. For example, the pots are often 
filled probably two-thirds or more with drainage and 
compost before the plants are inserted, and if care- 
lessly potted, the whole of the roots will be huddled 
together in that particular plane ; whereas, skilfully 
handled, the placing of the roots and filling in the 
earth around them will be so timed and correlated 
that almost every bit of soil will have its roots, and 
no two roots will lie together or touch each other. 
Thus, when growth is renewed, every root will find 
its own food within easy reach of it, and the entire 
mass of earth, large or small, be utilised and filled 
with vigorous roots within a mere tithe of the time 
that it would have taken them to do so under care- 
less cramming in and the absence of a painstaking 
disposition of the roots. 

Neither will it be needful at this first potting off to 
compress the soil so firmly around the roots as in any 
future pottings. At this stage not a few of the roots 
will probably be found detached from the soil, and 
of a soft and brittle character. Any undue pressure, 
especially in a new mass of earth of a very different 
degree of solidity to that from which the plants have 
been just removed, would, of necessity, injirre the 
spongioles or mouths of the roots that wiU very 
generally extend beyond the balls ; and as it is on 
these that the well-being or even life of the plant 
depends, it is of the utmost importance that these 
should start fairlj^ and freely into the new soil. As 
the mass of soil in the pot is in most cases of potting 
off so very inconsiderable, and wall be so soon filled 
with fresh roots, this loose potting off — the word is 
used relatively in relation to other pottings, and not 
absolutely — ^proves to be the better way. 

Besides, as potting off should always be succeeded 
by a good watering home, and water is the great 
consolidator of soils, the roots will find their new 
home sufficiently solid for their well-doing. 

A little extra nursing proves most useful after 
potting off. If the plants could be returned for a 
week or ten daj^s to the fostering atmosphere of their 
nursery quarters, it would prove the best thing pos- 
sible for them. The danger period of all plants after 
potting off, is that measured by the period of their 
detachment from the soil. So soon as the roots grip 
hold of the new earth or compost, that moment, 
under ordinarily fair treatment, the health and life 
of the plants are secured. 

Shifting, or Kemoval into Larger Pots — 

This is what is emphatically called "potting." Hence, 
in practice, " Pot that plant " really means, give it a 
larffer pot — that is, more room for its roots. Re- 
potting, however, sometimes in practice comes to 
just the opposite of this, and the experienced potter 



GARDEN-POTS AXD POTTINa. 



115 



in shifting his plants determines his course hy root- 
condition. If that is good, vigorous, and obvioii-sly 
cramped, he gives a larger pot ; if otherwise, he not 
unfrc([uently ]3uts it into a smaller one. There is no 
resuscitating process so prompt and elfectual as this 
in the case of many plants. Worms, had drainage, 
indifferent or unsuitable soil, unskilled watering, 
may have converted the root-runs into quagmires of 
sour, putrid earth, in which the roots are sickening 
towards death. Eemove the whole, wash the roots 
clean if needful, as it often is, and re-pot in very 
light, porous, sandy soil, or fine sand, placing the 
roots in the smallest possible pot, and give such 
extra nursing as advised after potting oii, and the 
roots may be re-established in health and quadrupled 
in numbers in a few weeks, and the plant saved. So 
soon as this renovation is effected, the plant may be 
re-shifted into a larger pot, and treated as advised 
for othsrs. 

The time for shifting plants nmst be determined 
b}^ condition, and with but little reference to the 
calendar. At one time, however, the spring and 
early summer months were mainly devoted to the 
potting of plants. This was carried so far that 
plants were shifted in April or May, whether they 
wanted it or not. No doubt these general pottings 
at such seasons suited the majority of plants ; hence 
the practice sur%ives to this day. 

Accepting as an axiom, that no plant should be 
pruned and potted at the same time, whatever its 
condition, as such a double check hinders alike the 
formation of roots and the growth of top, there 
are three general conditions of plants favourable to 
their re-potting or shifting. The first is soon after 
starting; the second, in the middle of their growth; 
and the last, just before their growth is ripened. 
And these seasons, determined by condition, apply to 
all plants without exception, whether hard or soft- 
wooded, herbaceous or bulbous, exogens or endogens. 

Soon after starting, then, the bursting buds and 
growing shootlets, overflowing wdth vital energy, 
and having organisablo matter enough and to spare 
to supx^ly all their local needs, are able to sj)are a 
good deal of both to stimulate a freshly-disturbed 
root into immediate activity — a point, as we have 
already seen, of the utmost importance to the health 
and strength of plants. Nor is this all ; hardly ha^-e 
the roots been assisted by the growing tops to run 
into the fresh composts, than the tops begin to draw 
upon them for supplies, and this keeps them hard at 
work. And these compound actions and reactions of 
the growing tops are the great quickeners and sus- 
tainers of root-activity, and this is the foundation 
of robust health and plentiful produce. 

During the middle of their growth is also a capital 
time to shift plants into larger pots. As the strain 



upon them for the development of more and larger 
leaves or flowers increases, and their many roots have 
ramified through and exhausted the soil, this is the 
time to add a fresh supply. If this is withhold the 
spongioles, or root-mouths, that have been hugging 
closely and trying their strength in piercing through 
the sides of the pots in search of pastures new and 
richer in which to feed, are apt to become shrivelled 
up and exhausted. And plants can no more feed 
themselves without these open mouths than a gar- 
dener can pot i)lants without hands. 

Finally, just as the ripening processes are well- 
nigh completed is a good season to pot or shift plants 
into larger pots. At that season the growing energies 
of the plants seem to gravitate rootwards. During 
the growing season the roots have ministered chiefly 
to the other parts of the plant. Now they are about 
to come in for their share, and hence the necessity of 
enabling them to make room to receive the rich 
stores of growing force which the vital and chemical 
action of the aei'ial portions of plants, aided by the 
ministrations of sun and air, rains, dews, and other 
agents, is enabled to send them. 

As a matter of observation and experience, the 
ripening time above ground is a season of abnormal 
activity and rapid extension of the roots under 
ground. The vital forces change their course rather 
than lessen their energy, in the so-called " rest " of 
golden autumn-tide. Hence, we find that towards 
the close of the season of maturity is one of the \ery 
best times for the shifting of many plants. 

It is needful, however, not to misapply these 
general principles. They are applicable to the A-ery 
letter to such plants as, for example, the Camellia. 
So much is this the case that hardly any two growers 
agree as to the best time to pot these plants. And 
this, not because doctors differ so widely, but rather 
that it matters hardly a feather's weight to the 
plant which season is chosen, or whether, in cases of 
exceptional vigour, all three are in succession, and 
within the compass of six or nine months. 

Other points that may interfere with or alter the 
time and mode of potting, are the character of the 
plants, the purposes for which they are grown, and, 
as already hinted, the condition and number of their 
roots. No one would rigidly adhere to the same rules 
as apx)licable to what may be termed permanent and 
transient i)lants. Annuals and biennials would be 
potted for different objects and purposes to triennial 
and other plants. For examx^le, a Balsam or a 
Cockscomb might need potting once a month, while 
for a slow-growing Heath, a shift once in two years 
might be almost too frequent. 

Purpose, again, largely controls potting times and 
modes. In foliage plants, such as Anthuriums, 
Marantas, Crotons, Caladums, 'Ferns, Palms, grown 



11(3 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



for their foliage, the times and methods of potting will 
be different from those applied to Clorodendrons, Ste- 
phanotis, Dipladenias, Heaths, Epacris, Leschenanaul- 
tias, Azaleas, and other flowering plants. As a general 
rule, foliage plants should have more frequent and 
larger shifts than flowering ones. Growth is thus 
fostered and encouraged, and that is all which is 
needed, or nearly all. In flowering plants maturity, 
perfect and complete, must he secured as the basis of 
free flowering, even among soft-wooded plants, like 
Fuchsias, Pelargoniums, and others; over or unseason- 
able potting is fatal to free and perfect flowering. 
In plants grown in pots for their fruit, such as Straw- 
berries, Figs, Peaches, Grape-vines, the correlation 
between pinched, cramped, pot-bound roots, and fer- 
tility, is even more indissolubly united. But, of 
coui-se, after all, the state of the roots is the best 
index as to when and how to shift or pot plants. So 
long as there is much soil left unoccupied on the 
outer circle of earth in contact with the j)ot, and few 
roots are visible, the plant does not need shifting. 
" But how can we know that? " novices in gardening- 
may well ask. By simply turning the plant out of its 
pot, and holding it on the palm of the hand, remov- 
ing the pot from the eai-th. The earth- works, the 
ball of the plant, and the state and condition of the 
roots are thus laid bare. Should it need potting, 
proceed as directed in the next section, and shift it 
into a larger pot. If not, return it to its pot again, 
taking particular care to place the pot over the ball 
in the exact position in which it was before removal ; 
for hardly any pot is exactly round, and as the pot 
has moulded the ball — as the earth and roots within 
it are technically called — to fit itself, they must occupy 
the same relative position as before. Very trifling 
instructions to give — yes ; but the neglect of them 
leads to the disease or total loss of the plant, as it 
opens up a nearer and quicker exit for water through 
the interstices by the edge of the pot than that by 
slow percolation through the ball, the only water- 
course through which the plant can be preserved in 
health. 

The Actual Process of Potting or Shifting. 

— This is not a simple but a compound process, and 
brings us into direct contact with pots, crocks, com- 
posts, roots, balls, various methods of procedure, and 
after-treatment of the x^lants. As regards the pots, 
they must be clean, dry, and sound. Nothing 
is more injurious than the use of dirty pots ; 
they contaminate the soil, and poison the roots 
almost as soon as these are j)laced in them. "Nfet 
pots are almost as mischievous as dirty ones ; the 
outer portion of the compost sticks to the pots, de- 
ranges the action of thu drainage, and interferes with 
the free passage of water through the new mass of 



soil. On the other hand, new pots, especially when 
used in sunnner, are often too dry, and should be 
steeped for some hours before using, allowing them, 
of course, to become dryish again before use. Other- 
wise, new pots of certain makes in dry weather often 
drain most of the moisture out of the compost, to the 
inipo\ erishment of the roots. 

Unsound pots are not only unsafe to hancQe, but 
dangerous for the roots in other ways, and should 
never be used. As to the sized pots to use, the word 
" cast," applied to pottery, is most suggestive, and 
the old practitioners mostly advised an inch at a time 
during the smaller stages, advancing to two, thi-ee, 
and even four inches as the sizes cnlai-ged. The one- 
shift system, which w^e purpose describing, altered 
most of this, as it leaped at one bound from a two or 
four-inch to a twelve or eighteen-inch pot. Still, for 
a great many plants the progressive system of potting 
is the best, and it is still the general practice to ad- 
vance in size tentatively. It is also the safest. The 
successful exhibitors of prize stock feed often, and 
remove all that is not eaten shortly after feeding. 
This sustains the appetite at a higher pitch than any 
other method. To some extent progressive shifting 
by easy steps does likewise. Only a little food is 
given at a time, and hardly is that consumed before 
the roots find a fresh supply provided for them in a 
new or clean sweet pot. And provided the food is 
agreeably sweet and tempting, the roots speedily 
plunge into and devour it. It has hardly time to 
become stale before it is used up. The pots must 
also have one or more holes for the free removal of 
water. And this brings us to crocks, which, what- 
ever the origin of the word, here simply mean 
drainage in the bottom of the pot, no matter of what 
sort. However, there is nothing better than broken 
pots, potsherds, bricks, shells, or charcoal. Even 
freestone or sandstone is almost too heavy to form 
good cb^ainage. 

Place over the centre hole of the pot, or against 
the three holes round the sides of the bottom, a piece 
of potsherd two inches or so over. This should be 
laid tolerably flat, so as to help to exclude worms, 
but not too much so, lost the exit for the water 
should get silted up. Over these place a layer from 
half an inch to four inches, according to the size 
of the pot ; the larger the x^ot the more drainage, and 
the coarser it may be. A better way of crocking larger 
pots consists in placing an inverted small one over 
each drainage-hole, and filling up part or the whole of 
the w^ay between, with rough crocks or other hard 
materials. Pots so treated render the ingress of worms 
and other pests almost impossible. 

But this di'ainage of pots, while chiefly mechani- 
cal, may readily be made manurial as well. This is 
done by using such substances as oyster and other 



GARDEN-POTS AND POTTING. 



117 



shells, smashed bones or charcoal, hoof or horn 
shavings, or other hard substances more or less rich 
in manurial properties. By using such substances 
for drainage, the whole contents of the pots become 
available for feeding the plants. 

Over this harder and more durable drainage ma- 
terial, there is mostly placed a layer of sub-drainage 
of softer matters, such as moss, partially decomposed 
bones, cocoa-fibre refuse, hard dry manure, the rough 
fibre of peat and loam, half decomposed and semi- 
baked turf, &c. The main use of these is to keep the 
drainage clean and efficient, by preventing it from 
being silted up by the finer soil. They form a wall 
of separation between the compost and the drainage, 
and so preserve the qualit}', and minister to the per- 
formance of the proper functions of both. 

As these intermediary drainage materials decom- 
pose they also become good food for the roots. But 
before they are wholly consumed, or their powers 
broken by the latter, the plant will probably have 
been shifted into a fresh pot ; or, if not, the roots will 
have increased to such an extent as to form a perfect 
barrier between the compost and the drainage. 

Compost. — The matter of co:nposts is a vital one 
to perfect potting. The bases of all composts are sound 
turfy loam and fibrous peat^ with slight additions of 
leaf -mould, cocoa- fibre refuse^ charcoal, and sharp 
gritty sand. Silver sand is preferred for nearly all 
plants, inasmuch as it is almost pure silica, whereas 
most of the coloured sands are largely impregnated 
with oxide of iron, loam, or clay, all of which are in- 
jurious to delicate roots. Some of these impurities 
can be got rid of by washing, but others enter almost 
into the very substance of the sand. Hence, where 
silver sand cannot be obtained, smashed Bath-stone 
or sandstone is probably the best substitute. But 
silver sand has now become such an important 
article of commerce that it can be had everywhere, 
and no better horticultural investment can be made 
than that in a ton or more of pure sand before 
wanted, as more poison probably enters into com- 
posts through the sands added to them than by any 
other way. A few sacks or tons of Norwood loam, 
and as many or more of peat, from those experts 
who make a speciality of the selection and supply of 
these, will answer the purpose of every grower of 
choice plants. 

The ignorant will say loam is loam, and peat is 
peat, and what is the nse of having either from a 
distance ? But the difference between these is often 
so great that one kills, and the other grows plants to 
perfection. Many years ago the writer had half a 
dozen loads of peat presented to him ; it looked good, 
and handlea and smelt well, but within less than 
three years a promising collection of Heaths were 



dead, and scores of Azaleas, which are far less parti- 
cular, in a bad way. The peat was killing the latter, 
and had killed the former, though the cause of its 
doing so remains a mystery to this day. 

For general potting purposes, half and half of 
peat and loam, with from a sixth to a twelfth portion 
of pure silver sand, forms the orthodox compost. 
Of course. Heaths and other hard-wooded jplants 
with hair-like roots should have peat and sand only. 
There are also peats and peats, and the harder and 
more gritty the peat, the better for these. But here 
only genei'al principles can be laid down and 
general rules given, as under the heads of special 
culture of different genera, such mixtures as that of 
white sjahagnum crocks and charcoal, which suit the 
growth of Orchids, and other special combinations 
that form the most suitable composts for particular 
species, will be adverted to. Some of these plants 
are not potted at all in the ordinary meaning of the 
word. The fleshy roots of Orchids push through, or 
overrun their composts, rather than live upon or out 
of them, absorbing little more from the compost than 
they do out of the atmosphere. 

After all that can be said on the subject of pot- 
ting or shifting, the time, manner, and extent of 
it must be mainly determined by the state of the 
roots. Returning for a moment to our plantlet 
potted off for the first time, so soon as the roots 
reach and begin to run round the sides of its first 
pot, it ought to be shifted into a larger one, and so 
on in succession through all its future-sized pots. 
This would prevent one of the greatest dangers and 
difiiculties that plants in pots have to contend with, 
that of the matting of the roots. 

This phrase explains itself : the roots get crammed 
together so tightly, and interlaced so much, as to re- 
semble a plaited straw or other mat. Once plants 
become badly matted, the roots are diflficult to deal 
with. It was this difiiculty that suggested the 
barbarous practice once so common, of cutting off 
most of the lower portion of the roots at every suc- 
cessive shift or potting. The stronger and more 
iron-like the roots, the more it was resorted to, un- 
til the disrooting of such plants as Pines and Palms, 
and not a few vigorous-rooting Ferns, became about 
as common and as orthodox as their shifting into 
larger pots. 

It is now, however, generally recognised that 
prevention is better than cure, and the only sure 
and certain prevention of root-matting is timely 
potting. This will check that spiral course of the 
roots which exaggerates so greatly all the evils of 
matting. For if once roots are permitted to over- 
lap and interlace each other in this way, there is 
hardly any possibility of unwinding without break- 
ing them. 



118 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GARDENING. 



Still a good doal may bo done by caution and 
skill in this direction. Having turned out the plant 
on one hand, as already described, with a sharp- 
pointed stick in the other, proceed to pick away the 
crocks from the summit of the root-mass or ball as 
now inverted, and disentangle, as much as may be 
without breaking, the roots, at the same time picking 
and shaking away as much of the exhausted soil as 
may be done with safety. During this careful and 
minute examination of the roots the whole state of 
the plant will be revealed. Before it is completed 
the cultivator will have been 
provided with all the data needed 
to determine the size of shift he 
will give. 

Estimating the growing force 
of the plant, and taking into 
account the purj)Oses for which 
he is growing it, he will give it 
a small or a large shift accord- 
ingly. From one to three inches 
would be counted a small shift 
for a large plant, from three to 
six a large one. 

The smaller the shift, the more 
difficult the work of good pot- 
ting. AVhere the fingers cannot 
penetrate, a potting - stick, and 
a sort of wedge-shaped dibbler 
(Fig. 13), become indispensable. 
The drainage, sub-drainage, and 
bottom parts of the compost are 
all placed in the pot. These 
should be nicely arranged, 
placing the larger and rougher 
portions of the compost over the 
sub - drainage, and pressing all 
down firmly with the hand or 
hand-rammer. 
Place the plant to be shifted in the centre of the 
pot, and see that the surface of the balls stands from 
half an inch to three inches, according to the size of 
the plant, beneath the top of the rim. Of course the 
larger the plant the deeper the space, and vice versa. 
This is the water-holder, and unless it is amj)le, no 
firmly-potted plant can thrive. 

From this point proceed to fill in the sides, work- 
ing the compost in among the roots with the potting- 
stick and hands, as well as firmly filling the space 
between their extremities and the inner edge of the 
pot ; here the wedge will be found necessary. Per- 
fect potting in this phase of it means perfect filling, 
and when completed, not an atom of space should be 
left vacant, and the roots should as far as possible be 
equally distributed throughout the entire area of the 
compost in the pot. 



A B 

Fig. 13.— A, Sharp- 
pointed pottiug- 
stick two feet 
long ; B, pot- 
tiug - wedge for 
ramming soil iu 
firmly between 
pot and ball. 



State of the Compost. — It is impossible to 
finish potting our plant without reference to this. If 
the soil is too .dry, good potting is thereby rendered 
impossible. If too wet, the results on the process of 
potting are even more disastrous. A good practical 
test is to take a handful of the compost firmly in 
the hand, and squeeze it tightly together. If it so 
slightly adheres under the pressure as to crumble 
into fragments so soon as the hand is suddenly 
opened, it is neither too wet nor too dry. 

The mechanical state of division of the compost 
is also a matter of much practical importance. 
At one time, and for all i^urposes, all soils were 
run through a sieve before being used for potting. 
Now sifted soils, unless for the sowing of seeds, and 
the pricking off of cuttings or seedlings, are almost 
banished from our gardens. The roughness or fine- 
ness of the compost should, however, be largely 
determined by the size of the shift. It would be 
hopeless to attempt to force lumps of peat or loam 
two inches square into inch areas between the 
roots of plants and the sides of the pot. The 
larger the shift, the coarser the soil, and vice versa. 

As to solidity of the new earth, that should be 
largely influenced by the character of the soil, and 
the hardness of the old ball, and can hardly be pro- 
perly determined without a reference to the balls of 
plants. These are the mass of roots, soil, and crocks 
that fill the pots. The latter, or drainage, however, 
is seldom included, unless, as is very frequently the 
case, it has also been laid hold by the roots so firmly 
as to have become inseparable from the soil. These 
balls prove at once a help and a hindrance to many 
potters. They enable the roots of plants to be 
inverted and examined in the mass without diffi- 
culty. But they also not unfrequently imprison the 
roots in such iron-like fetters as to render their 
liberation and enlargement utterly imj)0ssible. 
Sometimes they become so saturated that it is im- 
possible to dry them ; at others, so diy that it takes 
days of thorough soaking to wet them through. 
Plants seldom recover from the first condition, and 
no plant should be shifted into a larger pot with a 
sour or saturated ball. Leave it without water till it 
dries, if it ever does so. Dry balls should be steeped 
imtil wet through, and then stood out in an empty 
pot somewhat larger than the ball to drip dry be* 
fore being shifted into larger -pots. When extremely 
hard, as in the case of many Heaths, and plants of 
similar character, it is useless to try and soften or 
disturb the ball. With care, some of the surface 
roots may be slightly disturbed. In the process of 
potting aim at making the add^d soil as hard as the 
substance of the ball ; it is impossible by any amount 
of ramming with fingers and thumbs, or the use of 
potting-sticks, to do this. But it should be aimed at 



GAEDEN-POTS AND POTTING. 



119 



ncvertLeless, and the nearer this ideal excellence is 
attained to, the sooner will the roots strike from the 
ball into the fresh soil. Hence, the state of the old 
ball must, as far as possible, be the measure of the 
degree of solidity of the new compost. The harder 
the roots and wood of plants, the harder in general 
should the soil be made in the pots. 

A free use of porous materials should, however, 
be always combined with this solid mode of potting. 
Hence the great use of small lumps of charcoal, sand- 
stone, flints, crocks, cocoa-nut and vegetable fibre iu 
composts ; these all form or keep open water-ways 
towards the drainage in the base of the pots. 

Temperature. — In potting, the temperature of 
the soil and of the potting-shed should also be care- 
fully considered. 

Plants, like ourselves, suffer more from chills than 
from most other causes. If this extends to their 
roots as well as tops, and they are brought out of a 
temperature of TO'', and placed in soil at 40^, they 
must needs suffer severely in consequence. Hun- 
dreds of fine plants have thus met with disease and 
death on their way to and from the potting-bench 
and their treatment when there. Cold pots alone 
have chilled many a plant into sickness. Let every 
potter then see to it, that all his materials are of a 
higher rather than a lower temperature than that in 
which the plants have grown. 

After-treatment. — In general terms this should 
consist in a little extra fostering of growth. There 
may be a slight rise of temperature. There should 
be a more genial atmosphere, and in all cases of 
small shifting, there should be moderate watering, 
with water a little warmer, say 5° or even 10° warmer, 
than that to which the plant has been accustomed. 
This will serve the double purpose of heating the 
soil, and also of affording a mild stimulant to the 
newly-displayed roots. Nothing benefits tropical 
plants so much, nor starts their roots anew so soon, 
as a bottom heat of 80° or 90''. They respond to 
this at once, and the roots plunge into and occupy 
the new soil before those that have no extra stimulus 
have made a start. An overhead syringing two or 
thi'ee times a day, and partial shade for a few houi's 
on either side of noon, also prove useful for a week 
or so after shifting. A great deal, however, depends 
on the time when plants are potted, and the amount 
of root-disturbance. In regard to the more common 
j)ractice of shifting common plants into larger pots 
as they require, the roots are hardly checked or 
disturbed at all, and no unusually fostering treat- 
ment is needed afterwards. 

The One-shift System. — Some thii-ty years ago 



this system threatened to abolish all success: onal 
pottings. The plants took but one sto23 from their 
first pot into their last. Virtually, it may be said 
to have substituted ^Dlanting out for j)ot-culture : since 
a plant suddenly moved out of a pint or less of soil 
into half a bushel or more might just as well have 
been placed in the open border ; for of course it was 
weeks, it might be years, before the roots reached the 
sides of theii- larger quarters, and thus discovered 
that they were in pots. The successes obtained by 
this system Avere marvellous. Many hard-wooded 
plants of most difficult cultivation made what has 
been called mushroom growth, and these have j^roved 
as lasting as their production was rapid. Under this 
system, the roots from the first and all through 
have free course, and are tempted by good porous 
soil to ramify freely in all directions. 

The success of the one-shift system may be said 
to rest upon a three-fold basis — thorough drainage, 
rough and porous soil, and careful watering. Of 
course, in transferring a small plant from a three- 
inch pot to a twelve or a sixtecn-inch, liberal drain- 
age, that is, a layer of hard solid crock, or charcoal, 
from four to six inches in de^^th, would not be ex- 
cessive. Not only this — the whole compost should 
be so compounded and constructed as to become a 
secondary drain. All this can be done easily, with- 
out the complicating presence of roots and the 
difficulties of limited areas. Beginning with the 
drainage, the entire compost may be jjlaced in and 
intermixed with crushed shells, charcoal, flints, or 
other hard porous materials as the process proceeds. 
The compost may be composed of large pieces near 
the bottom and sides, gradually becoming smaller 
towards the top. A very small space in the middle 
of the pot suffices to receive the plant, which crowns, 
rather than occupies, the pot that it is expected by- 
and-by to fill and partially hide with its beauty. The 
soil should be used dry and packed in firmly, as there 
is considerable danger of its subsiding so as to sink 
the collar of the plant too far below the rim of the pot. 

In watering plants potted on this system, great 
care must be taken not to wet the unoccupied soil, 
as otherwise its goodness would be washed out and 
its porous texture ruined long before the roots 
reached it in force, and so helped to preserve its 
texture, its richness, and sweetness. Only as far as 
the roots extend, must be the rule in watering, as 
the mass of soil around, as well as beneath them, 
will conserve the moisture given; but very little 
water will be needed for the first few months of the 
one-shift system. This fact very much weakens the 
force of the objection so often taken against it — viz., 
that the soil has all its virtues washed out before 
the roots can reach it. The whole system is a water- 
saAing expedient from first to last. 



120 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



The best season to pot plants on this sj'stem is in 
the early spring-, with all the growing months and 
the whole of the ripening season ahead of the culti- 
vator. The fostering genial influences already 
referred to as useful after potting, may all be aug- 
mented on the one-shift principle. Not an hour 
should be lost in fostering, forcing if need be, the 
actiou of the roots. If they stand still long, the 
plants may be said to be already lost. But, start- 
ing promptly, they grow with astonishing vigour ; 
and more growth is often, made in. one year on the 
one-shift system than in six under progressive 
potting. It takes a good deal of room and involves 
considerable risk, but these drawbacks are amply 
compensated for by success. 

Modifications of the system have also affected all 
other methods of potting, inasmuch as the shifts are 
now much larger and the composts rougher than 
they used to be. 

The one-shift system also answers admirably for 
most soft- wooded plants, and such showy annuals as 
Cockscombs, Balsams, &c. For these the richest soils 
may be used, a full half being manure, and these 
yet further enriched with crushed bones, malt-dust, 
guano, and other stimulants. Exposed to full sun- 
light and stimulated by a bottom heat of 80^ or 9 
one may almost see such plants grow, and Balsams 
may be gro^Ti into dwarf trees, and Cockscombs as 
large as cockerels, under such forcing conditions. 

Nevertheless the one-shift system has gone out 
of fashion, and progressive jjotting, modified and 
improved by its influence, as set forth in these pages, 
is now the order of the day in almost all horticul- 
tural circles. 



FLOEISTS' FLOWBES 

By Richard Dean. 



Balsams. — Time was when the Balsam was a 
much more popular flower than it is in the present 
day, for then it was regarded as a florist's flower ; 
was greatly improved by careful selection ; and the 
flowers gradually became much more double, and 
decidedly more symmetrical in shape ; it was also 
largely seen at horticultural shows. Then for a 
time, owing probably to the bedding-out system 
having gained such an ascendency over the minds 
of gardeners, the Balsam and other kindred subjects 
fell into neglect. There are, however, indications 
that this handsome flower is again rising in pojiular 
favour : and the systems of culture now adopted are~ 
much simpler than they were years ago. Then, 
" disbudding, stopping, and other interferences with 
the natural growth of the plant were resorted to, 
to produce fine specimens and double flowers. But 



there is only one mode of cultivation worthy of 
attention, and that is the natural way ; and it can 
be made to produce fine and handsome specimens. 
The old rules of pinching back the leader to pro- 
mote the growth of side shoots, and removing the 
flower-buds in order to increase the size of the plants, 
were vicious observances, because the natural growth 
is more elegant and effective, and the finest flowers 
are produced on the. main stem, and, therefore, are 
completely sacrificed by disbudding." 

Balsams can be easily raised from seed, and it is 
necessary, in order that the flowers shall be satis- 
factory to the cultivator, that it be of a good strain. 
It is not necessary to sow the seed in heat, for 
it can be raised in an ordinary green-house by 
sowing the seeds thinly in pots or pans of light 
soil, or on an open bed that gardeners sometimes 
find it convenient to make up in a green-house ; 
and germination is hastened by placing a piece of 
glass over the surface of the pots. Indeed, the seed 
would grow in an ordinary frame if sown in March 
or early in April. As soon as the seedlings are 
large enough to transplant, they should be potted 
singly into small pots, and if possible placed in a 
little warmth to quicken their growth. The Balsam 
is a quick-growing succulent plant, and at all stages 
of its grow th rich soil should be employed. Some 
good yellow loam, plenty of leaf-mould, rotten ma- 
nure, and silver sand, well mixed together, make 
an excellent compost. What the cultivator should 
aim to do is to encourage a dwarf, stout, and vigo- 
rous habit of growth ; and it is a great mistake to 
leave the plants too long in the seed-bed, where they 
become spindly and weak. As soon as the pots are 
prett}' well filled with roots, another shift should be 
given ; and when shifted, the plants should be placed 
as deep in the pots as possible. After a shift, they 
should be kept close for two or three days, and then, 
fully exposed to light and air. From all points 
where the stem comes into contact with the soil fresh 
roots are thrown out, and these assist to increase the 
development of the plant ; therefore the advantage 
of placing the plants as deep as possible in the soil 
is made clearlj" apparent. 

The importance of frequent shiftings in the early 
stages of growth cannot be over-estimated. It is in 
this way that the foundations of fine specimens are 
laid. Any check through being pot-bound, or be- 
coming too dry at the roots, has an injurious effect 
on the plants, and should be carefully guarded 
against. A free growth must be encouraged in 
every possible way. Pots " from eight to ten inches 
in diameter will be large enough for the final shift, 
and in these we have seen specimens grown of won- 
derful size, and carrying remarkable heads of flower. 
It is when the roots touch the sides of the pots, and 



FLORISTS' FLOWERS. 



121 




122 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENING. 



crowd the soil, that the plants show flower-huds, and 
expand into full symmetrical blossom. But it is 
of the utmost importance that at this stage the plants 
be on no account allowed to become dry, nor be over- 
crowded, and that they have plenty of au-. The more 
sturdy and vigorous the growth, the more satisfac- 
tory will be the head of bloom. 

The Balsam makes an excellent out-door plant, 
if planted in j)roper soil. It must be rich, and if 
it is intended to make a bed or a plantation of 
Balsams, the soil should be deeply dug and well 
manured. An open sunny position is necessary: 
and if the plants have been grown on in pots, they 
can be planted out early in June, if the weather is 
at all favourable. In warm, moist, bright weather. 
Balsams make a very free growth in the open air ; 
and if carefully w^atered in dry weather, they grow 
into plants of large size and fine proportions, and 
make an excellent retui-n for the labour bestowed 
upon them. 

And it is suTprising how long a time a Balsam 
plant will flower in the open air, when it is in 
good soil and moist at the roots. It throws out a 
number of lateral or side shoots, and these become 
filled with flowers, and so the floral succession is 
carried on. PerhaiDS Balsams are s6en to the best 
advantage in the open border when they are planted 
singly among other plants ; but we have seen them 
very effective in. a large bed by themselves, wdth 
some plants of the Dwarf or Tom Thumb section 
planted as an edging. It is a good plan to plant 
tall Asters and Gladiolus among them, as it tends 
to relieve the formal character or outline of the 
Balsams ; and the added plants, being later in flower- 
ing, furnish blossom when the Balsams are fading. 
It must not be forgotten that ihe Balsam is a tender 
annual, and very susceptible of frost, and it should 
not be planted out in the open ground until the 
spring frosts have ceased. 

There is one good strain of Balsams, viz., the 
Double Camellia-flowered, and this comprises several 
varieties, such as the scarlet, purple, rose, cream, 
white, &c., as well as pretty flaked and blotched 
varieties. It is also kno"^Ti as the Eose-flowered. 
The self-colours are generally the most double, and 
a few of these are somewhat extensively grown for 
Co vent Garden Market. 

It is surprising what large and finely-flowered 
specimens of Balsam one sees in the London plant 
markets growing in quite small -pots. They are 
grown on rapidly in a strong heat, w^ell cared for, 
and abundantly watered with weak liquid manure. 
But it is only market growers that can produce 
such specimens in such small pots, and in such an 
incredibly short space of time. As to the course of 
treatment pursued to obtain such results, the market 



grower selects a few varieties remarkable for fine 
double flowers. The seeds are then sown in a strong 
bottom heat, in spring ; and as soon as they are 
large enough to be handled, they are placed, singly, 
in small ^Dots, grown on vigorously, and shifted into 
pots of a larger size, imtil they occupy 48-size, or 
pots four and a half inches in diameter. The plants 
are grown in low span-roofed houses, and kept near 
the glass, where they have plenty of light ; and 
when the pots are filled with roots, and they arc 
showing for bloom, they are watered two or three 
times a day, according to the weather ; and at least 
once a day with weak liquid manm-e. Let any one 
purchase a market Balsam, and turn it out of the 
pot, and he will find a perfect hai-d ball of roots. 
But it is the constant watering, and the warm, moist 
heat in v/hich the plants are grown, that keep thcni 
such perfect specimens, and make them the wonder 
and admiration of all who see the plants in the 
London markets. 

Begonias (Tui^erous - rooted). — Probably no 
groujD of plants is so poj)ular in the present day as 
the tuberous-rooted Begonias, and they may be said 
to have taken the place of the Zonal Pelargonium in. 
public estimation. And it is not to be wondered at, 
for they are perennial in character, easily grown,, 
very fi'ee and continuous in bloom. Seeing that 
new varieties can be raised from seed with compara- 
tive ease, thousands of seedlings are annually pro- 
duced ; and so generally fine axe they that in a short 
time the naming of particular varieties will cease, 
except in the cases of those of exceptional and strik- 
ing character. 

lict us shortly trace as accurately as possible the 
introduction and development of the tuberous-rooted 
Begonia. It is nearly twenty years ago since 
Messrs. Yeitch and Sons' collectors sent home to 
them Begonia BoHviei^sis, JR. species, and B. Veitchiiy 
all flowering tuberous-rooted varieties, which created 
quite a furore when they were first exhibited. 
Shortly afterwards, B. Fearcei, a very distinct yellow- 
flowered t}"pe, was also sent home to Chelsea. These 
proved of the greatest value for hybridising pur- 
poses, and in the hands of a clever manipulator at 
the Chelsea nurseries, there was produced in. 1868, 
B. Sedeni ; in 1870, B. intcrmeaia ; and several others 
followed in rapid succession. The first English 
hybrid was B. Sedeni, with pale scarlet flowers, sold 
first in 1870 ; then followed B. intermedia, in 1871 ; 
B. Chelsoni, in 1872 ; B. steUa, and B. Vesuvius, in 
1874, (Src, all produced by Messrs. Veitch and Sons; 
and it is to this enterprising finn that we owe the 
commencement of the work which resulted in the 
splendid development seen in the present day. Sub- 
sequently other persons interested in the Begonia 



FLOEISTS' FLOWERS. 



123 



took lip the A\-ork of imprcvemcnt so auspiciously 
commenced, and caiTied it on witli success. One of 
these was Mr. O'Brien, then of the Wellington 
Road Nurseiies, St. John's ^'ood. Prominent as a 
raiser is Mr. John Laing, of Stanstead Park Xur- 
serj', Forest Hill, who has made a great speciality 
of this plant, has greatly improved it, and who an- 
nually raises thousands of seedlings. On the Con- 
tinent also IMons. Victor Lemoine and others had 
heen at work ; and the hest of their productions, as 
well as of those that had emanated from Chelsea, 
were used by ^Ir. Laing and others for crossing- 
purposes. The latter made use of everything good 
that he could lay his hands upon, and with excellent 
results. Here it may he remarked that the earliest 
introduction, B. Jjolivicnsls, had long-pointed petals ; 
but B. Veitchii, also introduced, had petals of a 
broader and rounder character. A union of these 
two gave viore rounded and broader petals than the 
last-named parent, thus gi\'ing a very interesting- 
example of the curious effects of hybridising in mo- 
difying the forms of flowers. In the present day, 
massive petals or segments have so broadened that 
they overlaj) each other ; and the leading flowers are 
of great size and splendid quality. The predominat- 
ing colours are pink, rose, scarlet, and crimson ; but 
B. Pearcei and other hybrids of a similar colour have 
produced flowers of rich shades of lemon, yellow, and 
orange ; w^hile pure white, creamy, blush, and flesh- 
coloured varieties, of rapidly increasing quality, are 
getting quite numerous. 

I'p to a certain period the varieties of tuberous- 
rooted Begonias were all single-flowered. Then 
varieties bearing- double flowers came to this coimtry 
fi'om across the Channel. Mons. Victor Lemoine, of 
Xancy, was one of the first to exhibit these. There 
had been produced in England some semi-double 
tj-pes, but they fell short of the fully double cha- 
racter of the varieties raised in France. Mons. 
Bouchet, a gardener near Paiis, was successfid in 
raising some double flowers of the Bolivicnsis type. 
The fine fidl vaideties introduced by M. Victor 
Lemoine were taken in hand by ]Mi\ Laing, and he is 
now quite in the foreground as a j^roducer of these. 
Some of his more recent doubles are characterised by 
great size and wonderful fulness, looking more like 
hollyhock flowers. Occasionally new varieties of 
this character come to us fi'om the Continent, and a 
few other English raisers are doing their share also. 
But it is I\Ir. Laing that has taken the lead ; and for 
eight or nine months in the year, at least, he has a 
large and unrivalled collection in flower. 

Begonias can be raised from seed with the gi-eatest 
ease pro^-ided a little bottom heat be at conmiand ; 
at the same time seedlings can also be raised in an 
ordinary unheated green-house, placing the pans or 



pots on a warm shelf near the glass, and covering 
with a piece of glass to induce a more rapid germi- 
nation; and shading from the sun when necessary. 
But a much better start can be effected Avhen the 
seed is raised on a gentle bottom heat. The seed 
shoidcl be sown as thinly as possible in well-di^ained 
pans or pots, using a mixtiu-e of leaf-mould and 
silver sand, carefully sifted, to take from it any 
lumps or stones. This gives what is absolutely 
necessary — a light, free soil — and it shoidd be used 
moist, but not wet or sticky. The sm-face should bo 
made flat and smooth, and the seeds sprinkled upon 
it as thinly as possible, and at the same time equally ; 
and then covered with a very shght sprinkling of 
di-y silver sand, this being necessary to fix the seeds, 
otherwise in moAing the pans the seeds might run 
together. The pans should be placed in a warm 
house, and in a moderate bottom heat; placing a 
sheet of glass over each pan to promote germination 
and prevent evaporation. The seeds must on no 
account be allowed to become dry, but when it is 
necessary to give water it must be applied with the 
greatest care. The best plan is to dip the pans in a 
I)ail of lukewarm water, but not sufiiciently deep to 
cover the sui-face ; the water will gradually rise and 
moisten this. As soon as the seedlings are large 
enough to handle, the largest of them, if not all, 
should be pricked off into other pans or pots of 
similar soil, but this is an operation requiring great 
care. At the Stanstead Park Nurseries, where thou- 
sands of seedlings are raised, two jpersons sit, one on 
either side of a pan, which is raised breast-high. 
Each has a i^iece of tliin stick, a foot in length, 
Ijointed at one end, and with a cleft at the other end. 
The pointed end is placed rmder the tiny plants, and 
they are gently raised by it, but not lifted entirely 
out of the soil. The pointed stick is then employed 
to make a hole in the pan to be filled ; then by re- 
versing- it and using the cleft end, which grasps 
the tiny plant under the seed-leaves, it lifts it, places 
it in the hole made for it, and the pointed end is 
again used to press the soil about the roots. A 
little fine silver sand can be dusted over the sur- 
face, the pans are retmaied to the warm house, and 
their occupants soon lay hold ujjon the soil with their 
roots. Flicking off in this way may be done with 
advantage two or three times, giving the plants more 
room each time, and encom^aging them to grow as 
strongly as possible. When but a few seedlings are 
grown, they can be potted off singly to flower. Mr. 
Laing plants out in prepared ground in the open air 
every year thousands of seedlings, and a large num- 
ber of them flower the same season. 

The tuberous-rooted Begonia being a perennial, 
the tubers must be -^-intered after the foliage has 
died down. "SMien the foliage commences to decay, 



124 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



water is gradually withheld, and tlie soil allowed to 
become di-y, but not entirely so. Then the tubers 
should be shaken from the soil at the proper 
time; and, after being diied, should be placed 



when not in any special way pushed into acti\dty, 
but left to start of their own accord. If they have 
been wintered in pots and begin to show signs 
of gi^owth, shake all the old soil fi-om the roots and 





Sl^'GLE-FLOWEEED BeGOIs'IA, BlACK DOUGLAS. 



in boxes, in dry sawdust, and packed awa^r, keep- 
ing them during the winter in a dry cool place. 
When only a few tubers are grown they can be 
wintered in the pots of soil, but not kept quite di'y :^ 
or the roots can be shaken fi'om the soil and put 
singly into pots of sawdust, and wintered where they 
will be unharmed by frost. 

As regards starting the tubers into growth, it may 
be stated that they make the finest growth and bloom 



re-pot into small pots, the less soil the better until 
they come into growth. Give good di^ainage, and 
use a light sandy soil. Some care is required at 
fii'st starting, or the tubers are apt to decay. They 
should have warmth until fin.e weather arrives, and 
then plenty of air. Then the plants must be shifted 
into larger pots as necessary, if it is the desire of 
the cultivator to have fine and handsome specimens. 
]\Iost amateur ciiltivators of the Begonia who raise 



FLORISTS' FLOWERS. 



125 



seedling-s will find it expedient to plant them out in 
the open ground, say, early in June if large enough. 
It is true the j)lants will flower late, and some may 
not bloom at all ; hut it will enable the cultivator to 
ascertain the varieties worthy of being retained of 
those that bloom, and he can reject all inferior forms. 
Now, if some of the best of these flowering planted- 
out specimens be taken up from the open ground 
during September, carefully potted, and put into a 
green-house, they will continue in bloom for a con- 
siderable time, and will be of use for decoration at 
that season of the year. Begonias are hardier than 
is generally supposed ; they need no protection, and 
require no heat, except in the seedling stage, when 
fiii'st forming their tubers. 

But supposing a raiser of seedlings should be 
fortunate enough to raise one or two fine varieties, 
how can he increase them ? as he may desir-e to grow 
nothing else. He can do this by means of cuttings, 
and the best coui-se will be to start the tubers into 
growth early in ]\Iarch in a rather brisk temperature, 
and to commence taking the cuttings as soon as the 
growth is sufficiently advanced, and continue the 
work as successive crops of lateral shoots are produced. 
The plants must not be cut back too severely in order 
to obtain cuttings, or the growth made afterwards 
will be more or less weak, and be decidedly unsatis- 
factory. The cuttings as they are obtained should 
be inserted^ either singly or two or three together, in 
small pots, and placed in a propagating frame or in 
a heated pit where they can have the assistance of a 
little bottom heat, and be shaded from biilliant sun- 
shine. Cuttings of Begonias do not require to be kept 
so close and moist as those of most other subjects, 
and it may also be observed that the cuttings taken 
during the summer months can be struck most 
readily without the aid of bottom heat. The cut- 
tings should be put singly into thi-ee-ioich pots as 
soon as rooted, and those struck early in the 
spring may be planted out at bedding-out time ; 
but those struck at the end of the spring season 
and during the summer months should remain in 
the pots until early in the year following. The 
latter should have a place in a light airy pit, with 
moderate supplies of water until September, when 
the water must be gradually withheld ; and, as the 
stems die down, they may be stowed away for the 
winter under the green-house stage, or remain in the 
pit with protection from frost. 

At most of the flower shows, prizes are offered for 
tuberous-rooted Begonias in flower. The best plants 
to grow on for exhibition are two-year-old seedlings ; 
and supposing the specimens are required for the 
show at the end of July or during August, the 
tubers should be potted in April, selecting pots that 
will allow of an inch space or so between the edge of 



the tubers and the pots. They should be clean and 
well drained ; and the compost employed should be 
one made up of sandy loam, plenty of leaf -mould, and 
well-rotted manure. They should be potted so that 
the crown of the tuber is level with the surface, and 
the soil should be pretty firmly pressed about it. The 
pots should be placed in a warm house, but where 
they can have plenty of light ; and when the plants 
have pretty well filled the pots with roots they should 
have a slight further shift, and this must be repeated 
as long as necessar3\ As the plants grow on into size 
they must have plenty of light and air ; for if they 
become drawn they will be practically useless for 
exhibition purposes. There should be no difficulty 
in having, in the space of four months, plants two 
feet or even more in diameter. 

There is one very useful decorative purpose to 
which Begonias can be put — as basket-plants for 
the decoration of the gTcen-house and conservatory. 
The single and double varieties are both used for this 
purpose. The tubers should be started into growth 
in pots, and when they have made shoots some three 
inches in length they should be transferred to the 
baskets in which they are to flower. Wire baskets, 
about a foot or fifteen inches in diameter, are the 
best. Three plants should be put into each basket, 
and the spaces between them carefully filled with 
soil similar to that in which the tubers were first 
potted. When this is done the plants need just 
sufficient warmth to insure a fine growth, and they 
should be kept near the glass, using a thin shading 
to the house in bright weather. The baskets should 
be about eighteen inches from the glass ; and as the 
plants make a vigorous growth the shoots will depend 
natur^ally over the sides of the baskets, and when 
they are full of bloom they have an extrem^ely rich 
and elegant appearance. They are also very con- 
tinuous in blooming. We have seen, in Mr. Laing's 
nursery, baskets so filled of prodigious dimensions, 
and objects of great beauty during the summer season. 

There is a group of flowering Begonias of a very 
interesting character, easily grown, and very free of 
bloom, mainly in winter and spring. These, however, 
requiring heat, come more properly under the head of 
Stove Plants, and will be treated under that section. 
They are indigenous to both the Eastern and Western 
Hemispheres, the greater portion having been in- 
troduced from South America, and large numbers 
of fine hybrids have been raised in gardens. By the 
use of a few varieties they can be had in bloom all 
the year round ; but it is in the winter and early 
spring that they are most useful. Some of the&e 
varieties are used with excellent effect in the flower 
garden during summer. 

Sehctious. — The following is a list of some of the 
best varieties in cultivation: — 



126 



CASSELL'fS POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



SiXGLE-FLOWERED BeGONIAS. 



Favourite fCanuell). 

ludia I Chief. 

Orange Perfection. 

Crimson King. 

Glow-wot m. 

W. E. Gladstone. 

Eosy IViorn. 

Earl of Bessborougii. 

Countess of Bessborougii. 

Lady Kirk. 

Mdlle. Tressoueau. 

Mr. Laing. 



Garnet. 

Shirley Hibberd. 
Countess of Kingston. 
Ciinison Perfection. 
Mrs. H. Cannell. 
Wonder. 

L'Abbe Froment. 
Eeve d'Or. 
Salmon Queen. 
Jeanne d'Arc. 
Alba florabunda. 
Monarch. 



DOUBLE-PLOWERED BeGOXI.J 



Intermedia plena. 
Leon de St. Jean. 
Esther, 

FrauQois Breclmir. 
Le Grand Citoyen. 
Blanche Duval. 
Lucie Lemoine. 
Grandville. 

Comtesse H. de Choiseul. 
Madame Comesse. 



William Bealby. 
Mons. Lea-ouvp. 
Gabrielle Legros. 
Louis d'Or. 
Marie Lemoine. 
M. Paul de Vicq. 
Eosamonde. 
Gloire de Nancy. 
Sir Bealby. 
Mons. Bauer. 



Carnation. 



Carnations and Picotees. — The Carnation 
and Picotee are varieties of Bianthus Carophyllus, 
though some have as- 
serted that the Picotee is 
a distinct species. These 
flowers, as well as the 
Pink, are said to have 
"been introduced first into 
England from Italy, and 
have derived their names 
in the English language 
from their colour — Pink, 
Carnation or flesh-colour. 
The Carnation was also, 

as well as the Clove, styled by the old English 
florists, Clove-GilUfloiver, from its blooming in July. 
Ca'i^nations are diAdded into two main divisions, 
Bizarres and Flakes. There are tkree classes of 
Bizarres — Scarlet, Crimson, and Pink and Purple ; 
and there are Scarlet, Purple, and Pose Flakes. 
Bizarre is an epithet borrowed from the French, 
imphdng something fantastic, and there must be 
three distinct tints or shades. Flaked flowers have 
stripes or flakes of colom- on a white ground. 

In order to make the distinctions of the florist as 
clear as possible, we refer to the accompanying 
diagram. In all cases of what are termed the 
"show" varieties of Carnations and Picotees the 
ground-colour of the petals is white. This is flaked 
and barred with colour ; and in a show Carnation the 
flakes all run radially, from the centre of the flower 
to the edges of the petals. In order to have a 
" Bizarre " Carnation, then, there must be at least 
two distinct colours marked on the white ground, as 
seen in the accompanying diagram. A "flaked" 
Carnation has a white ground also, with clearly de- 
fined flakes of colour also running radially along the 
petals, and reaching to their edges. In' the case of 




a Scarlet-flaked Carnation, the colour is scarlet; a 
Purple-flaked, purple; and a Rose-flaked, rose, on 
the white ground; and in some varieties of Scarlet- 
flakes, for instance, the colour is denser than in 
others. 

Ficotees are unlike Carnations in that the colours 
are confined to the margins in the fomi of an edge, 
and there are Purple-edged flowers, Ecd-edged, and 
Rose-edged ; and these aic again divided into Hea%y 
and Light edges. Picotees have white grounds to the 
flowers also, but instead of the snow}' petals being 
flaked or barred with colour, it is entiix-ly on their 
edges, narrow in what arc termed Light-edged flowers, 
broad in Heavy-edged flowers. The Picotee is gene- 
rally less robust in growth than the Carnation, but it 
must not be supposed that it is therefore necessarily 
of delicate constitution. There is a class of yellow- 
ground Picotees, of delicate gi'owth, requiring gxeat 
care in cultivating them ; but of late years a much 
stronger-growing race has been introduced, which 
are becoming gi'eat fa- 
vourites because of their 
more easy culture. 

Cloves are generally 
self-ccloui'ed flowers — . 
Carnations or Picotees 
in which one or more 
colours are distributed 
all over the flower. 

A new race is termed 
Fancy Carnations ; they 
have coloured grounds 
to the flowers, such as pink, rose, mauve, pale scar- 
let, (tc, with flakes of some deeper colour, differing 
fi'om the older " Show " Carnation in the tinted 
ground. They are becoming great favourites. 

The fine named varieties of the Carnation and 
Picotee ai-e generally grown in pots. On the whole 
they are of a robust constitution, and do well in 
the open ground, but the finely-marked flowers that 
the florist prizes so highly can only be had on j)lants 
cultivated in pots, and so under control. Any 
one cultivating a few varieties of each for pleasure 
"^ill find it to their advantage to grow them in 
pots. 

Culture. — Any one intending to cultivate these 
plants should obtain their plants in the autumn, in 
the form of nicely-rooted layers. These should be 
j)otted singly in small pots, or two plants in a large 
pot, one on either side. And now comes in the 
matter of compost, which is one of great importance. 
That most recommended by growers is one made as 
follows: — good and rather adliesive loam, foiu' parts, 
one part rotten stable manure, and one of leaf-mould, 
with enough of coarse sand to keep it open ; and of 
late years cultivators have added a little broken 



Picotee. 



FLORISTS' FLOWERS. 



227 



charcoaL This is a good soil for use in all stages of 
the plant's growth. 

During the winter the plants in pots should be 
kept in a cold frame on an ash bottom, and carefully 
looked after, and air given on all suitable occa- 
sions. Potting into the blooming pots is done about 
the middle or end of February. The Carnation and 
Picotee are potted into large pots for flowering. A 
single plant is put into a pot seven inches in 
diameter ; two in a nine -inch ; and three in a ten- 
inch pot, the latter being the most generally fol- 
lowed method. The pots must be well drained, and 
broken oyster-shell is the best drainage that can be 
used, and some coarse siftings of the soil should be 
placed over the drainage before any soil is put in. 
The pots should then be fiUed within two inches 
•of the top, the plant or plants should be placed in 
jDOsition, and the soil pressed about them, making it 
fairly firm ; then by gently knocking the bottom of 
the pot on the ground the whole settles down, and 
the work of potting is complete. This done, the pots 
need to be placed in a cold frame and kept a little 
close until they become established, and then placed 
in the open air, standing them on pots or slates 
to prevent worms passing ujd into them* The plants 
need close attention in the matter of watering and 
keeping them clear of insects. 

As the flower-stems are thrown up they should 
be securely but not too tightly fastened to stakes. 
The stoutest osiers used by basket-makers make 
excellent stakes for the purpose ; and they can be 
had made of deal and painted green, and thej" should 
not be less than three feet long. In order to have 
fine full flowers it is necessary to thin out the buds. 
Not a few Carnations and Picotees have a tendency 
to burst the calyx, i.e., the green sheath which en- 
<;loses the bud, and it is a common practice to bind 
a piece of bast round it, taking care not to tie it too 
tightly so as to prevent the flower from expanding. 
Those who grow flowers for exhibition purposes are 
obliged to shade them, and this is done by means 
■of zinc shades fastened to the sticks, by a canvas 
covering, or by taking the plants into a house. 
When shaded, the blooms remain in perfection for 
many days. 

During the time that the plants are getting into 
flower, all weeds and dead leaves should be removed, 
and the surface soil stirred, and top-dressed once 
or twice, with a compost made up of half loam and 
half leaf-mould. This is a matter of great im- 
portance in insuring a healthy development of the 
plants. Earwigs prove very destructive to the 
■flowers, and they should be looked for and des- 
troyed. If the plants are grown solely for decora- 
tive purposes, disbudding need be done only very 
sparingly. 



Propagation. — This is done by layering, a process 
of importance, and requiring skill and experience to 
do it effectually. The more the plants are exposed 
to the sun previous to layering, tlie more robust and 
hardened is the wood, which is a matter of great 
importance. And as some sorts are shy in producing 
roots — a knowledge to be gained only by experience — 
these should be layered first of all, to give a greater 
duration of time to root properly. First of all the 
operator should make up a compost composed of 
equal parts of sweet turfy loam, leaf-mould, and 
sand passed through a fine sieve. Then all the 
leaves up to the third joint from the tip should 
be cut away with a pair of scissors, and the spent 
soil removed from the pot to the depth of three 
inches, and some of the fresh soil placed in the 
pots. Then by means of a sharp pen-knife an 
even slit is made from one joint to the other, taking 
care not to cut right through the wood. This tongue 
so formed eventually puts forth roots. It must be 
inserted in the fresh soil, placing a peg (those made 
from the common fern of the woods are best) to keep 
it secure in the soil, and after the whole of the 
layers are operated on and made secure, they must 
be slightly covered with fresh soil, and then watered 
through a rose watering-pot. Tne plants can then 
be placed in the open air, well attended to in the 
matter of watering, and in a month or six weeks 
the layers will be rooted, and eventually these can 
be potted oft' as recommended at the outset of this 
article. One of the best layerers of Carnations and 
Picotees we ever knew, used to insert his knife in 
the stem, and then cut outwards, doing this w'"th 
great certainty and dexterity, and so forming a 
tongue. But it requires great practice and care to 
layer rapidly and safely. 

Fine new varieties of Carnations and Picotees are 
also obtained from seed, which, if sown at any time 
in pots or pans of light sandy soil and placed in 
a cold frame, soon germinates, and the young 
plants can then be pricked off when large enough 
to handle into other pots, and grown on as re- 
quired, and finally planted out in spring in a well- 
prepared bed to flower. Such a bed should be 
raised above the level of the ground, so that there 
should be a fall for the water in the case of heavy 
rains. 

Selections. — The following selection of Carnations 
and Picotees includes the best varieties : — 



Carxatioxs. 



Scarlet Bizarres. 

Admiral Cnrzon. 
Artliiir Medhiirst. 
Robert Lord. 
George. 
Fred. 

Edward Adams 



Crimson Bizarres. 

J. D. Hextall. 
Master Fred. 
E. S. Dodwell. 
•Joliu Harlaud. 
Rifleman. 
Harrison "Weir. 



128 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXING. 



Pink and Pmyle Bizarves. 
H. K. Mayor. 
Siiiire Llewelyn. 
Thomas Aiistiss. 
Sarak Payne. 
Unexpected. 
William Skirving. 



Selection or Carnations {continued). 



Scadet Flakes 
Clipper. 
Henry Cannell. 
John Ball, 
Sportsman. 
Tom Lord. 
James Cheetham. 



Puviile Flakes. 
Dr. Foster. 
George Melville. 
James Douglas. 
Florence Night i 
Martin Rowan. 
Mayor of i'^ottin^ham. 



igale. 



Eo.se Flakes. 
Crista-Galli. 
James Merryweather. 
Jessica. 
John Keet. 

Miss Erskine Wemyss. 
Sybil. 




PicoTEE, Mrs. Cha:s:cellor. 



Caii:s^ation-j Dan Godfeei 



Selection op Picotees. 



Selection of Picotees {continucJ). 



Reaay Purple-edged. 
Mr -\ A. Chancellor. 
Zerluia. 
Muriel. 
Mrs. Mven. 
Mrs. Summers. 
Alliance. 

Heavy Bed-edjed. 
Brunette. 
J. B Bryant. 
John Smith. 
Dr EiDps. 
Mrs. Dodwell. 
Dr. Abercrombie. 



Light Purple-edged. 
Clara Penson. 
Her M ijesty. 
Mary. 
Ann Lord. 
Minnie. 
Mrs. Niven. 

LigM Bed-edged. 
Mrs. Bovver. 
Mrs. Gorton. 
Eev. F. D Horner. 
Thomas William. 
William Summers. 
Violet D nglas. 



Heavy Bose-edged. 
Constance Heron. 
E ther Minnie. 
Fanny Helen. 
Mrs. Sharp. 
Edith D'Ombraiu. 
Mrs. Payne. 



Liijht Bose-edged. 
Daisy. 
Favourite. 
Miss Gorton. 
NelHe. 
Purity. 
Mrs. JSichoU. 



Carnations andPicotees(TREEORPERPETrAL). 
— This is a most useful section of Carnations, flower- 
ing in autumn and winter under glass, and of great 
value for cutting from at these seasons. It is a flower 



FLORISTS' FLOWERS. 



129 



that has been greatly improved Ly Mr. C. Turner, 
Royal Nursery, Slough, who has a very extensive 
collection. They require a diffeient treatment to the 
ordinary Carnations, and they are of a true perennial 
character. The plants are generally grown singly, in 
five-inch or seven-inch pots, under glass, in a cool 



moderately moist. The plants must not be allowed 
to become dry at the roots, and they require to be 
kept clean in every way, and especially clear of 
green-fly. If it is not convenient to fumigate with 
tobacco-smoke, the insects can be brushed aw^ay with 
a camel-hail- brush. So treated, strong plants will 




A. Allcgfitibre. Laura. 

Tree Carnations. 



f:,rcen-house, where plenty of air can be admitted; and 
when the plants are in a forward state, and showing 
freely for bloom, a little gentle warmth is required to 
assist in the expansion of the flowers. At the same 
time, plenty of air should be given in the day-time on 
all suitable occasions, so as to dry up any damp that 
may be in the house ; especially so, as in the autumn 
and at mid- winter damp will cause the flowers to 
decay in the bud. The soil requii-es to be kept 
9 



flower through the winter months, and be a great 
source of pleasure to the cultivator. 

In the case of Tree Carnations and Picotees, the 
definitions which divide the " Show " varieties, as they 
are termed, into Bizarres and Flakes, and these again 
into their sub-divisions, are lost, or — shall we say? 
— cannot be observed. A few are white-ground 
flowers, many are coloured, and the colours run so 
much one into the other, and they are in not a few 



130 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



instances so curiously blended, that anything like 
classification is out of the question. Moreover, some 
flowers partake both of the character of Carnation 
and Picotee, which adds fo the difficulty of dividing 
them into anything like intelligible sections. Be- 
sides, while in the case of the florists' Carnation and 
Picotee the petals are considered to be most perfect 
when they are smooth or rounded on the edges, 
the petals of Tree Carnations are both smooth and 
fimbriated, as can be seen in the accompanying 
illustration, and some of the most striking flowers are 
those haAang petals with fringed edges. Xot a few 
are marked in an eccentric and grotesque manner. 
Some of this mixed character may be due to crossing ; 
but this class of Carnations seems to have a natural 
tendency to " sport " without any special attempt on 
the part of the florist. 

Time was when the few perpetual Carnations to 
be m.et with in this country were of a tall lanky 
growth, and having somewhat poor flowers. The 
introduction of some Continental varieties of strong, 
free growth, proved of great ser\dce to English 
florists, who set to work to take seed from these 
and raise new varieties ; and from these have sprung 
a race dwarfed in growth, more \'igorous in habit, 
and earlier to bloom, as well as producing flowers 
much more freely. 

In propagating these winter-flowering varieties^ 
they are not layered, but increased by "pipings," 
or cuttings, in the same way as Pinks. The best 
time to do this is at the end of February or early in 
March, placing them in pots of soil composed in 
great part of sand, putting eight or ten pipings into 
a four-inch pot, and pressing the soil flrmly about 
them, gi^'ing them a good sprinkling overhead, and 
placing the pots in a gentle bottom heat. In about 
three weeks these pipings will be sufficiently rooted 
to be potted off singly into three-inch pots, and 
when well established, hardened off gradually, and 
then shifted into larger pots, according to the 
strength of the plants. 'SMien established, the 
plants should be placed out of doors on a floor of 
coal-ashes during the summer months, kept well 
watered, and as they make growth be properly 
staked, and carefully tied to the stakes to prevent any 
damage from winds. There is a small group of 
yellow-flowered Picotees which can be treated in 
m^zch the same way, and are also found very useful 
for cutting from, as well as of great decorative 
value. 

A useful selection of Tree Carnations will be found 
in the following- : — 



Lady Lonsdale. 
Laiu-a. 
Miss Joliffe. 
Mrs. Dix. 



Mrs. Llewelyn. 
Souvenir de la Malmaison. 
The Queen. 
Wortliington Smith. 



Cloves. — Clove Carnations now forai a numerous 
group, and they have been greatly increased of late 
by the addition of a large number of fine varieties. 
AVhether the original form of Dianthus Carophyllus 
was white on the ground or coloured we cannot state, 
but it may perhaps be presumed it was flesh-coloured. 
Cloves cannot be obtained with certainty from seeds ; 
and a large number of the varieties are seK-coloured 
forms of the Carnation. Sometimes a plant, of say a 
scarlet Bizarre Carnation, will produce flowers wholly 
scarlet, and then it is to all intents and purposes a 
Clove. A floiist terms these r\m '' flowers, and the 
plants are rejected by him because they cannot be 
depended upon to produce anything but self-coloured 
flowers in the future. This is one of many illustra- 
tions of the singular way in which flowers sport; 
but the causes operating to tliis end are as yet among 
the secrets Xatm-e keeps hidden from the children 
of men. All the Cloves, like some of the stronger- 
growing Bizarre aad Flaked Carnations, do well in 
the open air, and make excellent border flowers. 
"\\Tiile many of them are deserving of pot culture, 
they are more generally culti\-ated as border plants. 
They should be planted in a lich, deep, sandy loam — a 
soil that suits all the Carnations and Picotees — and 
are increased by layers. 

There is also a gi'oup of Fancy Carnations which 
are flaked, edged, and striped on dark grounds ; they 
come between what are known as the Show, and 
Clove or deep-coloured varieties, and for the sake of 
■convenience have been denominated " Fancies." 

The following will be a good selection : — 

Clove Carxatioxs. 



Aura Wilhauis, deep pink. 
Bride, white. 
Chieftain, bright crim-ou. 
Coroner, bright scarlet. 
Dominie Sampson, ruby. 
Elegant, reddish-purple. . 
Euphrosyne, rose. 
Gl'jire de Xancy, pure white. 
Hindoo, dark crimson. 
Lord Koseber}", deep rose. 
Mary Morris, pure white. 



Miss Wheeler, sulphur an 1 
white. 

Mrs. Whitmore, bright rose. 

Neptune, purple. 

Pride of Penshurst, bright 

yello^vself. 
Purple Gem, bright purple. 
Sultan, rich iDurple. 
The Governor, blush-white. 
Vivid, fiery scarlet. 
W. E. Milner, pure white. 



Faxcy Carxatioxs axd Picotees. 



A. Alleeatiere. 
iiright Phoebus. 
Brunnette. 
Cardinal. 
Cassandra. 



Enchmtress. 
Gaiety. 
George Eudd. 
Juliette. 
La Belle. 



Adonis, flaked 1 ri?ht crini. 
Alice Waite, yellow ground, 

crimson edge. 
Eurydice, crimson and rosy 

IDurple. 

Flavins, bright yellow, 
edged scarlet. 

Hector, scarlet and maroon. 

Hon. Mai-y Lascelles, yellow 
ground, edged crimson. 

Huson Morris, rich crim- 
son and maroon. 

Janira, yellow and dark 
maroon. 



Mrs. Mostyn Owen, crimson 

and dark purple. 
Mrs. W. L. Walker, rose 

and crimson. 
Prince Hal, plum-purple 

flaked. 

E. Markham Hill, carnation 
flaked with maroon. 

Siturn, chocolate, purple 
flake. 

Sir Toby Belch, scarlet and 

maroon. 
Thomas Page, yellow 

ground, edged with pink. 



SUBUEBAN GARDEXIXG„ 



m 



SUBUEBA]^ GAEDENING. 

By James Hudson. 



TEF^EAOES AND ROWS OF HOUSES. 

UXDER tliis heading we puri^ose in the first place 
to give a general outline of the laying out 
of the garden plots connected with this description 
of house, afterwards entering into their general 
management, simplifying the latter as far as we can 
in such a way that the owners of such plots of 
ground may he able to attend to the requirements of 
their garden plants themselves to a great extent. 
Such gardens as these are almost invariably of very 
limited dimensions. Here and there we meet with 
exceptions, in which the occupant is more fortunate 
than his neighbours in this respect ; but concerning 
these larger gardens all the most necessary and 
useful hints may be gained in the perusal of 
our previous remarks on semi-detached villa gar- 
dens so far as regards their arrangement, while 
■cultivation will be gone into in combination with 
the smaller gardens now more especially under 
consideration. 

The Forecourt. — In the first place we will 
suppose that there is a small space of ground at 
disposal on the front, or road side, of houses built in 
terraces. This could be laid out in different ways, 
having regard to the aspect in selecting the subjects 
wherewith to plant the same. If the plot is very 
limited, it would not be advisable to lay any of it 
down in grass, as it would of necessity be so small a 
piece that when requiring to be mown, no machine, 
if ever so small, could be worked with any comfort. 
The use of the scythe requiring some practice to 
manipulate it in a skilful manner, almost forbids the 
use of that implement, and recourse would have to be 
had to garden shears, which would be found rather 
back-aching work to those who are not accustomed 
to the use of such tools. There is a more modern 
invention for small pieces of grass, after the pattern 
of horse-clipping machines, but of this we cannot 
speak from experience. The best way would be to 
have either a central plant with a little circular 
border aroimd it, then a narrow wallv next the same, 
filling lip the angles with low-growing shrubs or 
hardy ferns, allowing of course foi- the broader path 
that forms the entrance to the house on one side or 
the other, as the case may be ; or dispense with the 
central plant, and have a circle in gravel, and thus 
leave rather more room for plants and shrubs around 
this space. In lieu of either one or the other of 
these suggestions, a vase of average dimensions may 
be arranged so as to have a very pretty effect ; this, 
however, entails closer attention with regard to 



watering. AVhen this is seen to with regularity, we 
would prefer the vase as a central arrangement. It 
could be filled with hardy j)lants all the year round , 
or changed to suit each season, using tender 
flowering plants for the summer time, and a small 
hardy shrub during the winter months, with some 
few small plants of di'ooping habit to hang around 
the edges. This is a point that is often overlooked 
in vase arrangements, no pro^'ision being made for 
these suitable additions. If situated where much 
under the influence of the fogs and blacks that 
pervade the atmosp»here around our towns and 
centres of activity, we would prefer edging-tiles 
instead of dwarf Box-edging, as the latter is not 
always satisfactory in such positions, whereas the 
former, if laid in a substantial manner in the first 
place, and of good material, will not need much 
further attention of any moment for some years. 
We would recommend the blue cable pattern of 
edging-tiles, as being both neat in appearance, and 
when of " terra-cotta " ware, of the most durable 
quality. Their non-absorbent properties cause 
them to withstand the injuiioiis efi^ects of frost, and 
though they may be rather more expensive in the 
fii'st i^lace, they will, in the long run, be found the 
cheaper. Box- edging also affords an excellent 
shelter for slugs and snails, which cause endless 
annoyance if not kept in checlc by every possible 
means. Xo plants should be employed on this side 
of the house that are of robust growth, and thus 
likely to require repeated prunings to keep them 
within bounds, unless used as a boundary line to the 
next garden. Low walls, with ornamented iron 
railings, are, however, the best means to employ in 
dividing one property from the others ; these ought 
not to be so high as to shut out the vista from one 
garden to the other, for, it being impossible to keep 
such spaces of a strictly secluded character, the best 
way is to study the general appearance of the whole, 
which will be found far more enjoyable and of much 
better effect. 

It seems a great pity the dividing walls in front of 
terrace houses cannot be abolished. They are no use 
for privacy ov protection, and their removal would 
allow all the space of the forecourts to be treated as 
one whole, to much better extent and enjoyment. 
This, however, is impracticable in the present state 
of society and customs ; and so long as the divi- 
sions are retained it is better to clothe them with 
verdure. To assist in this, a length of galvanised iron- 
wire netting of medium mesh can be strained from 
end to end. Before this is used to tie the plants 
against, two or three coats of paint would l)e a goon 
preservative against any possible injury that rnigiit 
be caused by the galvanised wii'c coming into contact 
with the shoots of tender growth. If the houses are 



132 



CASSELL'S POPULAK GAKDEXIXG. 



entered by a flight of steps, an excellent opiDortunity 
is afforded for a flower- vase on either one or both 
the top and bottom piers, whilst climbers can be 
trained up the side wall from one pier to the other. 
Provision should also be made by j^reparation with 
good soil (and drainage, if necessary, when lower 
than the surrounding ground) for suitable climbing 
plants to be trained up the walls of the house, 
which will always have a good effect when so 
covered ; still more so if a balcony should be running 
thi-ough any part of the second storey. If the front 
door be somewhat projecting beyond the usual 
building line, or bow windows have to be dealt Avith, 
very pretty effects can be made by entwining 
climbers around the columns of the former, and by 
using those of evergreen character for training up 
the chief sujpports of the latter. Having regard to 
any possible injury, which will hardly be avoided 
when recoiu-se is had to securing the climbing plants 
with nails and shreds, we would advise either a wire 
trellis for fixing against the walls, or some permanent 
studs to be driven in equi-distant from each other, to 
which the climbers, and other plants that require 
support, may be tied with ease. This recommenda- 
tion will hold equally good for any space at disposal 
on the boundary walls of the property. The use of 
nails and shreds may answer very well when done 
by experienced hands, but far too many of each are 
invariably used by those who are not practised in 
their aj)plication. By omitting to draw out those 
nails that have become useless, the walls will even- 
tually be rendered unsightly when deciduous climbers 
are denuded of their leaves. Where any quantity of 
old nails are thus found in walls, it is desirable that 
they should be withdrawn ; this can be done far more 
easily by first giving the nail a raj) as if it were 
intended to drive it further home. It wdll thus be 
released from any corrosion that has adhered to it 
by long continuance in the wall, and afterwards be 
di'awn out in a far cleaner manner. ^"NH^ien recourse 
is had to nails and shreds, be careful to allow a good 
space around the branch (when applying the shi-ed 
to it) for future growth ; or, in plain words, do not 
draw the shred tightly together and drive the nail 
close up to the branch. When tying mediums are 
used for securing the shoots against wire trellises or 
studs, small tar -yarn is the best material with 
which to perform the operation. Be careful also 
in the application of this means of support, to 
allow plenty of room for the future increase in 
the size of the branches. Good tar -string will 
last for several seasons ; in its use, therefore, it ~is 
very essential that the advice we have just given 
bo always borne in mind, or eventually the string 
will cut into the branch as the latter increases in 
size. 



The Back Garden. — In resuming our remarks 
on the arrangomont of the garden, after the foregoing 
necessary advice for securing the climbing plants, 
we will pass on to the gaidon plot situated on the 
other side, or back, of the house. In very many 
cases this, too, will be of most limited area — ofter- 
times only a square plot, when the backs of two 
rows of houses abut against each other. There will, 
perhaps, be room enough for a piece to be laid down 
in grass in the centre ; when this plan is followed, 
we should not ad\-ise any space to be occupied with 
paths, but utilise all the remainder for shi'ubs and 
border flowers. If paths are allowed for, so much 
of the room will be taken up ^v-ith these and the 
lawn plot that but little space wiU be available for 
anything else. If of fairly good T\T.dth, a flower-bed 
can be allowud for in the centre ; or, in lieu thereof, 
a few choice shrubs, or a Weeping Ash, which will 
afford a pleasing shade diuing the summer after 
a few years' growth. Limes are often planted in, 
small gardens, but they are not to be -recommended 
where the suiTOunding property is covered with 
houses, as their foliage has a peculiar propensity for 
retaining any deposit of dust or blacks, even after a 
heaxy rain. Xo doubt this is fui-ther accelerated by 
the insects that frequent them, these lea%ing behind 
a glutinous matter to which anything will readily 
adhere. Trees with smooth leaves of a glossy shining 
siu'face will keep the cleanest, and the Planes arc 
much better in this respect than the Limes. 

In these gardens, of very limited extent, there 
will not be room for many shrubs ; the idea, there- 
fore, of endeavouring to obtain "seclusion" by the 
aid of such will not be possible of attainment. In 
endeavouring to attain to this end, the gi'eater part 
of the ground would have to be occupied, leaving 
but little room for anything else. Attention should, 
therefore, be directed to securing such subjects as will 
give the best return in a small way. We would 
prefer to plant the tallest shrubs at the bottom of the 
grounds when another garden joins up to it ; this 
will also give the best effect from the house. With 
a small lawn, and no paths allowed for, there would, 
however, be in many cases room enough at least for 
some few shrubs of moderate size on each side and 
near the division walls. We would not on any 
account plant up too closely to these walls in the 
case of any shrubs that may be chosen, but aUow 
sufiicient room for climbers throughout the entire 
length on either side. By planting the Irish Ivies 
or A-^irginian Creepers against these walls, and 
extending them beyond the top of the wail by the 
aid of ornamental trellis-work, a fairly good screen 
will be obtained which will not occuj^y any valuable 
space. When such a screen is not deemed necessary, 
we would lather advise the walls to be covered with 



SUBURBAN GARDENIXa. 



133 



choicer plants, selected from such subjects as may 
reasonably be expected to give a fair return either 
in flowers or berries. Fyrus Jajyonica, the Honey- 
suckles, the climbing Roses, the Clematis, the 
"Wistaria, Jasminum nucUJlorum, flowering in the 
winter and early spring, and /. officinale during the 
summer months ; the Cotoneasters ; the Crataegus, 
beautiful during the winter when laden with its 



for climbers of robust growth, such as the Wistaria, 
the evergreen and deciduous Magnolias, Garrya 
elliptica, and the Passion-flower [Passiflora ccerulca). 
AVe strongly urge that every available foot of wall 
surface that is accessible be furnished with climbers, 
so that the utmost j)ossible retui'n may be secured out 
of such limited spaces as town and suburban gardens 
afford. 




Plans for Back Gardens in Tkrrace Houses. 
1, Beds ; 2, gravel ; 3, grass ; 4, shrubbery or rock-work to bide bottom wall. 



brilliantly coloured berries, and suited for a north or 
east aspect ; and the Euonymus latifoUiis for its foli- 
age, where nothing else besides the Ivy will thrive, 
will each and all give satisfaction. The evergreens 
should be judiciously intermixed with the deciduous 
species, but a list of e«ch will be more fully given 
when we come more specially to consider that part 
of the subject. 

Against the walls of the house more room will 
generally be found on the garden side of the bidlding 



By occuppng only a limited portion of the side 
borders with shrubs of a bush form, there would be 
room enough for a fair quantity of flowering plants, 
such as the ordinary run of bedding plants, those 
of the hei-baceous section, and annuals even, when it 
is not deemed necessary to have many of the first- 
named kinds. The shrubs as they increase' in size 
will occupy too much room, and it will be better 
then to exchange them for smaller ones than to 
allow this increase in size to go on. 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAPtDEXIXG-. 



Planning. — if it is not deemed expedient to re- 
Kcrve the central portion for laWng down in grass, but 
instead thereof to make more provision for flowers 
and ornamental subjects, rather than adopt the usual 
plan we would ad\ise one central path thi'ough- 
out the entire length, or to be intercepted in the 
centre of it by fixing on that spot for an effective 
flower- vase. This latter plan would aid in breaking 
u]3 the uniformity of a straight path from top to 
bottom of the garden. A circular bed could be 
allowed for around this vase, which should be made 
to look as gay as possible. Were it not for the high 
water-rates another alternative would be ax^propri- 
ately suggested instead of the flow^er-vase and bed, 
viz., to fix on that spot for a fountain. Such an 
object would le productive of good effect in that 
position, and if a basin of proportionate size were 
allowed for, there would be ample supply of water 
for all the garden requirements within easy access. 
Two short cross-walks could be arranged, one on each 
side of the fountain, and at right angles with the 
centre path. This w^ould allow of four quarters, 
which could be more immediately devoted to the 
cultivation of garden favourites that will thri^'e in 
any particular locality. For the sake of convenience, 
two narrow X)aths of not more than one foot in width 
should be allowed for within easy reach of the 
,;limbers previously advised to be planted against 
the walls ; this could be arranged between the shrubs. 
Four feet would be as much as could be conveniently 
spared in a small garden for a central path ; some- 
what wider should the garden fortunately be of 
more than average size. The shrubs should not be 
allowed to encroach within six feet of the path on 
either side, in order to allow a faiiiy broad border 
for Eoses, and such other subjects, which thrive best 
when not overgrown or deprived of their j)roper 
means of sustenance by the proximity of the grosser- 
feeding roots of the trees and shrubs. In front 
of the Eoses there would be a good position for 
some Pinks and Carnations, whilst the margins next 
the walk could be used for Pansies, London Pride 
[Saxifraga umbrosa), or one or more varieties of the 
Stone-crops [Sedicm). Any durable edging plant 
that is neat and compact, would be preferable to 
using such as are tender and only fit to be seen for a 
lew months of the year. 

But other methods may be suggested. The great 
object to be aimed at, in getting any satisfaction out 
of these small strips of terrace-house garden, is to 
get rid of, to get right away from, the unendurable 
but customary monotony and endless repetition of a 
straight path all round the ground, about a yard 
from the wall. Small as the space is, there is no 
need for this w^retched jDattern to be always repeated 
in it, as we will try to show by a few examples ; and 



this alike whether the garden is laid down in gravel 
or grass. To return for one moment to that question, 
much as we prefer grass where space is limited, it 
has a very serious di'awback in large towns — that of 
not getting dry till the day is far spent. Bright and 
clear gravel, on the contrary, is accessible at all 
hours, from early morn till dewy eve, seasons when 
the garden is most enjoyable, but when grass alone 
must forbid its use to delicate women and children. 
So important to these for air, health, and happiness, is 
free access to the back garden in a town, that rather 
than deprive them of it Ave would lay down our pen 
and give up the ground to sheer gravel space and a 
swing. But this is not necessary ; only give fair 
gravel space in the garden, and children may easily 
be trained to amuse themselves among flowers, and 
so to love and admire as never to wantonly injure 
them, A\'TT.ere there are children, therefore, adequate 
gravel walks there must and ought to be ; since to be 
unable to run about because the grass is too long or 
too damp is to them sheer misery, At the same 
time, even a little really fresh grass, at a time when 
parks and pleasui^e-gi-ounds are brown with drought, 
and the street is hot and dusty, is one of the 
greatest pleasures and refreshments of a garden, and 
can be easily enjoyed, if only on a small scale. To 
enjoy it, however, the tm'f must be watered almost 
daily in dry weather ; and if this is done in the 
morning before going to business, the lawn will be 
found in the most perfect state for enjoyment in the 
evening. 

We give a few plans merely as suggestions, and to 
show how easy it is, even in a small space, to get 
away from that intolerable monotony w^e have spoken 
of. By a small space we mean a plot of groimd that 
is not perhaps wider than eighteen to thirty feet — 
few terrace-houses are narrower than the former, and 
something may be done even with that, quite apart 
from the plan of all-over gi'ass and surrounding 
shi-ubs akeady spoken of. The three designs are 
purposely very different, and might easily be varied 
in detail, even with the same main features. That 
shown at A readily adajDts itself to rather a wide piece 
of ground, or by removing the border and reducing 
in scale, to the narrowest. It furnishes almost the 
maximum length of walk in the minimum of space, 
in pleasing variety of line, and enables one to return 
at any point without retracing steps. It also allows 
a large-lookinff expanse of grass, from which the 
narrow flower border next to the side-walls very 
little detracts. The plan at B accomplishes some- 
what of the same objects in a very different manner, 
and either this or C will suit the very narrowest 
gardens. The paths in B occupy more of the space, 
and may be either laid down so that all the other 
spaces, margins as well as oval centre beds, are in. 



SUBUKBAN GAEDENINO. 



135 



flower-bed and border, or all tbese spaces may be in 
g-rass; or the ovals in flower-bed, and the borders 
grass, or vice versa. This plan also allows of con- 
venient return. A pretty variety may be got by 
lajang- the centre oval alone in grass, with a vase in 
the centre. 

The design at C looks best as a graes design, on 
which the beds are planned, the turf being carried 
right up to the walls. The effect of even a very narrow 
garden so treated is very pleasing. Of course there 
may be also a narrow border under the walls ; but if 
these are well covered with green, the grass alone 
looks best. 

In all the above plans, the central oval or circle 
may, if convenient, be devoted to such a foun- 
tain or vase as already suggested. Both A and 
C may be made exceedingly pretty and effective in 
this way, but if a fountain were placed in B it would 
be better to make the central part circular rather 
than oval — this would at the same time give a little 
more variety to the design. We trust these hints 
will be sufficient to stimulate the ingenuity of the 
reader. 

Paths. — The walks in such an arrangement as 
this would in many cases be made of gravel ; these 
of necessity require attention in rolling and weeding. 
This labour might be saved by laying the walks or 
paths down in asphalt, which, if done in the first 
place in a substantial manner, would last for years 
without any further trouble beyond sweeping occa- 
sionally. The manner in which these paths are now 
laid down and faced off to resemble a gravel path as 
nearly as possible, commends the method strongly to 
the owners of small gardens, who always like to see 
their walks neat and clean, likewise fit to walk upon 
at any time. For further details under this head see 
special articles thereon. 

Planting — In such gardens as these we should 
never advise the planting of any great quantity of 
bedding plants. The short season at the best does not 
give a commensurate return, when it is taken into 
consideration that other plants of a far more perma- 
nent character have to make way for them. This, 
where the space is so limited, is a great mistake, there 
being no room for a reserve garden to supply the 
bare places when the first frosts of autnmn have 
destroyed the beauties of the bedding plants. It will 
be far better to rely on plants of a hardy constitu- 
tion, which, if not presenting quite such a display at 
any one time, will at all times have something to 
attract the notice. 

We strongly ui'ge upon those who are planting 
their gardens to secure a few good shrubs with 
Variegated foliage. In a small garden they will 



look bright and cheerful ; such, for instance, as the 
gold and silver forms of variegated Hollies ; the 
Aucuba ; the variegated Euonyjmus, including the 
dwarf- growing variety {E. radicans varicgata). This 
is a pretty, neat dwarf plant for edgings, or for 
j)lanting on rock- work ; the variegated Vincas or 
Periwinkles too would be useful in a similar position. 
Prominence should also be given to the small and 
compact-growing types of Coniferous shrubs [Coni- 
fer ce) which retain their good appearance the year 
round. Of these plants the Yews are the hardiest 
and most enduring of any, bearing repeated prunings 
to keep them within the necessary bounds of a small 
garden. The common English Yew (Ta^?«s haccata), 
and its golden and silver forms, are the best to 
select ; the two latter, but especially the former of the 
two, have a beautiful appearance when the growth 
is being develoj)ed during the early summer months, 
X^resenting almost as good an effect as the presence 
of an abundant crop of flowers would do, but lasting 
much longer. The Yew is also one of the most 
accommodating of all shrubs for growing or training 
into fanciful designs, examples of which are fre- 
quently to be met with in country villages. The 
Box-tree can also be applied to the same purpose. 
Of other Conifers the compact-growing forms of 
Arbor vitce are most useful. Biota aurea being one of 
the best, and taking several years to arrive at an in- 
convenient size ; it is also called the Golden Arbor- 
vitse, from the colour its young growths assume 
during the earlier stages. Of these, however, the 
Cupressus, and the Eetinosporas (from Japan), 
which are somewhat similar, but yet of equal value 
by reason of their very neat appearance, T\^e hope to 
give a more complete list later on. As a plant for a 
single specimen, the Araucaria (Chili Pine) is one of 
the best that can be chosen. This will succeed better 
when planted in a small state, and where it has 
a fair amount of room for expansion. In the 
suburbs, the Deodar, or Cedrus deodar would also 
grow well, and make a pretty jilant for the centre of 
a lawn, but when in closer proximity to the smoke 
it does not give satisfaction. 

It will also be very necessary to pay attention to a 
selection of both deciduous and evergreen shi'ubs 
which are valuable for the sake of the flowers they 
produce. The size of the garden must be considered 
in the choice of these. The best of the freely- 
flowering Eoses should of course have a prominent 
position ; give them, in fact, the best places that can 
be found. The Lilac is another favouiite, but will 
soon grow too large and rampant if not constantly 
kept in check by a careful use of the knife. The 
Mock Orange is another beautifully perfumed flower ; 
this shrub will bear a liberal use of the pruning- 
knife, and still produce its flowers; do not cut it, 



136 



CASSELL'S POPULAR aARDENING. 



however, into a formal shape (neither should this be 
done with any shrubs), but reduce its dimensions 
by a carefuL thinning process. The scarlet, pink, 
and white-flowering varieties of Hawthorn (both 
single and double forms) are always welcome in the 
spring ; these should be selected as standards on 
clean and straight stems ; in which way they will 
not occupy so much room. The Chinese and Siberian 
Grabs also produce their flowers freely in the spring 
months ; standards of these would be the best to 
select. There are also the showy early- flowering 
varieties of the double-blossomed Peach, one or two 
of which would be very useful, as well as the more 
common Almond, more hardy and floriferous. The 
Weigelia, too, is most effective, bearing the use of the 
Imife to keep it within bounds. The hardy Azaleas, 
cliiefly the yellow varieties, which are the most 
vigorous and floriferous, should receive attention. 
The beautiful tints of the leaves of the yellow kinds 
are almost equal to a crop of flower when they show 
:'.igns of ripening, some few weeks ere they fall to the 
.'ground. These Azaleas should be associated with 
the Rhododendrons, and other shrubs commonly 
called " American " plants. 

Of the Rhododendrons, a few words in their favour 
are necessary. Not only are they among the best of 
all evergreens, but they have such handsome flower 
trusses as should alone cause them to be always 
chosen in preference to either the common Laurel or 
the Portugal variety, which grow far too strong and 
luxuriant when once established in the fresh soil, 
whilst the Rhododendron will take some years before 
getting of unwieldy size. We have often been sur- 
prised when viewing such gardens as these, and even 
larger ones, to see what a want there has been of 
this fine evergreeq shrub in the grounds. Coming 
as they do from elevated and exposed regions (those 
types at least which are designated as "hardy 
kinds"), they are among the best evergreens to 
withstand the occasional severity of our winters. 

Thanks to the energies of plant collectors, who 
risk their lives, and oftentimes ruin their constitu- 
tions, by exposure in foreign climes, our gardens 
have been greatly enriched from time to time by the 
shrubs and plants which they have gathered and 
sent home to add to our collections. Among hardy 
evergreen shrubs, the Aucuba Japonica (commonly 
called the Spotted Laurel) is a notable instance 
of this, being a plant indigenous to Japan, which 
has now become thoroughly acclimatised in this 
coimtry. Many among us can still recollect when 
it was first brought into prominent notice, and -it 
is now to be found, more or less, in nearly every 
garden. It is a shrub which is thoroughly at home 
in the midst of our towns and cities, thriving there 
as well as in the pure country aii". It will generally 



form itself into a compact bush without much atten- 
tion, but should any shoots show a disposition to run 
away from the rest, they should have their tops 
taken off. And now that both sexes of this shrub 
have been introduced it fruits freely, and the berries 
are even more beautiful than the foliage, which is 
saying a great deal. There are many hybrid 
varieties with foliage and fruits of the most brilliant 
red, A. Japon/ca vera fcemina being one of the most 
fruitful. A. J. Io)igifor/a is also fine ; and one 
plant of A. J. mascula will be found enough for the 
largest garden. 

When a plant gets to a large size, and some 
branches droop on the ground, or are of sufl&cient 
length to be brought in contact therewith, they 
may be pegged down into a Kttle extra good 
soil, having first cut about one-third through the 
stem, in a slanting direction, where it will be buried 
in the earth in the after-operation. These shoots 
will soon take root, and partially rely on their own 
resources; when indications are apparent of their 
having a good quantity of roots of their own, they 
may be severed from the parent plant. Leave them 
thus for a time before attempting removal; the 
check in both ways at once would be too much, 
perhaps, for the future well-being of the plant. 
These young plants would be found useful to replace 
any which are getting too large for their positions, 
yet not too large, perhaps, for removal to some other 
part of the garden, there to be used in the place of 
huge overgrown specimens, valuable in their way in 
a large garden, but quite out of place in a small one. 
No large tree, plant, or shrub should be permitted in 
a small garden ; they so soon impoverish the soil, 
making it quite unfit for many other subjects which 
it is desirable to cultivate as successfully as possible. 



HERBS AND SMALL SALADS. 

By William Earlet. 



Mustard {Sinapis alba). French, Sencve ; Ger- 
man, Seiff ; Italian Senapa. — This is the common 
plant used so generally and plentifully, along with 
cress, already referred to, in connection with salads, 
and otherwise. Its simple culture into the seed-leaf 
consists of merely sowing the seeds thickly upon the 
surface of the ground, and placing the slightest pos- 
sible amount of fresh soil over them, when they 
are well watered and kept constantly moist. For 
the earliest sowing out of doors, which should com- 
mence about the beginning of May each year, a 
warm, sunny border should be chosen, and for mid- 
summer and early autumn a moist, cool site. To 
insure a constant supply subsequently during the 



HEEBS AND SAEALL SALADS. 



137 




winter months, periodical sowings must be made in 
the same manner in shallow boxes as frequently as 



Onions, small, for salading, require to be sown 
in small beds monthly, where they are in demand, 
though Chives, already referred to, can be very con- 
veniently made to take 
their place. They 
should be drawn when 
quite young, or so soon 
as the third leaf forms. 
The variety named 
"The Queen," being- 
such a rapid grower, 
is excellent for this 
purpose. For general 
culture, see " Onion," 
in the main list of 
vegetables. 

Parsley {Fetroseli- 
num sativum). French, 
Fersil ; German, Petcr- 
silie ; Italian, Fetrosc- 
lino. — The Parsley 
would appear the most 
indispensable of all so- 
called pot-herbs, no garden 
being supposed comjolete 
without a good supply at 
all seasons. It comprises 
the ordinary or pot-herb, 
and the "Hamburg" or 
" large - rooted " variety 
[Petroselimim sativum lati- 
folium). The former or 
commoner form is very 
easily cultivated so as to 
secure constant crops. Any 
kind of garden soil will 
suffice, though the deeper 
and better the loam it con- 
sists of, so much the finer 
will be each jA^nt and 
its leaves. A firm soil, 
having been some time 

previously well enriched with manure, gives better 
results than such as are too sandy or loose in 
their nature. The first sowing should be made 
early in the month of February upon a favourite 
site, and a second during the month of May. By 
keeping the plants which result from such sowings 
frequently denuded of all large leaves, even to 
taking the heart of each plant out as it shows 
symptom.s of undue growth and a likelihood to 



Curled Parsley. 




Eadishes 



run to seed, a constant succession of young leaves 
will be formed. 

Sufficient care to sow and hoe out thinly is not 
generally observed. Each plant grown from a good 
stock of seed, esijecially where the ground is good, 
should be permitted at least nine inches of space to 
grow upon. The too common practice is to sow very 
thickly to insure a 
crop, and total neglect 
to subsequently thin 
out the young seed- 
lings. The result is 
that the whole bed 
becomes checked dur- 
ing dry weather, and 
the whole runs awa)- to 
seed. It is even better 
to transplant a suffi- 
cient width for the 
supply, than to allow 
this ; though sowing 
more thinly, and thin- 
ning the young seed- 
plants out, is more 
likely to give excel- 
lence of quality and 
supply. If at all required 
for garnishing as .well as 
for potable purposes, care 
should be taken to pro- 
cure seed of a well-curled 
variet}'. 

Hamburg Parsley 

{Petroselinum sativum, var. 
latifolium). — This variety 
should be grown upon 
ground in precisely the 
same way as the Parsnip 
crop, as the roots grow to 
almost as large a size. 
Seeds should be sown, 
thinly, in drill rows ten 
inches asunder, and for suc- 
cession, during the months 
of February and June. So 
soon as the young plants 
are large enough, thin them out to eight inches apart, 
and then frequently hoe amongst them subsequently. 
The roots produced from the earliest sowing will bo 
ready for use by the month of August, and afford 
a supply subsequently, according to the quantity 
grown, onward throughout the winter months. 

Purslane [Porttdaca olcracca). French, Pour- 
pier ; (-ilerman, Portulak ; Italian, Poreellana. — The 



188 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENING. 



Purslane is an annual plant and a native of tlie more 
soutliern x^arts of America. It is used for salads, &c., 
though, less frequently than formerly. It is in habit 
somewhat recumbent, like Portulacas generally. A 
somewhat red-tinted and a green variety exist. The 
latter is considered most hardy. For an early sup- 
ply sow in pots, and transplant out on to a sunny 
site and a free sandy soil. Out-door sowings may 
be made in similar situations from ]\Iay 20th, on- 
ward, according to demand. All plants should be 
planted or thinned out to distances of eight inches 
apart. 

Radish. (Raphanus sativus). French, Radis, or 
Petit Rave; German, Rettiff, or Radieschen ; Spanish, 
liahano. — The Eadish is probably one of the most 
generally esteemed, grown, and used amongst all 
salad plants. Being so perfectly hardy, easily grown, 
tender, and piquant, it enjoys a just popularity. A 
highly enriched free or sandy loam suits it admirably, 
though it will grow in almost any kind of moderately 
good soil. To succeed thoroughly in its culture, 
however, the space intended for the successional 
crops should be liberally manured and dug up deeply, 
as soon after the month of November as possible. 
Let the surface lie quite rough and fully exposed to 
the winter until the time for sowing in the early 
spring months. Sowings to be made at that time 
must be influenced by the consideration whether 
any are to be frame-grown or forced for the earliest 
supply, or not. When such is the case, a good 
sowing of seeds should be made about one month 
before the frame-grown crop is likely to be all used. 
On the contrary, where frame culture is not resorted 
to, an early sowing should be made during a mild 
interval towards the end of the month of February. 
This sowing should be made upon a warm sunny 
aspect, and the seed-bed covered over thinly with 
straw until germination commences. Afterwards 
mats should be placed over them upon hoops during 
sharp weather. Other sowings, which will not re- 
quire such assistance, should be made during the 
month of March, and near to the 10th and 25th 
of the month, from which time forward slight sow- 
ings should be made about every eight days. 

It is the need of these frequent sowings which 
causes crops to be so irrregular in the matter of 
quality and quantity. Sowings made at too long 
intervals apart result in fluctuative crops of pro- 
duce often old, tough, and stringy. A Eadish to be 
meritorious must be quickly grown into goodlj' size, 
and used when ready. Length or size does not consti- 
tute merit, and all but invariably they are permitted 
to grow too old before being drawn. 

As the season advances and dry weather prevails, 
it is imperative to keep the beds well watered, and 



it is owing to the need of this that good crops axe 
rarely obtainable after the summer season has once 
set in. There is an excellent method of obtaining 
good produce early wherever large heaps of manure, 
with the heat somewhat exhausted, lie around, as 
they do in connection with farmyards, &c., gener- 
ally. By simply placing six inches of soil over the 
surface of such, and sowing seeds thereon, a rapidly 
formed crop of no mean merit will result. The 
Turnip-rooted varieties are hardiest, and may with 
advantage be sown for late autumn and winter 
crops ; sowings for which should be made during 
the months of October and Xovember. 

Eadishes are only perfectly and really tender 
before the third and fourth or rough leaves expand, 
or grow ; and in view of having a goodly-sized root- 
base or radix, prior to the formation of such, it is 
very essential that the soil be deep, fine, and rich as 
ad\'ised, and that each plant have ample space to 
grow in. Thick sowing and its results are very 
antagonistic, and must not be permitted. 

Besides the root-base, the rougli leaves upon these, 
when so far advanced as to ]Di'oduce them, are also 
severed from the plants and used in salads. The 
Turnip-fly often attacks them at that stage, and must 
be kept at bay by thin dustings with lime or soot, 
at such times as the leaves are damp with the dew of 
early morning. 

Frame-grown, or forced Eadishes, require a bed 
of fermenting material, as a base, covered over w^ith 
soil and a frame, the former in depth according to 
the earliness or otherwise of the season when seeds 
are sown. And this may range between the months 
of December and March inclusive. Where the o^ye- 
ration is undertaken, however, it is injudicious to be 
late. For December the bed should consist of about 
three feet of fermenting materials, and it may be re- 
duced by one foot or rather less per month as the 
season advances towards April. A slight warmth 
only is needed within, though a sufiiciency of mate- 
rial should be placed together to keep any prevailing 
severe frosts at bay. Upon the fermenting mate- 
rial, six inches of such soil as suggested above must 
be placed, elevating all up near to the glass, and the 
seeds sown. Shut down close until germination 
commences. Give air constantly afterwards as the 
weather permits, maintaining a mean warmth of 
about 50® within the space of the frame. This will 
be ample, assuming that more warmth exists in the 
bed. The latter wiU conduce to more active lower 
growth than of surface or leaf, which will be ad- 
vantageous ; good root-waterings with tepid water 
must be given as needed, care being taken to thin 
them out if too thick. Potatoes may be planted 
beneath, or Eadishes may be sown in Potato- 
frames. 



HERBS AXD SMALL SALADS. 



139' 



As regards varieties, a great improvement has 
been made during the last decade. Intermediate 
forms of globular shape are amongst the best, and 
are named French Breakfast, Rose Globe, Olive 
Scarlet, Olive Violet, &c. Long-rooted varieties are 
best represented by Long Scarlet, Short-top, and 
Long Salmon. For frame-work, Wood's Early; 
and for autumn sowing for winter use, China Rose 
and Black Spanish, with ordinary red and white 
Turnip. A large-rooted variety (white), resembling 
in size the Paris Market Turnip, named Californian 
Mammoth, is useful also for winter, where sliced 
Radish is acceptable. Seeds of this species should 
be sown in shallow drill-rows, about July 20th and 
August 1st, for successional supply. 

Rampion {Campanula rapunculm). French, 
Raiponce ; Gexmiin, Hapunzel ; ItalisLn, Haperonzo. — 
This plant is a biennial, and a native of Britain, and 
is a rare exception as being an edible root amongst 
Bell-flowers, or Campanulas. While falling in alpha- 
betical order, it also comes conveniently after the 
Radish above, as the root when well grown greatly 
resembles it, is white in colour, and of a more nutty 
flavour. Its cultivation is not so general as it used 
to be. This, no doubt, is owing to the fact that, 
under the old careless system of culture, the roots 
produced were more like eagle's claws, or a bundle 
of large roots, than straight like the Radish; the 
result being that they were with difficulty prepared 
for table, and when so prepared they appeared of 
irregular and indefinable shape. The root is also 
used in the salad-bowl, along with the tender young 
leaves, which are formed in dense tufts. 

Prepare a bed for the seed in a somewhat shady 
situation. The soil should be finely worked to a 
depth of eight inches, and at the bottom of this a 
layer of decayed manure should be placed. Poor 
sandy soil will suit best above this manure, as it will 
induce the young first root to grow straight down 
without unduly branching. Sow the seeds about 
the second week in May. As these are very small, 
do not rake the bed over afterwards, but give the 
surfa;ce a good watering with a fine-rosed watering- 
pot to settle the seeds down. So soon as the young 
seedlings appear, give another watering should the 
weather prove dry, and subsequent ones as neces- 
sary. Each watering given must be so copious, 
however, as to penetrate down throughout the layer 
of soil above the manure. When the seedling plants 
come up too thickly, thin them out to distances of 
three inches apart. By choosing from amongst such 
seedling plants such as possess straight roots, and 
transplanting them into a rich bed, taking care to 
make deep holes, and insert the young roots straight 
to their depth therein, excellent produce may be 



secured. The roots require scraping before they 
are ready for use. 

Rosemary {Rosmarinus officinalis), French, 
Romarin ; German, Rosmarin ; Italian, Rosmarino. 
■ — The well-known and cultivated Rosemary once 
existed in all but every garden. Even to this 
present date it is very generally grown in the West 
of England, the Principality, &c. The plant is 
generally propagated by means of seed-sowing. 
These are sown upon a warm, sunny border. But 
another common method is to draw downward 
young side-shoots, which exist around the main 
stem, so abruptly as to detach the young shoot with 




EOSEMART. 



a heel attached, to cut awaj^ the jagged edges. 
neatly, and to then dibble them out into a moist- 
situation, and shady, during the early spring and 
summer months. Place such cuttings in moderatel}' 
deep, and press the soil very firmly around their 
base. These will have rooted freely by the early 
autumn. Whether propagated thus, or increased as- 
seedlings, choose a damp period early in the month 
of October, and transplant them into their perma- 
nent quarters. They succeed best upon light, dry 
soil, and, in more northern counties, beside low 
fences, &c. A very few plants, if pruned back 
annually after the flowering season, will sufiice. 
There are the green-leaved, the silver, and gold- 
leaved varieties. 

Sage {Salvia officinalis). French, Sange ; Ger- 
man, Salhei ; Italian, Salvia. — In the Sage we- 
possess a dwarf evergreen shrub, introduced from 
the South of Europe, and hardy enough to with- 
stand all ordinary British winters, though it is some- 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



! ones. Its uses 
•eference herein, 
pagation consists 
growing shoots 
plants resulting 
and robust than 
)ots are torn away 
le ground, which 
and glass cover- 
should be about 
mediately beneath 
3rted into sandy 
varm, in pit or 
ery quickly, and 




Sage. 



is a hardy annual, and a native of Italy. It is 
grown from seeds sown annually during the early 
part of the month of April. The plant delights in 
a simny situation and a deep rich soil. So soon as 
the seedling plants are large enough, thin them out 
to six inches apart. This will define the distance 
requisite between rows when the seeds are sown in 
drills, as is sometimes advisable. 

Winter Savory is a dwarf hardy shrub, intro- 
duced also from the South of Europe. To secure u 
stock of it, seeds may be sown as directed above for 
Summer Savory ; tbe young seedling plants to be 
subsequently, when large enough, transplanted on to 
a similar site at one-foot distances apart. So soon 
as gTOwth recommences 
in this newly-planted bed, 
take off the points of each, 
to induce a bushy growth. 
It wiU be desirable to 
choose a showery period 
during the' month of June, 
should the plants be large 
enough for such transplant- 
ing. 

To propagate this Winter 
Savory otherwise than from 
seeds, old plants may be 
divided, or cuttings formed 
of the young side-shoots, 
consisting of a portion of 
old wood, dibbled out into 
a shady border, as advised 
for Sage. 



140 

times destroyed during very 
are too well known to require i 
The quickest and best mode of pro] 
of striking cuttings of the young 
during the month of May. The 
from these are more quickly grown 
when slips or more matured side-she 
from the plants and dibbled into th 
is a convenient method where pots 
ings do not exist. The cuttings i 
four joints in length, cut off imm 
the lowermost pair of leaves. Ins( 
.soil tightly, and kept close, or "v 
frame for a short time, they root v 
are soon ready for finally 
transplanting out into the 
permanent bed. To pro- 
pagate the plant by means 
of the more matured slips, 
they should be slipped off 
neatly, and should consist . 
of the shortest side-shoots. 
Then cut away any rough 
edge from the base of the 
wound, remove all old leaves 
up to the upper two or three 
pairs, and dibble each 
deeply, or up to the base 
•of the lowermost leaves ex- 
isting upon each, in a shady 
border. When these are 
TOoted and commence grow- 
ing, prepare a bed for them 
in any part of the garden 
where full or partial sun- 
;shine exists, and plant the young plants thereon 
in rows, leaving one foot between each plant. 
During all after-culture care must be taken to 
keep them periodically cut down, or the points of 
all strong leading shoots must be removed, or the 
plants will rapidly assume a too long or leggy form. 
The practice of cutting down the plants in the early 
autumn is beneficial to the plants in this regard, if 
it be but done at a time convenient for future 
growth, which should be established prior to winter. 
This process should be performed towards the end 
of July, at such time as the plant shows a dispo- 
sition to flower, when all flowering shoots should be 
removed at their base. In pruning them down, 
however, take care to leave a few growing shoots 
around the base, as an aid to the plant's futui'e 
progress. 

Savory, Summer and Winter {Satureja hor-> 
tensis and /S. montana). French, Sariette ; German, 
ScUurei ; Italian, Satoreggia. — The Summer Savory 



Skirret {Shim Sisarum). 
French, Chcrvis ; German, Zuckcrivurzel ; Italian, 
Sisaro. — The Skirret, or Crummock as it is occasion- 
ally called, is a perennial, having generally some- 
what divided enlarged roots, which are cooked and 
used after the manner of Salsify, kc. The plant 
was at one time far more popiilar than at present. 
The roots may be said to be pure white and of very 
pleasant flavour. Seeds should be sown in drill- 
rows eight or nine inches apart, about April 10th, 
and when the plants are large enough thin them 
out to seven inches apart in the rows. A light 
stony or sandy soil well worked, and with a layer of 
manure seven or eight inches deep, is most likely to 
produce roots with limited branches. The plant 
being a perennial, as stated above, can also be pro- 
pagated by means of root-divisions. Any side-root j 
which can be detached from the stools, dibbled 
out into similar soil to the above, at any tim_e 
when the stools are large enough, and they have not 
run to seed, will produce examples in all waj^s fit for 
culinary uses. 



HERBS AND SMALL SALADS. 



141 



Sorrel {E"mex scutaius and Rumex Acetosa). 
Frencli, OsviUc ; German, Saueramjjfer ; Italian, 
Acetosa. — We find here a generally growTi and well- 
known plant ; the normal form of one, the latter 
species named above, being a very common weed in 
British pasture-lands. The former is a native of 
Southern Europe. G-reatly improved varieties of 
both are in general cultivation. The Riunex scutatus 
requires a deep rich soil to develop its characteris- 
tics of large leaves, &c., thoroughly. The latter or 
British species wiU thrive in any soil, though a moist 
and moderately enriched one always gives the largest 
and most succulent leaves. These last are used for 
salads, and variously besides. They are propagated 
both by means of seeds and 
division of the old plants. 
The latter is most com- 
monly resorted to, though 
fine plants are produced 
as seedlings. Seeds when 
sown should be placed 
thinly in shallow drill- 
rows six inches apart, and 
the seedling plants thinned 
out to equal distances when 
large enough. The former, 
or round - leaved species, 
having more repent roots, 
and as it spreads more, 
should have rather more 
room in deep, rich, mellow 
soil. When propagation 
takes place by root-division, 
do not cut them up into too 
small pieces ; X5rej)are the 

bed deeply and well by abundant manuring; plant 
twelve inches apart. During the whole of the 
summer months all flower-stalks should be cut away 
immediately they appear, and when the gTOwing 
leaves are not cut for use with moderate regularity, 
it is needful to cut them down just the same, when 
they become somewhat aged, to insui-e successions 
of young leaves. 




Thyme. 



planted and subsequently had time to perfect their 
growth. 

Under border culture the plant succeeds best in a 
light sandy soil, partly exposed to sunshine. It is 
increased by seed-sowing, by slips or side-shoots, 
having a few roots attached, and by diiision of 
the plants. When seeds are the medium employed, 
they should be sown broadcast upon such a soil as 
ad\ised above, during the first week in the month 
of April. So soon as the young plants are large 
enough, thin them out to about four inches apart, 
and dibble such seedling plants as are ch^awn out 
from the bed, also in beds, or rows, to thi^ee- 
inch distances apart. If this operation of trans- 
planting be performed late 
in June or in July, it will 
be necessary to thoroughly 
well water the yoimg plants, 
in. 

When the plant is pro- 
pagated by means of side- 
shoots or slips, choose always 
young shoots, as short and. 
bushy as possible, which are 
generally to be found near 
the centre of the j)lants. 
This is best done during the 
early part of the month of 
April. Dibble them out 
firmly four inches apart, 
and well water them in also. 
Divisions of the old "stools'* 
or plants, cut or pulled into 
about four parts, make the 
best or quickest plantations. 
It is desirable, however, in resorting to this method, to 
choose a new site for the bed, not to continue taking: 
up and re-i^lanting on the same spot perpetually. 

In low damp situations, and where the ground is 
naturally heavy and tenacious, it is desirable to place 
a goodly quantity of old lime rubbish over the 
surface of the bed, and to dig it in deeply before 
planting it. 



Thyme {Thymus vulgaris). French, Thym ; 
Geraian, Thimian ; Italian, Timo. — The garden or 
common Thyme, introduced originally from Spain or 
Italy, has in many places become a self-sown native 
plant. As such it is of easy growth, ha\-ing as it 
would appear, judging from the places chosen by 
wilding seedling plants whereon to gTown, a pre- 
dilection for dry places, even to the tops of stone 
or brick walls, kc. Nevertheless, it is not always 
found growing in any gxeat luxuriance in gardens. 
The fact is, existing stocks are too often allowed 
to grow or run out, before young plants have been 



Thyme, Lemon {Thymus citriodorus) is a dis- 
tinct sj)ecies from the above ; the leaves are larger, 
and the plant more spreading. It is desirable to 
treat it precisely as advised for the above. 

Thyme should not be permitted to flower. Im- 
mediately this is perceptible, cut the plants down ; 
the result will be that numerous young shoots will 
form and the plants become more bushy towards 
autumzL. A little rich soil sprinkled amongst the 
branches of all large plants assists growth greatly. 
The large-leaved variety of the common Thyme is 
best. 



142 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GAPDEXIXa. 



GEOUND OPERATIONS. 



DRAINAGE. 

DEAIXAGtE is the most vitally important of all 
the many operations that can be performed on 
or in the ground. Among the latest discoveries in 
the many-sided art of cultivation, its theory and 
practice are as yet most imperfectly understood. 
Most that is known on the subject, not only by the 
general public, but even by those who live upon and 
by the land, is that drainage is a short and easy 
method of laying wet land dry. This is far less 
than haK the truth. Other portions of it may be 
stated thus : drainage keeps land moist and warm, 
and by setting or keeping the water it contains, or 
receives, in motion, invests it with solvent poAvers 
and nutritive functions of the most valuable char- 
acter. Water at rest — that is, stagnant — kills, by 
drowTiing out all the productive force of even the best 
land. Water in motion develops and augments the 
fertility of the very poorest soils, while it unlocks, 
and adds to, the food-stores already existing in the 
richest and best. 

Cultivators of fields and gardens alike have been 
too much in the habit of looking upon water as a 
nuisance to be rid of at any cost. G-rasping the 
broad fact that drainage had transformed some of the 
worst lands into the best, they have run their drains 
where they were not needed, and have been vastly 
astonished at their failures. Water that was in the 
process of being gradually, but surely, drained off 
by natuj'e through her mjnriad outlets into the 
subsoil, carrying enrichment with it at every stage 
of its journey, was hurried off through new channels 
— the drains — into the nearest ditch or river, and 
nature's machinery for the amelioration and enrich- 
ment of the land thus rudely stopped. Almost the 
first step to the comprehension of the true theory and 
practice of drainage is recognition of the fact that 
water in motion, the free gift of nature, is the most 
powerful and beneficent of all natural forces, to be 
utilised to the very uttermost. It is the cultivator's 
capital — sinews of war — in the liberation and utili- 
sation of the natural force of the soil, and should, 
therefore, be skilfully used. Like other capital, it is 
apt to run into aggregates, accumulate into masses, 
and the land-drainer's object and aim should be to 
effect its more equal distribution. In very few 
localities in this country is there really much excess 
of water for cultural purposes. The evil lies in its 
condition, not its amount. Give it motion, and jn 
not a few gardens, especially those devoted to the 
culture of vegetables, the more water the better. 
Xcr is this to be wondered at, for water is not only 
the builder up of vegetation, but it also constitutes 
from eighty to ninety per cent, of the materials — 



being to a very large extent not only water, but stone 
and mortar as well. But as reasonably expect a 
house or mansion to arise in the night — when the 
builders are fast asleep — as vegetation to thrive on 
water-logged land. In the latter case the active 
agent is not only asleep but dead, and only drainage 
can restore it to life, by setting it in motion and 
marrying the water to its better half, that other 
great natural life-giving, constructive, and solvent 
force, the air. Link these together through our 
drains, and set them out on their endless journey 
of discovery and production, and oiu' gardens can 
hardly fail to be covered with plenty, fiUed with 
fragrance, and adorned with beauty. 

If all this be true, and it is, then the true theory 
and practice of drainage may be stated thus : It lays 
land dry ; it keeps it moist ; it makes it warm ; it 
frees, distributes, and adds to its wealth or richness ; 
it improves its texture; it adds to its depth, and 
makes its cultivation more easy and pleasant, as well 
as more profitable. 

Drainage Lays Land Dry.— The term is used 
comparatively, and simply means sufficiently diy for 
the successful cultivation of garden crops. Absolute 
dryness is neither possible nor desirable. But, on 
the other hand, it may be affirmed that no land that 
is undrained by nature or art is fit for horticultural 
purposes. Further, most land, unless it be a fen, or 
water-meadow, or a swamp, is already more or less 
thoroughly drained by nature. Faults and up- 
heavals of strata, enormous beds of gravel, deposits 
of shells, pebbles, chalk, the regular or more erratic 
changes of level, the up-towering of mountains and 
hills, the deep depressions of plains, these are 
samples of nature's gigantic method of drainage ; 
and the leaping waterfall, the sparkling rivulet, 
the broad brimming river, the ever full and 
mighty sea, are her tributary and gigantic out- 
lets for the overflux water of the earth. . Hence, 
natural drainage is after all the major note 
of the subject. Man in this matter, as in so 
many others, originates little or nothing. He is but 
a futile imitator at best, and the more perfect his 
imitation the greater his success. His main and 
arterial drainage are but babyish imitations at the 
most of the deep broad rivers and tributary streams 
that cut or plough their silver lines of beauty and 
utility all over the earth's surface, thus converting 
it into a reticulated pattern of verdant green and 
glistening silver. And though on the earth's culti- 
vated surface, in field or garden, the green largely 
predominates, could the whole of nature's drainage 
system be laid bare before our eyes, the water 
lifted by innumerable hands (sunbeams) into the aii', 
r.nd the millions upon millions of trickhng droplets 



GROUXD OPEKATIONS. 



143 



draining their way, literally paddling their own 
canoe towards finding their own level in obedience 
to that mightiest of all water-disturbing and dis- 
tributing forces, the law- of gravitation, it would be 
found that the silver matched, if it did not over- 
master, the verdure. 

The major part of this water, so much of it in- 
deed that the word "all" might fairly be used, is 
like Tennyson's brook, flowing on and on for ever. 
And the main object of all this stupendous ma- 
chinery in motion is to lay the land dry. 

The land becomes wet from two sources. The 
•overflow water from higher elevations sweeps dov,Ti 
over the surface, and floods that of a lower level. 
Or, more generally, and in far larger quantities, it is 
absorbed by the surface, temporarily stored in the 
soil or subsoil, conveyed through fissures in the 
strata, and comes forth sometimes near to its source, 
at others at great distances from it, in lower springs. 
In these cases the water is said to rise from below, 
and it does so frequently to such an extent that the 
whole of the subsoil, and then the surface, thus 
becomes soured or saturated. 

The first point in successful di^ainage, therefore, 
consists in cutting off these subterranean supplies, 
or, if that cannot be done, the carrpng away of this 
foreign excess of water by drainage. In cases where 
the causes and soui'ce of this water can be traced, one 
main di'ain may often become almost sufficient to 
drain an encire field or garden. (See Fig. II.) Fre- 
quently, when this foreign water is removed, the 
rainfall will not be found to be excessive. 

Much will be found to depend upon the rainfall 
of the locality, and this varies as widely as from 
twenty to forty inches a year. The character of the 
soil and subsoil must also be taken into account. It 
is well, however, to test the matter by time, by the 
incline of the strata, &c. If the character of the soil 
and subsoil, and especially the conduct of the newly- 
made main di-ain by its fall and constant discharge, 
point to spring- water as the cause of the excessive 
wetness of the land, it will be wise to test the result 
by experience before going to the expense of di-ain- 
ing off the sui-face or rain water. By one or both 
methods the drainage must be made so perfect as to 
dry the land sufficiently for cultural purposes. 

As gardens cannot well be drained after they are 
formed without a heavy sacrifice of money and 
material, it is important to drain the ground before 
making them, and in all cases to give the drainage 
the benefit of any doubt that may exist about its 
necessity. AVere the mere removal of the excess of 
water the one and only merit of drainage, this 
might be of less moment. But it is very nearly 
otherwise, and this leads to the second bi-anch of the 
subject 



Drainage also Keeps Land Moist. — 

Drainage, by remo\'ing the excess, husbands a 
sufficiency of water ; and in the case of garden soils, 
enough water is far better than a feast, that is, a 
flood. Any one at all conversant with the effects of 
drought on wet soils, must have observed that the 
merest mud of a month or so before is the very first 
soil to become as hard as brickbats under the dxy- 
baking of a severe di'ought. So hard indeed does the 
wet soil become, that it rends into fragments and deep 
fissm-es rather than yield in the mass to the contract- 
ing powers of the drought. The mud of yesterday 
becomes the impracticaljle lumps and unbreakable 
clods of to-day, and as long as the dj-ought lasts. 



a 




Fig. 11.— Drain at B, intercepting water delivered "by falling 
strata from liiglier levels at a and h. 

Xor are these drying effects merely seen in the 
mechanical beha^■iour or condition of wet lands under 
drought, but the crops are also the first to suffer, and 
to hoist unmistakable signs of distress on wet lands. 
Such lands are, in fact, the victims of imequal distri- 
bution. The di'O'^'ned land of one month becomes 
the baked, parched land of the next, and so on and 
on continually until the diainer's spade and material 
set the water on a downward track, and thus dis- 
tribute it equally all through the mass of earth. 
The passage of the water into deeper tilths moves it 
from the influence of wasteful dissipation by the sun 
and dry air: Every di'op of water absorbed also so 
alters the character of the siu'face and substance of 
the earth as to make it more difficult for sun and 
wind to reach it. 

Each drop of water, digging its own way to the 
di'ains, blocks the passage behind it with one or 
more molecules of air, thus making the soil j)orous, 
and ^vithin reasonable limits the m.ore porous the 
earth the more moist, for air is one of the most 
powerful resisters of either heat, cold, or drought. 
Hence, while wet land may l:)e sun-baked to a depth 
of several inches, properly drained loose-surfaced land 
may not be dried half an inch, and is seldom or never 
balced into hardness at all under the severest drought. 

Besides, as the whole of the excess of water in 
andi'ained lands has to be lifted from the surface by 



144 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GARDEXIXG. 



sun and air, this method of remo^'ing• it becomes also 
a means of hardening the surface into a state of in- 
tractable sterility- for the time being. The extra 
moisture in well-drained lands when it is most needed 
— i.e.,- during long spells of drought — is not only 
matter of common observation, but the extra produce 
resulting from the di^ainage is almost entirely owing 
to this indirect or side influence of drainage. Un- 
dimned gardens and fields have no storehouse for 
sui'plus water, unless on the surface, where it is 
wasted by any vdnd. that blows, or drunk up by every 
thirsty sunbeam. The storing-cisterns of drained 
land are deep and wide as the area of its tilths, and 
hence the provision of water enough and to spare for 
every cultm-al and climatic emergency. 

Drainage also Makes Land Warm. — Of 

coiu-se primarily the sun is the gTcat source of solar 
heat, and it has been so admirably arranged that the 
earth must be warmed before the air, which only gets 
its heat second-hand from the earth. Hence it fol- 
lows that the warmer the earth the warmer the aii', 
and also, as we experience in these temperate climes, 
the hotter the climate. It follows fi-om this that 
the temperature of the earth becomes a matter of 
the most ^dtal concern, not only to the plants that 
gTOw in it, but also to all that live on its surface. 
At first sight, on recognising the full force, unerring- 
exactness, and stupendous powers of the great forces 
and laws that control all the arrangements for water- 
ing and warming the world, it seems jDresumptuous to 
suppose that any power of man can alter their cha- 
racter or modify their force. Every one, however, 
that di-ains a field or garden does so to a far greater 
extent than might be supposed. True, the absolute 
heat of the sun may be very much (not quite, how- 
ever) the same, but the same amoimt of heat, which 
is always and ever^^where equivalent to force, may 
be directed to different objects and, in fact, for dif- 
ferent purposes. In this case the heat may be made 
a lifting power or a warming force, and what is ex- 
pended on the former sj)ecies of work cannot be also 
employed on the other. On undrained land much of 
the heat of the sun must necessarily be expended in 
lifting the excess of sm-face water from the earth. 
It has no choice of work ; while that remains its re- 
moval must precede the warming of the ground. This 
lifting of the water causes an enormous expenditure 
of heat. Exact calculations would only puzzle the 
general reader, to whom we wT.sh to be at once 
interesting, instructive, and attractive. Comiparing 
the sun's force, then, to a steam-engine of 500 
horse-power, it is no exaggeration to say that the 
strength of 400 horses would be expended in lifting 
the water from the surface, while that of only 100 is 
left to warm the earth. 



Xor does that comparison by any means fairly 
represent the loss of heat resulting from the lack of 
ch-ainage ; for not only is all this heat wasted in 
lifting the water, but the lifting by evaporation — 
the only possible method in this case — is one of the 
most potent cooling j)rocesses known in nature. 
Even drinks and water can be cooled thus into ice 
in the tropics ; and the same tendency and results, 
though not carried to the same extent simply 
because the evaporation is not so intensely active, 
is manifested at all times and in all places when 
water is lifted from the surface of the earth by evapo- 
ration. Using the simplest and broadest figures for 
the sake of illustration, it may be broadly asserted 
that if it takes three or four units of heat to lift 
a given weight of water, thi'ee or four units are 
lost to the earth as the water leaves its surface. 
Nor is this all the loss of caloric that water-logged 
land suft'ers. The earth is warmed by warm showers 
of rain as well as by the direct action of the sun on 
its surface ; but these are prevented from penetrating 
and adding their warmth to undrained gardens. 
The water already in possession refuses to quit for 
the new-comer, and hence the warm rains are kept 
lying on the surface till lifted up again, to the 
further cooling of the earth. 

But how is it that the rain-water cannot enter 
undrained land? The answer is of vital impor- 
tance, and f m-nishes the most powerful of all possible 
arguments that can be advanced in favour of the 
thorough draining of gardens and fields. It is this : 
Water is heavier at a temperature of forty degrees 
than it is at any other temx^erature. Cold increases 
the weight or sj)ecific gravity of most substances 
and fluids in a regular ratio at all tempera- 
tm-es. AVater forms a grand exception to this 
general law, the exception and its results being 
among the most marvellous provisions found in 
nature for the conservation of the heat of the earth. 
Though hardly germane to our subject, it may be 
briefly added in a sentence here, that had water 
increased in weight till it became solid ice, it would 
sink so soon as formed, and all rivers and seas in 
cold climes become solid instead of liquid. Such a 
result would have rendered the earth unfit for culti- 
vation or the abode of man ; for water, once cooled, 
can hardly be warmed from above. The experi- 
ment has been tried again and again of pouring- 
boiling water on a mixture of soil and water. The 
heat cannot be passed downwards more than six 
inches or a foot, while in a vessel two or three feet 
deep the temperature at the bottom remains the 
same. 

But place a stop-cock in the bottom of the vessel, 
and turn that as the water is added at top, and the 
entire mass is quickly heated to the same tempera- 



GROUND OPERATIONS. 



145 



ture, provided the hot water is poured on the top for 
a sufficient length of time. The undrained land is 
the mixture of drowned mud ; the water in posses- 
sion, by its mere superior weight, successfully resists 
the entrance of the lighter and warmer water. The 
drains are the opened stop-cocks, and these, once 
opened and kept open, allow the warm rain-water to 
percolate freely through the entire mass of soil, and 
thus raise its temperature to the level of the warm 
summer showers. 

Nor are these views theoretical only. The rise of 
the general temperature of earth hy drainage has 
been proved hy direct experiments to be so very 
considerable as from five to fifteen degrees. It is 
impossible to estimate the enormous importance of 
such increased temperature on horticultural pursuits. 
A rise of ten degrees, or even five, in not a few 
gardens would make all the difference between the 
possibility or impossibility of growing or not grow- 
ing such semi-tender fruits as peaches, nectarines, 
und apricots in the open air. And so also of any 
other garden crops, in which success or failure very 
often depends upon an increase of from two to five 
UegTees of heat. 

Besides, water-logged land is almost as cold in 
summer as in winter. Supposing the temperatui-e 
of the stagnant water to be forty-foui" or forty-five 
degrees, the thawing of snow-water in the spring- 
may probably reduce it to forty. Such water will 
prevent any summer rain from entering ; hence the 
soil throughout the year remains almost of the same 
uniformly low temperature. And thus, while the 
tops of plants are being forced into vigorous growth 
by the genial heat of the summer air, the roots are 
chilled in earth not much more than eight or ten 
degrees above solid ice. It is little wonder that 
under such conditions the plants refuse to thrive, and 
the produce of gardens is inferior or worthless. Of 
course, drained lands are subject to greater altera- 
tions of temperature than those that are undrained ; 
but this is a decided benefit to be desired, not an 
evil to be shunned. The nearer within reasonable 
limits the root and top temperatures can be assimi- 
lated, the better for the plants. Thoroughly drained 
lands are, on the whole, of a higher temperature than 
the air ; but the tendency is towards equality. The 
absorption of the sun's heat, the penetration of 
summer showers, the warm delugings of thunder- 
storms, all tend to keep the earth in summer as warm 
.or even warmer than the air. Taking the average 
mean temperature of the air at any given place, the 
heat of the earth on good soils will mostly be found 
to exceed that of the atmosphere by five or more 
degrees. A good deal, however, depends upon the 
colour and texture as well as the dryness of soils. 
Dark-coioured soils heat and also cool the soonest ; 
10 



while it is almost impossible for light soils to be 
warmed at all, especially if they are wet. 'Ihese 
differences in the character, condition, and colouiing 
of surfaces would have almost as much influence on 
the acceleration or retarding of crops as the tempera- 
ture of the surrounding air, while the latter is also 
raised sometimes as much as ten or fifteen degrees 
by the mere act of draining wet land. The general 
climate of the Fens and other low-lying districts has 
been so much improved by drainage, as not only to 
double or treble the produce of the land, but to add 
greatly to the average length of human life. 

Drainage also Sets Free, Distributes, 
and Adds to the Hichness of Soils.— Water in 
motion is one of the most powerful distributing and 
carrying forces or agents. It has left the marks of 
its handiwork in beds of clay, gravel, and alluvial 
deposits of the richest character all over the world. 
It carries on the same kind of work, though on an 
infinitely smaller scale, in the smallest streamlets 
as in the broad deep rivers : that is, it breaks down 
and re-distributes the most soluble, and therefore 
the best, earthy particles it meets on its course. 
Water is not only a warmer, but a worker. Its 
cleaving force and solvent properties are wonderfully 
underrated. Each water-drop channels or cuts its 
own way towards the main or secondary di-ains. 
Doubtless in this work it is considerably assisted 
by earth-worms, moles, and other agencies. But 
still the bare facts are as have been stated. 

But water is more than a mere mechanical worker^ 
and is as much at home in the chemical laboratory 
as in the simple art of perfecting and extending the 
miunte ramifications of collecting and feeding drains. 
W^ater-logged land is in one sense like money in 
an iron safe in a bank ; all its fertility is locked up, 
but, unlike the money in the safe, its value rapidly 
depreciates, and will speedily be destroyed. This 
latter consideration, however, does not affect the" 
present argument. Water, the only known or used 
seal for our lighting-gas, also seals in the earth's 
fertility. No matter how full of manure or growing 
force it may be, neither the cultivator nor the 
plants can utilise one atom of it till the water-seal 
is broken or removed. Drainage breaks the seal or 
opens the lock of the safe, sets free and augments 
the natural or acquired fertility of the soil, and 
links that fertility to vegetable life, and transforms 
it thus into crisp vegetables, beautiful flowers, and 
luscious fruits. 

In these great achievements and transformations, 
water in motion and water as a solvent hcHm the 
most important part. But water does not work alone. 
For better or worse, water and air are linked to- 
gether in the economy of the universe. They are cor- 



146 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



related and intermixed in all possible ways. In the 
liberation and augmentation of the fertility of our 
gardens, they were meant to work together almost 
aljreast. Thus harnessed, and mutually supporting 
each other, their emiching and ameliorating effects 
are wellnigh inexhaustible. But separated, either 
or both are comparatively weak. 

Now one of the greatest evils of stagnant water 
in land, as has been already shown, is that it shuts 
out the air. Hence water at rest and alone in 
such lands has no power either to change or enrich 
them. Give the water an exit through drains, and 
the water becomes at once a real power in trans- 
forming bad soil into good, and as the air follows 
sharp at the heels of the moving water, the entire 
mass is permeated by their presence. Neither do 
they enter the earth empty-handed. The water 
carries with it ammonia ; the air, carbonic acid, and 
other manures ; and their presence dissolves, unlocks 
all the sources of enrichment already existent in 
the earth. Nor is this all, for the air and water 
alike are also decomposed, absorbed, and are them- 
selves assimilated into living plants, and transformed 
into objects of utility or ornament. 

The effects of air and water in the earth cannot 
be exaggerated. In undrained lands nothing is 
more common than to see manm-e taken up as 
fresh after being in the earth a year or more, as 
when it was first applied. This simply shows that 
it has done the land no good, however much its 
qualities may have been deteriorated by its long 
submersion. But let air, carbonic acid gas, and that 
busybody oxygen, the great disintegrator of organic 
matter, and water, have free access to the manure, and 
then it is decomposed, changed as by the magician's 
wand, and is henceforth fit to enrich the earth, 
sustain its fertility, and augment and improve its 
produce. Possibly the oxygen disappears in the 
process. But no matter ; those drains running deep 
and clear beneath the cultivated earth not only re- 
move the surplus water, but fetch down as much 
oxygen and other gases out of the air as are 
needed. . 

Nor does the air do all this work for the earth for 
nothing. The laws of compensation and mutual 
service run like a golden chain through every field 
and garden. The air, by thus adding to the fertility 
of' the earth, increases its produce, and that produce 
is 'the only means of preserving the purity of the 
air intact, and its matchless constitution inviolate. 
Even the temperatirre of the air is sensibly increased 
by drainage. Its warming-pan, the earth, has its 
temperature raised and made more uniform by drain- 
age, and the heat which would otherwise have been 
wasted in lifting sui'face water is also husbanded to 
the amelioration and improvement of the atmosphere. 



Drainage Improves the Texture of Soils. 

—Texture is that peculiar mechanical disposition of 
soil which separates its x^articles from one another, 
and imparts to the best soils the quality that horti- 
cultuiists prxze so highly — that of friability. All 
undi^ained soils have a tendency to run together into 
unfertile and comparatively useless masses of earth. 
The water, by excluding the air, removes one of the 
most powerfiil separating forces. The quality of 
friabilit}^ may be added to in various ways, but the 
first step towards creating and maintaining it ia the 
soil is by di-ainage. Water in motion, by cutting 
innumerable hair-like channels, imjDroves the texture 
of soils, while the air that follows the water everj'- 
where keeps all these open, and makes more by every 
change of temperature. The friability of soils also 
favours root-extension, and provides them with abun- 
dance of food. They run further and fare better in 
these than ia any other. Soils of good texture also 
retain and provide more moisture when most needed 
than any others. The soils that pass the water most 
fi-eely through them, also lift up most by capillary 
attraction dui-ing severe or protracted droughts ; so 
that unless the porosity of soils is carried to excess, 
the more friable they are, the more regular and 
ample the supply of moistui-e. The subject of tex- 
tui'e will be fui-ther adverted to in treating on the 
amelioration of soils, and need not be further dwelt 
upon here. Sufiice it to say that drainage is the 
most potent means of improving the textui-e of soils, 
and without it good friable mould is impossible. 

Drainage Deepens Soils. — ^The process may 
be slow but certain, and, of coui'se, is greatly facili- 
tated by deep digging and trenching. Still, apart 
from these, the mere di-ainage of land will ultimately 
deepen it almost to the level of the di-ains. The mere 
separating and cleaving force of water is, in fa'ct, one 
of the surest means of slow trenching, or deepening 
the tnth of land : and the best propeilies of soil 
being also the most soluble, of coui'se a modicum of 
these is carried down by every rain-droj), and by 
their gradual disposition and distri"bution the whole 
of the permeable strata becomes ultimately assimi- 
lative to the character of the best surface mould. 
Thus the mere drainage of land carries forward 
almost abreast the dual arts of deepening and emich- 
ment of tilths. Where the water and air penetrate, 
roots will surely follow ; and di'ainage not only opens 
myriads of fi^esh root-runs through the soil, but also 
replenishes them with plant-food for the use and 
nourishment of plants. 

Finally, Perfect Drainage not only Ren- 
ders the Cultivation of the Soil more -Easy 
and Pleasant, but also more Profitable. — 

All this is obvious to all readers who have had 



FERNS. 



147 



any experience in the cultivation of wet land. It is 
wellnig'h impossible to get on to it, and yet more 
■difficult to get off it. And besides, ground operations 
on wet land do more harm than good. They puddle 
any texture or friability left in it into a solid inert 
mass, which the roots can neither run freerv through 
nor grow in to any useful purpose. 

The increased productiveness of drained land is a 
matter of expeiience patent to everybody. Lands 
virtually useless before draining, have become among 
the most fertile and valuable afterwards, and others 
have had their piwduce doubled, trebled, increased 
even fom-fold by draining, and the quality of the 
produce has been as much improved as its quantity 
increased. Wet meadows that have grown little but 
the coarser grasses, rushes, and rank semi-aquatic 
weeds, have yielded capital crops of the finer grasses 
after drainage, and com and root crops have been 
grown into the finest samples where only the most 
inferior were produced before drainage. 

And even greater and more striking improvements 
have been effected in gardens than in fields. The 
improvement of soil and local climate following on 
the heels of di^ainage has converted not a few of 
the worst gardens into the very best and most pro- 
ductive. And as the formation, furnishing, and 
culture of gardens is expensive, and the area is 
iis a rule rather limited for the demands made 
upon it, it is of the most vital importance that a 
good lasting foundation should be laid for a full and 
<'onstant supply of the best produce by the thorough 
drainage of the soil. 



FEENS. 

By James Britten, F.L.S. 



Gold and Silver Ferns {Gymnogramma). — The 
Gold and Silver Ferns are the most popular and 
deservedly admired members of a large and variable 
genus, the members of which are for the most j)art 
tropical, two only extending to Europe. The 
peculiarity to which they owe their name and their 
striking appearance, consists in the presence of a 
floury powder on the under, and sometimes also on 
the upper surface of the fi^onds. Of the Golden 
series, perhaps the best known is G. chrysophylla., a 
native of the West Indies, sometimes considered a 
variety of G. calomelanos. The fronds are from one 
to two feet in length, on firm, dark stems, somewhat 
erect in habit, and closely tufted ; they are oblong- 
triangular, or somewhat lanceolate in shape, and 
three times pinnate, with close pinn?e, of which the 
lowest are the largest. Above, the fronds are 



of a light pleasant green; below, they are densely 
covered with a bright golden-yellow powder, through 
which, when the fronds are mature, the dark sort 
show themselves. A large number of named vaiieties 
are in cultivation. Another Golden Fern is G. sitl- 
phurca, which is much smaller in all its parts, tne 
fronds being herbaceous in texture, and brignt 
yellow beneath. G. decomposita is a native of the 
Andes ; it has thiice-pinnate fronds, the pinna3 being- 
very finel}^ cut ; the stems, as well as the under sides 
of the fronds, are covered with pale yellow mealy 
powder, which easily rubs off ; the upjjer surface of 
the fronds is bright green. Of the Silver Ferns, 
G. tartarea is most familiar ; it has twice-j)innate 
fronds a foot to two feet in length, somewhat tri- 
angular in outline, the lower pinnae being the 
largest ; the under side is covered with a powder of 
snowy whiteness ; and as the upper surface is dark 
green, and the stems and sori are black, a most 
effective contrast is obtained. This is a native of 
tropical America, and is nearly allied to G. calomel- 
anos, another Silver Fern of robust habit, the fi'onds 
of which are more divided, and somewhat less firm 
in texture. G. ochracea, which has pale yellow 
powder, is a smaller plant, with shorter but more 
numerous fronds, about a foot high ; it is reckoned 
by some authorities as a variety of G. tartarea. The 
colour of the powder is by no means a constant 
character ; thus, in G. trianyularis, a green-house 
species, it varies from deep orange to white. G. 
trifollata has densely tufted stems, which are scaly 
in their lower portion, and bipinnate fronds of 
herbaceous texture ; the barren fronds are usually 
destitute of powder, though the fertile ones are 
densely clothed with powder of white or yellowish 
hue. G. ehcerophylla is a pretty little tropical 
American plant, remarkable for being only of annual 
duration ; it has tufted slender stems three to six 
inches long, which are brown at the base and green 
above ; the fi-onds are three to six inches in length, 
finely divided, and somewhat triangular in shape ; 
they are bright green and almost transparent, and 
devoid of powder, although nearly covered by the 
dark lines of sori, which are very freely produced. 
G. schizophylla is one of the most remarkable and 
handsome of recently introduced ferns ; it is a native 
of Jamaica, where, so far as is at present known, it 
is restricted to a single locality in the mountains. 
Judging from the elevation at which it occurs, it 
might reasonably be expected to succeed in a cool 
house, but with most people it does better in a stove 
temperature. The beautiful finely-cut fronds of this 
species are a pleasing shade of pale green, there being 
no trace of the mealy powder which forms so con- 
spicuous a feature in most of the other species of the 
genus. It is readily propagated by spores as well as 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXING. 



J4S 

by the young plants, which, are freely developed in 
the forks near the extremity of the fi'onds. 

Cultivation. — Most of the Gold and Silver Ferns 
are easily grown. As a rule, they require more light 



amongst the most troublesome weeds when a piece of 
ground is cleared, and grow with great luxui'iance 
under the vertical rays of a ti'opical sun. Many of 
them, in England, other conditions of course being 
suitable, can scarcely have too much light, and it 





GYiaNOGRAMMA DeCOMPOSIXA. 



than most other ferns ; indeed, they luxuriate in 
direct sunlight if the plants have been grown in this 
way from the first. Specimens which have been 
accustomed to the subdued light and shading found 
necessary for so many other ferns, do not, of course, 
like a sudden change into sunshine, and would for a 
time show the effects of such treatment. In some 
pans of tropical America some of the Gold Ferns are 



is important to bear this in mind. For hanging 

baskets, some of them are amongst the most valuable 
of ferns, as their bright colours and graceful habit 
render them so distinct. S^Tinging should be care- 
fully avoided, as the flour-like powder on the fronds 
is washed off, and the plants disfigured by the cai-e- 
less administration of water. The mixture m which 
Gj^mnogrammas thrive best should be made up of one 



FEHXS. 



149 



part of fibrous peat, one of loam and leaf -mould, and 
one of silver sand. For large pots a quantity of 
charcoal broken into pieces about the size of hazel- 
nuts should be mixed with the soil, in order to more 
thoroughly insure perfect drainage ; where charcoal 
is not available broken potsherds will be found to 
answer. Coarsely-ground bones mixed with the soil 
suit the larger and stronger-growing species well. 



forming a distinct genus, viz., Lastrea. In another 
large group the veins anastomose, that is to say, 
they re-unite or pass into one another again by 
means of branches. The only valid characters — those 
by which the species of this genus may be recog- 
nised and distinguished from ferns belonging to 
other genera, perhaps similar enough in general 
appearance to deceive a careless observer — are fui- 




^^EPHEODIXTM CUSPIDATUM. 



K"eplirodium.— As understood by the author of 
the "S}Tiopsis Filicum"— the best standard work 
from a purely botanical standpoint on ferns ever 
published— the genus Xephrodium embraces nearly 
three hundred species, and is represented in almost 
every fern country in the world. All have sub- 
globose sori, which are either dorsal or terminal on 
the leaflets ; the involucre is more or less heart or 
Mdney shaped, and is attached by the sinus. Some 
of the species vary ver^^ considerably in size, texture, 
cutting, and venation. Our native Male Fern, Xeph ro- 
dium Filixmas, may be taken as a type of a large 
number having the A'eins all free, which were formerly, 
and even now are by some botanists, looked upon as 



nished by the fructification, which is shortly described 
above. X. amplum, a native of the "West Indies and 
Central America, is a noble stove species, with a 
stalk two to three feet long, densely clothed at base 
with an entangled mass of soft, bright, silky scales 
and fronds, three feet or more long, with a breadth at 
base of two feet or more. N. clcutarium is a widely 
distributed species, occurring in a wild state thi'ough- 
out ti'opical America, the Polynesian and Malayan 
Islands, Himalaya, Ceylon, Mauritius, and in several 
countries of tropical Africa ; the brownish stalks 
measure a foot or more in length, and the nearly 
triangular fronds, with sinuated lanceolate lobes, are 
from one to two feet long. X. cuspidattim, from 



150 



CASSELL'S POPULAR aARDENINa. 



North India and Ceylon, has a stalk ahout a foot 
long, densely scaly at hase, and a frond two or 
three feet in length by eight or twelve inches in 
breadth. In JV. clecompositum, which is found in 
Australia, Van Diem en's Land, and from New 
Zealand to Tahiti and Fiji, considerable variation 
occurs both in size and texture, and in the cutting of 
the frond. This is one of the best of the stronger- 
growing warm-house ferns of easy cultivation ; it has 
a widely-creeping rhizome, a firm, hairy stalk (scaly 
only at the base), twelve to eighteen inches long, 
with fronds one to two feet long by a foot or more in 
breadth; the cutting in this species is much finer, 
and the general aspect of the plant is more graceful, 
than in most of the other species of this rather large 
genus ; several named varieties (wild ones, not forms 
which have been produced under cultivation) exist 
in the large fern collection at Kew. N. decursivo- 
pinnatum is of tufted habit, with stalks, clothed 
throughout with narrow scales, three or four inches 
long, and fronds a foot or more in length by three or 
four inches in breadth ; it is a native of Japan, 
China, and Formosa. N. efusum, from the West 
Indian Islands and tropical America, has a shortly- 
creeping rhizome with polished stalks, slightly 
scaly below, some two feet long or more, and pale 
green glossy fronds, three or four feet in length by 
two feet or more in breadth. N. giganteum, a recently 
introduced species from Ceylon, occurring also in the 
Malaj'an and Philippine Islands, has the texture and 
habit of ISf. cicntarutm, but differs altogether in the 
venation of the fronds. Perhaps the best known and 
most widely grown of all the Nephrodiums is N. 
moUe, which js found in a wild state in all the 
warmer parts of both hemispheres, and has long 
been an inmate of British gardens ; in this the 
rather slender stems are tufted, a foot or more in 
length, with finely hairy fronds, one to two feet long 
by eight to twelve inches broad. The variety vio- 
lascens has often a conspicuously brightly-coloured 
purplish rachis. Amongst some of the numerous 
forms of this popular species which have originated 
in gardens are the following : — corymUferum, cris- 
tatmn, densiim, grandiceps, polydactylon, and ramo- 
sum, all these being variously crested forms, which 
the majority of gardeners look upon as preferable, 
for decorative and exhibition purposes, to the ordi- 
nary wild types Avith plain untasselled fronds. N. 
patens has more or less hairy fronds, two to three 
feet long by eight to twelve inches broad, and 
smooth or slightly hairy stalks, a foot or more in 
length ; this is a native of Polynesia, Japan, Zambesi- 
land, Angola, St. Helena, and is also found from 
Florida and Texas to Eio de Janeiro and Chili. N. 
serra is a noble species distinguished by its very 
narrow rigid pinna^, with deep sharp lobes; the 



firm glossy stalk is a foot or more long, and the 
fronds of almost leathery texture, in fully-developed 
specimens, measure sometimes as much as four 
feet or more in length by a foot or more in 
breadth; it is a native of the West Indies, 
and is one of the most stately of strong-growing 
warm - house ferns. N. setigerum has a rather 
wide geographical range, being found in Japan, 
China, from North India to Ceylon and Malaj'a, and 
in Polynesia as far east as the Society Isles. AVithin 
its range it is a common plant, and varies a good deal 
in size and hairiness ; on this account it has received 
a number of names, of which that given by Blume, 
being the oldest, is here adopted. It has a creeping 
rhizome, with a stem one to twelve feet long, which is 
either quite smooth or scaly throughout its length ; 
the frond — of which the lowest pinnae are the largest, 
often measuring eight to twelve inches long by four 
to six inches broad — varies from one to three feet in 
length, and is finely hairy beneath. JSf. truncaticm is 
an elegant sub-arborescent species recently introduced 
to this country from the Sandwich Islands. It has 
a short erect caudex, with smooth green stalks, and 
large, lanceolate, ovate, pale greenish fronds of a firm 
membranous texture. Besides the Sandwich Islands 
this species is found throughout Polynesia, in the 
Malaccas and Australia, and from North India to 
Cejdon. U. villosum, a native of the West Indies, 
southward to Peru and Chili, is a very fine plant, 
Avhieh is said to attain a height of eighteen feet; it 
has a tufted habit with stout stalks (denselj^ clothed 
with spreading scales) two or three feet or more in 
length, and fronds four to six feet or more in length, 
with a breadth of about half the length. A great 
contrast to the last-named species is the handsome 
little N. hirtum, with its tufts of delicate bright green 
almost triangular fronds, four to six inches long by 
three to four broad, on very brown densely fibrillose 
stalks four to eight inches long ; this is a native of 
the West Indies, and has also been found in west 
tropical Africa. 

Cultivation. — Most of the Nephrodiums are strong- 
growing and easily cultivated ferns, and succeed as 
well in the green-house as the stove. Good fibrous 
loam and leaf -mould make the best soil in which to 
pot them, but where leaf-mould is not to be had the 
loam will do without admixture — -of course, due care 
must be taken to insure good drainage. Peat, which 
seems to suit some ferns so well, is altogether 
unnecessary with the Nephrodiums. Those species 
with creeping rhizomes may be planted, a number of 
pieces together, in a pot or pan, and a specimen 
plant made up for effect almost at once. The tufted 
ones, however, should be grown singly in T)ots, as a 
number planted together would have a stiff and 



FERNS. 



151 



formal look. All the species, perhaps with a few 
exceptions, are too strong-growing for basket-work ; 
but even the very large ones do well in pots, and can 
be kept to almost any size required. Even the huge 
iV. serra makes charming little plants for decorative 
purposes when confined to small pots or pans ; and 
their size depends so much on the amount of root- 
space, &c., that in small houses and in small estab- 
lishments a number of the other species, almost 
equally large under different conditions, can be 
successfully grown with no more head-room than is 
required for an equal number of Maidenhairs. 

Davallia. — This genus is a very fine and exten- 
sive one, with its headquarters in the tropics of the 
Old World. The fronds vary very considerably in 
size and in division, few more striking differences 
in general appearance being presented by a couple of 
plants in the same genus than the contrast between 
the tiny D, parvula, from Malaya, with fully- 
developed fronds measuiing scarcely so much as an 
inch in height, and the huge East Indian D. plaiy- 
phylla, which often, under favourable conditions, 
attains a height of six feet or more. In texture the 
fronds of some of the species vary very widely, not a 
few being quite leathery in texture, whilst others are 
herbaceous. In some species the fronds are pinnate, 
but in the larger number they are pinnately de- 
compound, very elegantly cut into multitudes of 
small divisions. The veins are always free through- 
out the genus, and the rhizome is usually wide-creep- 
ing and scaly. The fructification consists of variously 
shaped cups or cysts, terminating the veins at the 
margins of the segments. Upwards of a hundred 
species are known to science, but a considerable 
number of these have not yet been introduced to 
cultivation. Scarcely any of them are not thoroughly 
well worth growing, nearly all being very ornamental 
and useful plants. Only a selection of those that have 
found their way to British gardens are mentioned in 
these notes, and the most distinct and useful have 
been chosen — in fact, those most worthy of general 
cultivation. 

D. aculeata, a common plant in the West Indian 
Islands, is by no means so frequently met with in 
gardens as its merits deserve ; it has climbing fronds 
several feet in length, the slender stalks and the 
young growths being of a pale claret hue. Though 
this species makes a fine pot plant, it is seen to 
greatest advantage when planted out and allowed to 
scramble at will over rock-work in a stove. D. alpina 
has leathery, triangular, dark shining green fronds 
not more than six inches in length by an inch 
or an inch and a half in breadth ; it is a 
native of Mergui, Ledong, Java, Borneo, and the 
Polynesian Islands. D. affinisy from the Neil- 



gherries, Ceylon, Java, the East Himalayas and 
Polynesia, has a thick rhizome densely clothed with 
sharp-pointed rusty scales ; the strong, erect stipe 
measures from four to nine inches in length, and 
the frond itself one to two feet long by six inches 
to a foot in breadth. JD. brachycarpa, considered 
by Mr. Baker to be a variety of the Polynesian 
D. gibberosa, is a recent introduction, with bold and 
yet elegant fronds of a pleasing light green colour, 
gracefully reflexed on all sides. D. buUata has a 
stout creeping rhizome, densely clothed with light 
brown or whitish fibrillose scales ; the strong erect 
stipe is three or four inches long, and the frond 
eight to twelve inches long by four to eight inches 
broad. This species, which is known, in some 
gardens as the Squirrel's-foot Fern, is not unlike 
the more widely-grown Hare's-foot, B. Canariensis, 
but it is smaller in size, the fronds are thinner in 
texture, and the scales of the rhizome are very 
different. It is a native of Hindostan (ascending in 
the north of that country to elevations of 3,000 or 
4,000 feet), Japan, Java, and the Malayan Peninsula. 

D. Canariensis, the Hare's-foot Fern, perhaps the 
best kno^\Ti of all the genus, is almost too well known 
to need any description. It is additionally interest- 
ing as being the only Davallia which is represented 
in a wild state in Europe. Its native countries are 
Spain, Portugal, North Africa, the Canary Islands, 
and Madeira. As might be expected from its 
geographical distribution, this species requires less 
heat than almost any other of its allies, and succeeds 
thoroughly in an ordinary green-house. D. chosro- 
phylla, from the North of India (where in the 
Himalayas it ascends to an elevation of 9,000 or 
10,000 feet above sea-level), Cashmere, the Neil- 
gherries, Ceylon, and the Malayan Archipelago, has 
a wide-creeping rhizome, clothed with broad obtuse 
adpressed scales ; the naked stipe measures from 
four to six inches in length, and the thinly herba- 
ceous, rather fiaccid frond from nine to fifteen 
inches in length by from four to eight inches broad. 
The Philippine Islands B. ciliata has the rhizome 
covered with soft brown hairs ; the firm, erect, hairy 
stipe is about three or fom- inches long, and the 
lanceolate frond measures a foot to a foot and a half 
in length by about six or nine inches in width. 

B. divaricata has a stout creeping rhizome, clothed 
with linear ferruginous scales, a firm erect stipe, six 
inches to one foot long, and a tripinnatifid leathery 
frond, two to three feet in length ; it is a native of 
Khasya and Mishmee, North India, the Malayan 
Archipelago, Hong Kong, and Java. B. elegans is 
a beautiful sjDecies, one of the most charming of all 
the Davallias. It has a stout creeping rhizome, 
densely clothed with woolly fibres; the firm erect 
stipe is from four to eight inches in length ; and the 



162 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



deltoid, tripinnatifid, dark, glossy green, leathery 
frond measures from one to two feet in length, by 
nine to fifteen inches in breadth. There are a 
number of well-marked varieties of this fine species 
occurring in a state of nature, and one, at least, of 
garden origin. Under the former category must 
come elata and dissccta, and under the latter poly- 
dactyla, in which, instead of the pinnae and pinnules 
terminating in a narrow point, they dilate and sub- 
divide, and thus form a strikingly handsome crested 
form. D. elegans has a remarkably wide geographical 
distribution, being found in Ceylon, the Malayan 
Peninsula, China, Java, Borneo, the Poljmesian 
Islands, tropical Australia, INIadagascar, Angola, 
Fernando Po, and Johanna Island. The species 
with the most finely di-vaded fronds of all the true 
Davallias — i.e., the species which by universal consent 
are always placed under DavalUa, and not imder any 
of the sub-genera which by some authorities are looked 
upon as constituting distinct genera {microlepia, steno- 
loma, &c.)— is I). Fijiensis, a very beautiful fern that 
has been introduced into this country within a very 
recent period. It has dark green, very elegant, 
somewhat leathery fronds, which when cut keep 
fresh for a considerable time. As implied by the 
name, it is a native of Fiji, where it is very common; 
two well-marked varieties, from a garden point of 
view, are already to be met with in nurseries, var. 
plumosa and ""^r. major. In J), hcterophijlla, from the 
Malayan Archipelago and the Polynesian Islands, 
the wide-creeping rhizome is scaly, and the short- 
stalked, smooth, leathery fronds are from three to 
six inches long by an inch in breadth. This 
species is remarkable by reason of the barren 
fronds being entire, and the narrower fertile ones 
more or less deeply cut — the contrast between the 
two being so striking as to make a casual observer 
believe two distinct species are represented. 

D. hirta is a huge species with stout stipes 
from one to two feet long, and triangular fronds 
three to four feet long by one to two feet broad. 
It is a native of the North of India, Ceylon, the 
Malayan and Polynesian Islands. The recently 
introduced D. Mariesi is a dwarf-growing, very 
graceful species, and an excellent subject for small 
baskets, or for covering small rustic ornamental 
portions of the rockery. In Japan various designs 
are made with curved pieces of wood, &:c. ; these are 
covered with moss, and the slender rhizomes of 
B. Mariesi are then attached to the sui'face by means 
of wire. To produce a profusion of fine green fronds, 
only an abundance of moisture is needed, and if 
this is granted, the designs — cro^ms, vases, wi-eaths, 
&c. — may be suspended in any warm-house near 
the glass. After being well established these succeed 
for some time in an ordinary dwelling-room. During 



the past year a number of different fern designs have 
been imported from Japan, some of them a good deal 
more curious than artistic. A crested foi-m of D. 
Mariesi is also in cultivation. One of the finest and 
most popular of exhibition ferns is D. Mooreana, from 
Borneo, a rapid grower, and one which readily de- 
velops its beautifully arched, delightfully pale gi-een 
fronds even in small pots. Full- sized fronds grow to 
about thi-ee or foui' feet in length by from eighteen 
to thirty inches in breadth. 

The New Zealand D. Xovce Zela)tdice, with its 
creeping rhizome clothed with filiform scales, has 
finely-cut deltoid tripinnate fronds, of somewhat 
leathery texture, twelve to eighteen inches long 
by four to eight inches broad, the firm erect stipe 
being from four to eight inches long. D. par- 
vnla, from Singapore and Borneo, is an exquisite 
little plant, only an inch or two in height ; in its 
native habitats it affects the trunks of trees and 
similar situations, which it clothes with a carpet of 
its tiny dark green fronds. In order to grow this 
well, a shallow pan with perfect di-ainage is best, th? 
very slender rhizomes clothed with bright brown 
scales being allowed to creep over the raised surface. 
For cool conservatory decoration, especially when 
planted out, or otherwise allowed plenty of root- 
room, one of the most striking of ferns is B. platy- 
phylla, a common species in Hindostan; this has 
stout creeping, scaly rhizomes, and stout, fii'm, erect 
blackish stipes, two or thi'ee feet long, and tripinna- 
tifid somewhat leathery sea-green fronds, three to 
foiu' feet long. Another excellent gi'een-house species 
is the New South Wales D. pyxidata, w^hich in habit 
and textui'e comes somewhat near D. Canariensis, but 
is rather more finely cut and veined. D. siriyosa, 
although doing well enough in a warm-house, is 
thoroughly at home, especially if planted out, in the 
cool conservatory ; it has a stout creeping, pubescent 
rhizome, the strong erect stem being six to twelve 
inches long (both it and the rachis being hairy 
throughout), and lanceolate bipinnatifid pale green 
fronds, one to three feet long by six to twelve inches 
broad. This species has a somewhat wide geographi- 
cal distribution, as it occurs in a wild state in North 
India, in Ceylon, Japan, the Malayan Peninsula and 
Islands, the South-east of China, and in the Sand- 
wich and Fiji Islands. Both for exhibition as well 
as for general decorative pui'poses, D. tenuifolia is 
very useful ; the lively green fronds, from twelve to 
eighteen inches long by six to nine inches broad, are 
borne on strong, erect, dark brown, polished stipes, 
six to twelve inches in length. This species is 
widely distributed throughout the tropics of the 
Old World. D. Tyermanni, supposed to be a native 
of western tropical Africa, is one of the most dis- 
tinct and useful of green-house ferns; the wide- 



FERXS. 



153 



creeping slender rhizomes are densely clothed with 
adpressed silvery scales, which are particularly con- 
spicuous when the plant is grown upon a tree-fern 
stem. The combination of colour formed by the 
silvery scales of the rhizome, the reddish stipe, and 
the dark green fronds is very pleasing. This species 
is a neat grower of moderate size, the fronds not ex- 
ceeding eight inches or a foot in height. 



recommended below. A good plan is to have a 
shallow pan of the required size, place an inverted 
pot in the centre (larger than the depth of the pan), 
and after putting in drainage, fill up and roxmd the 
pot with pieces of peat or a mixture of peat and 
sphagnum, fastening the whole together into a 
rounded cone by means of wire. The creeping 
rhizomes should then be placed on the surface, at- 




Davallia Fijiexsis. 



Cultivation. — All the Davallias are especially im- 
patient of stagnant moisture, and thiive be?t in a 
thoroughly di-ained compost ; almost any soil Tvill 
suit many of them, if the drainage requirements — 
the most essential of all conditions — are attended to. 
Either pure fibrous peat, peat and leaf -mould, or the 
latter with an admixtui-e of silver sand or charcoal, 
will do. Of com^se the larger, stronger growers are 
not so particular, and succeed well in pots ; the 
smaller ones, and more especially those with slender 
rhizomes, should either be grown in baskets or as 



tacbing them by pegs or small pieces of wire. '^Vith 
plentiful supply of water — and in a properly 
prepared pan there is scarcely any danger of 
over-watering, in the gi'owing season, at any rate — 
growth soon commences, and the rhizomes soon form 
a network over the entire sm-face. During winter 
water should be more sparingly administered, care, 
however, being taken never to let the pots or pans 
become dry. A fairly light place, if somewhat near 
the glass so much the better, is appreciated by most 
of the Davallias. 



154 



CASSELL'S POPULAE OAEDENma. 



THE FLOWER GARDEN. 

By William Wildsmith. 



THE PROPAGATION AND WINTERING OF SUMMER 
BEDDING PLANTS. 

IF the various methods of propagation needed for 
the different sections of bedding plants, and the 
best time of year to propagate a given species, be 
well understood, there will rarely be any difficulty 
about getting a sufficiency of stock — of course, 
always supposing that appliances, cuttings, and 
labour are ample. To the saving of the latter, 
and also to avoid occupying unnecessarily valuable 
room in houses and pits dm'ing the winter, a rough 
estimate of the numbers of each plant likely to be 
wanted should be made at the commencement of the 
propagating season, which period is the beginning of 
August. We will take first the kinds that are best 
"struck in quantity" in the autumn. By this is 
meant kinds that give less trouble than were their 
propagation deferred till spring. 

Pelargoniums. — First on the list are Felargo- 
niums, of all sections, as they can at that time be 
struck readily on a sunny border in the open air, the 
only preparation necessary for reception of the cut- 
tings being that the soil be light, with plenty of vege- 
table or leaf -moidd mixed with it, that the plants may 
lift with plenty of fibre when ready for pottiug or 
boxing. The cuttings should be the shortest-]oi-n.tedi, 
or, in other words, the sturdiest that can be 
spared from the beds, and not less than five inches 
long for the dwarf growers, while they may range as 
long as nine inches for the more vigorous zonales. 
They should be cut cleanly to a joint, for if hacJced, 
or the stems bruised, the probabilities are that they 
will damp off. Insert them with a pointed stick 
about thi'ee inches apart, taking care to well " finn " 
them in the soil. If the weather be di-y a good 
soaking of water should be given as soon as the cut- 
tings are put in, but no other watering "rtII be neces- 
sary unless the weather be excejDtionally hot and dry. 

Another mode is to put the cuttings in pots, pans, 
or boxes direct, a plan that in wet seasons, or wet 
districts, is to be commended, as then they can be 
afforded shelter from hea\"y rains imder lights, and 
yet have exposui'e to full sunshine at every chance, 
an element essential to a healthy growth and safe 
wintering. If the cuttings are intended to be struck 
in this latter fashion, greater care is needed in pre- 
paring the scil, as it must be remembered that the 
plants have not only to be struck in it, but wintered ; 
hence, whilst the constituents for striking must be 
present, there must also be food for the plants, and 
that too without ha\dng frequent recurrence to the 
water-pot, during the dullest weeks of winter. The 



following compost, if made moderately firm in the 
boxes, insiu-es these conditions : — One part sand, one 
part leaf-mould, and two parts of ordinary potting 
loam. Also sift thi'ough a half -inch sieve, and place 
a thin layer of the siftings of fibre over the crocks ; 
the plants lay hold of this fibre with such tenacity, 
that when they have to be potted off they move with 
such a mass of roots that the check to them is all 
but nil. 

Plants struck out of doors require to be potted up 
by the third week in September, but shoidd contiaue 
to have all the exposm-e possible till the advent of 
frost rend.ers it unsafe to leave them out acaj longer. 
A watery, spindl}' gi-owth at the commencement -^ill 
neither winter successfully, nor ever make satisfac- 
tory progi'ess afterwards ; hence the injunctions to 
give exposui'e, which conduces to sturdiness, from the 
beginning. It is necessary that plants struck after 
either mode should be well cared for in the matter of 
keeping them clear of deca^nng leaves, the flowers 
picked off, and the points pinched out of any that 
manifest a tendency to run up without branching at 
bottom. 

As to ivi)dering the plants, of course the best place 
is a Hght airy house where a minimum temperature 
of 40° in the severest weather can be maintained; 
more often, however, rough structures have to do 
duty for good houses, and therefore it is in reference 
to these that a remark or two is needed. Damp is 
more fatal to the plants than cold — at least, any 
short of actual frost — consequently drips from the 
sashes, splashing about of water, or an over-dose of 
it to the plants being preventible, their avoidance 
should be insisted on. When watering is needed, 
choose a drying day when the lights can be opened, 
and fii-e applied to expel damp, and only a sufficiency 
of fire to keep out frost and keep the air diy should 
ever be used. Given these conditions, the plants will 
thiive well, needing increased space both at root and 
top by the middle of March. At that time all the 
rarer, such as tricolour and variegated kinds gene- 
rally, should, if space admits of it, be potted suigly 
into sixty-size (thi^ee-inch) pots, but others may be 
planted out in cold pits, where the lights are mov- 
able, that the plants may, as it were, be turned 
outside at all favourable times. Till the plants are 
re-estabhshed in the new soil, but only till that has 
taken place, is a little warmth and a closer atmos- 
phere necessary. 

If, as sometimes is the case, certain kinds of 
cuttings of Pelargoniums cannot be had in sufficient 
quantity in the autumn, recoiu'se may be had to 
spring propagation, which is as follows : — The stock 
plants should be placed in warmth by the end of 
January, and as soon as they have well started into 
growth, so far that cuttings three or fom- inches long 



THE FLOWER GARDEX. 



15.? 



can l3e had, they may be taken off and "be put singly 
into three-inch pots, a mode of propagation that 
saves any fm-ther hindrance as to potting, kc, as 
they can he transferred from, these pots direct to the 
"beds. Place the cuttings on shelves, exposed to full 
light, and a temperatm-e of from 60° to 60°, then, 
■with careful attention in regard to watering, they 
vrill strike just as successfully as in autumn. As 
ah'eady remarked, further potting is really not 
essential, hut should extra good plants be desii-ed it 
ought to be done. Space for the plants, and time 
for the operation, must decide whether this can be 
done or not. 

Violas. — Several varieties of these are scarcely 
second to Pelargoniums for summer bedding, and all 
are best propagated in autumn, and fi-om cuttings 
only ; the plants obtained by di^ision never appear 
to grow so compactly or so luxmiantly as those 
obtained from the young side-shoots that spring 
from the base of the plants, and which about the 
middle of September are to be had in great abund- 
ance. They should be split off with the fingers, and 
will generally be found to have a few rootlets 
attached. These, if long, it is necessary ■^o shorten 
with a sharp knife, as the cuttings ought not to 
exceed thi-ee inches in length. In the south of the 
kingdom they strike and ^sinter successfully on 
sheltered borders without protection ; but the safest 
and more general plan is to strike them under hand- 
lights, or in cold frames, which may be kept rather 
close till they get a firm grip of the soil : then they 
must have all the air possible. A mixtui-e of loam 
and leaf-soil— -?20 sand — and the cuttings inserted 
nrmly, will end in a good strike. The reason why 
we say no sand is, that as the plants have to stand in 
the cutting-beds till transplanted to their permanent 
quarters, they need a soil that will maintain them in 
vigour till that time, and sand has none of these 
properties. If the beds or borders that they are 
intended to occupy be vacant, transplanting may 
begin early in April, taking care to move them with 
balls of earth attached; this the presence of leaf- 
mould in the soil renders an easy matter. Deep 
rich soil is indispensable to continuous flowering 
and freedom from the parasite, mildew, to which 
Violas are peculiarly liable. 

The foregoing treatment is in eveiy particular 
applicable to the propagation b>/ oittings of Fnmica, 
udntirrhinHins, Fentstcmms, and Phloxes, all of them 
so excellent for mixed summer bedding or for hardy 
flower borders : — 

^Seedlings. — Though favourite varieties can only be 
perpetuated with certainty by cuttings, the strains 
have now been brouaht to such perfection, that but 
a small percentage of inferior kinds is now possible 



from seeds, which to those with limited accommoda- 
tion as to hand-lights, or other shelter, is the best 
way to get up a stock. 

The seeds shoirld be sown in ]\Iarch either in pans 
or in hand-lights, the soil to be light sandy loam, 
with the merest sprinkle of a covering ; water with 
a fine-rose pot, and keep close till germination has 
taken place ; then air freely, and prick off the seed- 
lings as soon as large enough to handle. Again 
keep close, for a week or so, then gradually inure 
them to the open air, transplanting them as soon as 
large enough to their permanent positions, when they 
will produce abundance of flowers throughout the 
autumn. 

Calceolarias. — Of late years the culture of the 
shrubby section of these has declined, the reason 
given being their uncertainty of continuous flower- 
ing, more especially in hot seasons, and their liability 
to die most mysteriously fi'om some affection that 
attacks them at the ground-line. AVe have proved 
that both these evils are preventible by high culture, 
and therefore advise their continuance for bedding- 
out pm-poses. 

It is well known that if any plant is predisposed 
to disease, nothing more readily aids its spread than 
lack of vigour, hence high culture should begin at 
the very commencement, viz., with the cuttings. 
These should be taken off early in October, those 
springing from near the base of the plants, and that 
have not been smothered in foliage to render them 
weakly, or what gardeners term " drawn." Cut 
them with a sharp knife, and of such a length as 
will admit of two joints being inserted in the soil, 
lea^'ing about three above. They are impatient of 
artificial heat at all stages of growth, and therefore 
a cold pit, in the strictest sense of that term, is the 
best possible structure in which to strike and winter 
them. The soil, about six inches in thickness, should 
be sandy loam and peat, or leaf-soil, in equal propor- 
tions, which should be placed over a layer ol rubble 
— siftings of the same material — and be well pressed 
down ; then the cuttings to be dibbled in three 
inches apart, this distance admitting of their stand- 
ing in the cutting-pit without getting lanln*, till 
the spring, when they can be transplanted to any 
sheltered nook, an excellent place being at the foot 
of the fruit-walls, where they can share in the pro- 
tection afforded by the trees. A good watering is 
necessary as soon as the cuttings are put in, to well 
settle the soil about them, this generally being all 
the water needed till they are struck, which takes 
from six to eight weeks to accomplish, all of which 
time the lights should be kept closed, and a sHght 
shade applied whenever the sun is powerful. At the- 
end of that period air may be given freely, and such 



153 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



protection in severe weather, "by covering with mats, 
straw, hurdles, litter, or bracken, as will insiu'e the 
atmosphere of the pit not receding lower than 30°. 
The flower-huds and points of the shoots should be 
kept off to induce a branching habit of growth, and 
any moss, or fungus, forming on the soil, should be 
instantly removed. Pots, boxes, or pans so soon get 
full of roots (a check consequently ensuing) that 
they ought never to be used for Calceolaria propa- 
:gation ; indeed, at every stage pot culture for these is 
undesirable and unnecessary. The soil in which they 
are to be planted out in summer cannot well be too 
deep or too rich, and if it answers to this description, 
its natural properties are immaterial. 

Gnaphalium lanatum, and Variegated 
Thymes. — Both of these arc invaluable ground- work 
plants for summer bedding, and being amenable to the 
selfsame treatment in regard to propagation, we class 
them together. Cuttings of a partially hard nature 
— neither succulent nor woody, but what is termed, 
in gardening phraseology, half-ripened — if taken off 
about the end of September, strike freely under cold- 
frame treatment, and in any description of light soil. 

The cuttings may be inserted — Gnaphalium at three 
inches, and Thymes at two inches apart, and in bright 
weather must be kept shaded till the roots are 
emitted, after which they may be fully exposed in all 
weathers, except when frosty. Even this will not 
injure the Thymes, but Gnaphalium will not stand 
more than two degrees, and therefore requires mat 
or straw protection in severe weather. The points of 
the shoots should be kept pinched out of both to keep 
them as bushy as possible, and as neither is injured 
by overcrowding in the cutting-frames, the plants 
may remain there till wanted for their final quarters. 
Both are good subjects for edgings and ground-works. 
The Gnaphalium requires pegging down, and to have 
the flowers and long shoots pinched off, and the 
Thymes may be planted sufficiently thick to admit of 
their being clipped to induce a bushy growth. 

Eeheverias. — These plants, which are so useful 
for edgings, particularly in carpet-bedding designs, 
are also most expeditiously increased at the autumn 
season by offsets from the old plants, and the larger 
siich offsets are the better. The varieties Secimda 
fjlauca and retusa are comparatively hardy, and can 
be safely wintered on sloping banks of soil raised 
against the walls of forcing-houses, or other sheltered 
spots. Wet is more fatal to them than frost, hence 
the slope to throw off the rain. Mats tacked to thB 
wall, as a covering in severe weather, are really all 
the attention they need from the time of inserting the 
-offsets till the plants are needed for the beds in May. 

Sedum acre elegans and Spergula prolifera aurea are 



barely hardy ; at any rate, they will not stand 
satisfactorily without autumnal division, which is the 
best time and way to propagate them Pieces taken 
carefully out of the beds, so as not to mar their ap- 
pearance, split up into the smallest particles, and 
pricked out closely together on a di-y border facing 
the south, quickly make nice plants and winter 
safely except in the severest winters. The winter 
treatment necessary is simply to well press them into 
the ground after each frost, which, occuiTing before 
they get deeply rooted, heaves them out of the 
ground. All other kinds of hardy carpeting plants 
make much the nicest plants for spring transplanting 
when time can be spared for dividing them in the 
same way in the autumn. The plants so obtained 
fill out their space in one-half the time required by 
those which are split up from the old plants at plant- 
ing-out time in May. 

The following are kinds that must be propagated 
in autumn, but only in sufficient quantity to pro- 
duce abundance of cuttings for spring propagation, 
thus saving both labour in watering and other at- 
tention, as well as the room they would occupy 
throughout the winter. 

Alternantheras. — It is necessary to be very 
particular in selecting cuttings of these to avoid flower 
or seeding shoots, which though they strike never 
make good plants. Suckers, which spring up fiom 
the collar of the plants, should be chosen, and require 
only a clean pinch with the finger and thmnb to 
make them ready for the cutting-pots, five-inch size, 
each of which will hold about a score of cuttings. 
A dozen of these pots will produce cuttings sufficient 
to make as many thousands, by the mode of propa- 
gation to be named, for the spring time. Soil of a 
peaty nature, with a goodly addition of sand, is what 
they relish to strike and grow in. The cuttings 
should be taken off as early in September as 
practicable, inserted as above, and the pots plunged 
in a gentle bottom heat, such as that which is given 
off by three or four feet thickness of oak-leaves. No 
top heat is necessary, but shade is required during 
bright sunshine. Under such conditions they will 
be well rooted in about three weeks, and may then 
be transferred to shelves in cool vineries, peach- 
houses, or even cold frames, till cold weather sets in, 
when a wai-m dry temperature, averaging 60*^, is 
requisite to keej) them in vigorous condition till the 
advent of longer days in spring. In INIarch they 
should be given the warmest moist position avail- 
able, and growth will quickly follow^. A hot-bed of 
leaves and litter should then be made up, and on it 
place six inches of rough leaf-soil, press dowoi with a 
spade, then four inches of fine soil (loam and peat is 
best, but almost any kind of light soil will do), leave 



THE FLOWER GARDEN. 



157 



it a couple of days for the soil to get warm, then 
dibble in the cuttings two and a half inches apart, 
water with tepid water, shade and keep close. Not 
one per cent, will fail to strike, and what is more, 
the plants may remain there till required for plant- 
ing out. In this way we strike very many thousands 
each year, the frames that have done duty for the 
first batches being lifted off and used for others. 
Makeshift protectors, with rails and mats, are im- 
provised for the protection of the plants from which 
the frames are thus taken. To bring up the j)lants 
sturdily, any disposition that they manifest to grow 
lanky should be checked by pinching out the points. 

Ahutilons, Agathcea ccelestis (Blue Marguerite), 
Ageratums, Alyssiim variegatum, C'oleus Verschoffellii, 
FucJunaSy Gazanias, Heliotropes, Iresine Lindenii, 
Petunias, Fyretliruni (French Marguerites), and 
Tropceolums all need similar structures and bottom 
heat ior autumn striking to those named for Alternan- 
theras, and, with the exception of Coleus and Iresine, 
they will all winter in any light position where the 
temperature does not sink below 40°. Coleus and 
Iresine require the warmest place at command. 

Spring propagation of these follows much on the 
same lines as Altemantheras, except that they are 
not so accommodating as regards space, and room 
must be found in the houses for pots, pans, or boxes 
till the season is advanced sufficiently for them to be 
l)laced in turf pits, or cold frames, preparatory to 
final planting out. A capital striking-pit for the 
spring season for all these kinds of plants can be 
made in melon and cucumber-houses, the front por- 
tion of the beds being partitioned off either with 
tiirves, oak slabs, or bricks ; a sunken cutting-bed can 
thus be formed, and be covered with glass resting 
on the front wall and the wall of the partition. Here 
the cuttings will ^strike in an incredibly short time, 
and, if not left longer than to get well rooted, the 
shade from the over-growing melons or cucumbers 
will have no detrimental efi'ect, Abutilons and 
Marguerites should be potted off singly, but the others 
will grow well for a long time if planted several 
in a pot. Warmth and moisture are requisite till 
new roots are being ma(^e in the fresh soil; they 
may then safely be moved to cooler places, to make 
room for others that ai-e to be potted. 

Verbenas, Mesembryanthemums, and 
Lobelias, of the Erinus section, also make the finest 
growth from 5;;ri?2^-propagated plants, but stock- 
plants of each must be prepared early in September. 
Verbenas, like Calceolarias, are often unjustly dis- 
paraged on the ground of their liability to fail, which 
from personal practice we can answer is preventible. 
G-ood cuttings, free of flower-bnds and insects, and 
taken off the plants at the outer edges of the beds, 



which are always the most vigorous, should be in- 
serted in pans, not closer together than two and a half 
inches; the soil to be sandy loam, and moderately 
well pressed down. Well soak them, and place in 
a cold frame on a bed of ashes, to keep worms and 
slugs at bay. The lights must be kept closely shut 
during the day, and shaded with double mats when 
there is any sunshine, the aim being to keep them as 
cool as possible, as in this way they strike root without 
making any top growth whatever — a point of great 
importance with plants which it is desired should 
develop a short- jointed sturdy growth from the very 
foundation. After the fii'st week the hea\y water- 
ing necessary to insure the soil being closely sealed 
round the cuttings will have somewhat dried up. 
Then should commence ligtit syringings, early in the 
morning, before shade is applied, and from this time 
also the lights may be tilted up an inch or so at 
night, to be closed the following morning after the 
syringing has been done. In a month they will be 
nicely rooted. They may then be placed in any 
shady place out of doors, and be moved to a cold pit 
for the winter as soon as frost renders it unsafe to 
leave them out any longer. The winter treatment is 
to keep cool and airy, and keep a sharp look-out for 
mildew and fly, neither of which is very trouble- 
some when the plants have had due care as to 
striking, and are growing in rich soil that is never 
allowed to get really dry. Spring propagation 
should proceed in the same way as that given for 
Altemantheras, only less bottom heat is needed, and 
the frames may be removed, and temporary protec- 
tion be given, as soon as ever the plants are estab- 
lished in the soil. 

Lobelias do not come true from seed, and a few 
stock-pots take up so little space during the winter, 
that cuttings only of good kinds should be grown. 
All the remarks made above as to the propagation of 
Yerbenas aj)ply to these, except that a slight bottom 
heat is requisite till they are struck ; after that the 
treatment is exactly the same. Spring-struck 
cuttings as soon as well rooted may be transplanted 
into cold frames, leaf-mould being the principal 
compost used, that they may lift with good balls 
when they are to be finally planted out. 

Mesembryantliemum cordifolium variegatum is one 
of the most elegant and popular of summer bedding 
plants, and withal is very easy to manage. Autumn- 
struck plants never grow satisfactorily, as they 
always manifest such a disposition to flower and 
seed — a failing no doubt due to their getting root- 
bound during the winter. It is, therefore, preventible. 
We have proved that spring cuttings most quickly 
fill out their space, and do not seed till quite the end 
of summer, and this being so, it is not worth wliile 
to propagate in autumn more than what are requii-ed 



158 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXa 



for stock. For this purpose, square pans a foot 
square are best. These hold about three dozen 
€uttings, and a half a dozen pans will produce an 
immense quantity of cuttings in spring-. Like most 
other succulent j^knts, this grows best in an open 
and freely-di'ained soil, and the drainage of the pans 
should therefore be well done, and if with the soil — 
light loam and sand— a small proportion of finely - 
broken potsherds and charcoal be mixed, there will 
be less liability of the plants suffering from an over- 
dose of water during the winter. As soon as the 
■cuttings are put in, a good watering will be neces- 
sary, but no more should be given till the soil seems 
reaUy diy, or is observed to be cracking from the 
sides of the pans. They never fail to strike if placed 
on a shelf over hot-water pipes, no shading or 
propagating-glass being needed. They will winter 
satisfactorily in any light position and in a green- 
house temperatm-e. In Febi-uary they must be put 
into heat, and cuttings may be taken as soon as to be 
had of a couple of inches in length. At this season 
they strike most readily under glasses in bottom 
heat, in the same manner as most other soft-wooded 
plants, and as soon as struck must be transplanted 
into boxes or pans, and kept in heat till they have 
recovered from the check of removal ; afterwards 
cool houses and pits, coupled with careful watering, 
will keep them in slow but vigorous growth. 

Hoots and Tubers. — Single varieties of Dahlias 
have lately become so popular, that they must have 
the first i)lace on the list under this heading. The 
mania for them still spreads, and the consequent e\il 
is abeady apparent, viz., that of sending out innu- 
merable varieties which are different only in name. 
It would be well if growers would content them- 
selves with half a dozen kinds, and grow that number 
ivell in groups and masses for distant effect, or alter- 
nate, as to colour, in mixed flower bordeis. They 
are most readily raised from seeds, which ought to be 
sown in heat in February, then good plants may be 
had for planting out in June, and will be in full 
flower by the beginning of August. Sow in pans of 
light loam, covering the seeds thinly with sand, 
water, and place them in the propagating-pit. As 
soon as germination takes place the pans should be 
shifted nearer the glass, say a shelf in a plant-stove, 
pine-jjit, or a ^dnery that is being forced ; here they 
may remain, being well supplied with water, tiQ the 
plants are large enough to be potted singly into 
thumb -pots, to be grown on as rapidly as is possible 
so long as the growth continues of a robust de- 
scription. Five-inch pots will be none too large for 
the second potting, which will be needed at the end 
of April, or early in May. Xamed kinds can only 
be had true from cuttings. Stock-roots placed in a 



bottom heat of 65° in February or March will a5ord 
cuttings within three weeks. Sever them from the 
old root with a bit of it adhering, and put them in 
thumb-pots, plunge in bottom heat, keep moist and 
shade. The cuttings ;.hould never be allowed to flag, 
or the chances are that they will fail to stiike, or if 
this does not happen they will be double the time in 
striking wiiich those are that do not flag. As soon as 
rooted, treat them exactly the same as advised for 
seedlings. The double or show kinds can only be had 
from cuttiags, and are propagated in the same way. 

C annas. — These are about the most stately of 
foliage bedders, and their cultm-e and jDropagution 
being of the simplest desciiption, admits of no excuse 
for their not being used in quantity. Old roots can 
be wintered in any out-of-the-way shed or cellar, 
light or dark is quite immaterial, so long as thei'e is 
freedom from fi-ost. If lifted with soil adhering, none 
other is needed; but if bare, they may be roughly 
heeled in, packed closely together in any kind of 
soil, sawdust, or cocoa fibre ; and in this form they 
may remain till the end of April, except such roots 
as are needed for increase of stock; these may bo 
brought out and parted into single cro'W'ns, and be 
potted in such sized pots as the size of crown demands. 
Till new roots have begun to work in the fresh soil 
there will be little top gTOwth; therefore, the plants 
may stand in any out-of-the-way place, under stages 
or trellises, without injury accruing to them ; but once 
top gi'owth has started, light and gentle warmth must 
be afforded, else the gi'owth will be of an attenuated 
nature, and get crippled as soon as turned outside. 
Seeds sown in January in strong bottom heat make 
good plants by bedding-ovit time ; but they will not 
compare in ^igour with the strong crowns that are 
taken from old stools five or six weel^s later. 

Salvia patens, Verbena i/enosa, Terennial Lobelias, 
and 2Lan:el of Peru, are all of them indispensable in 
summer bedding ; indeed they may be called every- 
body's plants, as they are easy to grow and increase, 
and above all to winter, which they do safely in any 
place from which frost is excluded. The roots of 
the Salvia, and Marvel of Peru, only require to be 
surrounded with any kind of rough soil, to prevent 
the shrinking of the tubers. The roots may be 
divided for increase of stock any time during the 
month of ]March ; boxes are the most convenient for 
planting them in, and with cold-frame treatment 
afterwards, they will make good plants by bedding- 
out time. Verbena venosa generally winters well in 
the open gToimd, but the flowers do not come so fine, 
or the growth so regular and robust, as when the 
roots are lifted annually, and covered thickly with 
dry soil during the winter, and aie propagated 
afresh in April by cutting up the most fleshy parts 



GEEEX - HOUSE PLAXTS. 



159 



of tlie roots into lengths of about three inches, and 
planting them in boxes of light soil, and starting 
them into growth by gi%"ing them frame protection 
for a month or so afterwards. Perennial Lobelias, 
being all but hardy, can also be wintered without 
much trouble. We place them thickly together on 
the orchard-house borders, and split up the roots in 
spring to any size or number needed, planting them 
in boxes in the same way as named above. Seeds 
sown early in spring, in gentle heat, make moderate- 
sized plants by the end of summer, but produce little 
flower that season, therefore preference should be 
given to propagation by di^-ision. 

Coloured Foliage Bedders from Seeds. — 

^maranthus melanchoVicas ruber, once so popular, has 
of late been somewhat neglected in favour of Alter- 
nantheras, many of which are of the same bright 
colour, ^-iz., a purplish crimson. The plant, however, 
does not merit such treatment, for its uses and effec- 
tiveness are, to say the least, equal to Altemantheras, 
and stock of it is just as quickly increased, and 
withal there is no wintering or house-room required 
at that season. To get good plants by the end of 
May, the seeds should be sown in March in pans of 
light soil, the seeds to be covered very Hghtly indeed, 
and be kept shaded till germination takes place, with 
a \-iew of preventing watering, which, if not done 
very carefully, washes the seeds to the sides of the 
pans. Prick out the seedlings as soon as they are 
large enough to handle into other pans of light rich 
soil, and keep in heat tiU the roots have got a good 
hold of the new soil : and from this stage they will 
grow weU in a cooler temperature. They ought not 
to be planted out till the first week in June, and like 
a rich soil and a sunny aspect. 

Amarardiius caudatus Xove Lies Bleeding). — This is 
as different to the first-named as it is possible for two 
plants to be that belong to the same genus : the first 
rarely exceeds a foot in height, but this we have seen 
five feet high, with long tail-like racemes of flower — 
some four feet long. It is the perfection of a plant 
for a back line to a ribbon border, or as a marginal 
line round a bed of Eicinus (Castor Oil Plants^. la 
good soils the plants should not be nearer together 
than two feet, or eighteen inches apart in ordinary 
garden soil, and staking is required as soon as the 
plants attain a foot or so in height ; the weight 
of the racemes renders such supports imperative. 
If sown in pans about the middle of April and 
placed in a temperature of 4:b°, the plants will be 
ready for planting out at the end of May. It ought 
not to be sown earher than April, otherwise, being a 
rapid grower, the plants are apt to get stunted before 
it. is safe to plant them out. 

Ferilla Xankinensis and F. lacin ictus are two 



XDuiplibh-bronze-leaved plants of very easy culture, 
as the seedlings may be raised under hand-lights 
in the open air, and in the north of the kingdom. 
AYhere Coleus and Iresine do not flourish they are 
excellent substitutes for them. Sow in March, prick 
out the plants when a coupk of inches high, and 
cover with hand-glasses till estabhshed, then gra- 
dually inure them to full exposure, and plant out 
at the middle of May. 

Cineraria /naritima, C. ac an tin folia, Centaurea ra- 
giisina, C. Cleiueiitli, C. g>j„'.,'/jcarpa, are all of them 
silvery-grey foliage plants, and are most valuable for 
association with pink Pelargoniums, purple Yerbenas. 
or blue Lobelias. Sow in pans in February, and 
place in heat till the seeds are well through the soil, 
then on shelves in any house or pit having a tem- 
perature of oo*^ or 60^. The seedlings to be trans- 
planted into other pans when an inch high; keep 
close till new growth is perceptible, then give them 
a more airy position. Before the roots get matted 
together, they should be either potted off separately, 
or else be planted in frames, or boxes, and in soil 
containing a large percentage of leaf-mould, else it 
will be difficult to move them to their final quarters 
with balls of earth adhering, and this is essential to 
the plants starting into kindly growth. 



geee:n'-hoi:se plaxts. 

Bx WiLLiAii Hugh Gowze. 

Aloe. — This is a genus of old-fashioned succulent 
plants. Some of them are very curious, and many 
are extremely handsome and highly ornamental, 
either in or out of flower. They are mostly natives of 
South Africa, although some species are to be found 
in all warm countiies. The drug called bitter 
aloes," used as a purgative and tonic, is familiar to 
the school-boy's ears as "household words," and is 
the produce of some few species of this genus, which 
are largely grown in the West Indies, the Cape of 
Good Hope, and also in Zocotria, a little island 
situated near the mouth of the Eed Sea. Their 
medicinal -virtues, however, will not interest our 
reader so much as their ornamental qualifications. 
Aloes are plants of the easiest cultivation : indeed, 
they may frequently be seen growing and flowering 
with more "vigour in a cottager's window than in 
the best green-house and under the care of skilled 
gardeners. They should be potted in sandy loam, 
with a little old mortar rubbish added. The pots used 
should be small ones, drained well ; and dming the 
summer months they enjoy an abundant supply of 
water: during winter little or none should be given, 
and the temperature should not fall lower than 45" 
or 50°. 



160 



CASSELL'S POPI'LAE GARDEXIXG. 



Cultivators must not, however, fall into a hard- 
and-fast line respecting the winter treatment of 
these plants, for although but very little water is 
necessar}-, the plants must not he diied to such an 
extent that the leaves show signs of shrivelling, or 
they will assuredly deteriorate in beauty. In some 
instances these plants after a few years will become 
too tall for those having a small house in which to 
grow them; this, however, need not cause any 
uneasiness, as they are easily brought into size and 
shape. The spring is the best time to operate upon 
them, and all that it is necessary to do is to cut them 
down to the required height, place them in a pot of 
dry soil, and there let them stand until fresh roots 
are developed from the 
base of the stem, which 
will be in a short time; 
when this takes place, give 
a small quantity- of water 
from time to time until 
the pot is w^ell filled with 
roots, when the supply can 
be increased in quantity. 

Aloes should be kept in 
small pots, and seldom 
require re-potting ; one of 
the greatest mistakes made 
with these plants is in 
gi\'ing them too much soil 
and pots of too great di- 
mensions. Although the 
various members of this 
genus succeed best when 
fully exposed to sun and 

light, they do not thrive so well when stood in the 
open air, for under these circumstances in our 
variable climate they are apt at times to get an 
over-abundant supply of water, and the leaves often 
become brown, which is a great disfigurement. It 
is this, more than any inability to withstand the 
temperature, which makes them more suitable for 
in-door life. 

The varieties of Aloes are almost endless. The 
following are a few of the most ornamental kinds, 
and well deserve the attention of all plant-gTOwers. 

A. Abyssinica.- — A large and massive species; 
leaves thick and fleshy, furnished at the margins 
with a few blunt spines, heavy green in colour ; 
native of Abyssinia. 

A. A fricana. — This plant has a cylindrical stem, 
and attains a height of eight feet or more ; leaves 
long and narrow, tipped with red, spiny at the 
edges : it produces a handsome spike of red flowers. 
Gape of Good Hope. 

A. arhorescens is a plant which, under favour- 
able circumstances, attains a height of from ten to 




Aloe varieoaia 



fifteen feet, producing many lateral shoots, and form- 
ing a very handsome specimen ; leaves long, sharply 
tapering from the base, glaucous, with bright green 
spiny margin ; flowers deep red, very showy. Cape 
of Good Hope. 

A. dtpressa. — -An elegant small- gi'O wing kind ; 
leaves glaucous, and densely armed at the edges with 
spines ; spike long ; flowers red, tipped with green. 

A. ferox. — A tall grower, with glaucous leaves, 
which are profusely clothed with spines; flowers 
yellow. Cape of Good Hope. 

A. humUis. — There ai'c several varieties of this 
plant ; it is a small grower, with dark green glaucous 
leaves, spiny all over; spike large; flowers nu- 
merous, bold red, tipped 
with green. 

A. maculata. — Leaves 
long and naiTow, bright 
gTcen, irregularlv blotched 
with white, verA' hand- 
some ; flowers not con- 
spicuous. 

A. mitrceformis, — A bold 
growing kind of medium 
height ; leaves broad, fur- 
nished at the edges and 
upon the back of midrib 
with stout spines ; spike 
branched; flowers large and 
numerous, bright scarlet. 

A. mitrcoformis brevi- 
folia. — A beautiful form: 
leaves short and broad, 
glaucous \sdth white spots : 
edges broadly margined with white, and spray ; 
flowers in a dense corymb, large, bright scarlet, tipped 
with green. 

A. p'lcta. — Leaves large, deep green, spotted with 
yellowish- white, spiny at edges: sj)ike many-flowered: 
flowers large, bright scarlet, tipped with green. 

A. pUcatiJis. — The Fan Aloe : leaves arranged in 
two-ranked manner (distichous), glaucous, rmamied; 
flowers red, tipped with yeUowish-gi'een. 

A. rhodacantka . — Leaves broad, bright green, and 
margined with red spines; flowers red, tipped ^sith 
green. 

A Saponaria. — A handsome bold-growing plant ; 
leaves dark green, spotted -^-ith creamy white, edged 
with white spines ; spike branched, many-tiowered ; 
flowers large, orange-scarlet, tipped with yellow. 

A. succotrina. — Leaves narrow, glaucous, edged 
with white spines ; flowers deep red. 

A. variegnta. — The " Partridge-breasted Al&e ; " 
this beautiful plant is stemless ; leaves thick and 
fleshy, bright green, irregularly branched -with white; 
flowers pink. 



GEEEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 



161 



A. virens. — Leaves narrow, spiny at edges, deep 
green ; spike branched ; flowers deep crimson. 

Actus. — This small genus, like so many of the 
Australian plants that ornament our green-houses, 
belong to the Pea-flowered section of the Legii- 



A. gracillimus is a slender-growing graceful plant 
with small leaves ; flowers axillary, densely set, 
making up long pendulous racemes of Moom, which 
quite hide the leaves from sight ; colour red and 
yellow. May and June. Western Australia. 

A. villosHS. — A more erect-habited plant than the 




Aloe abboeescexs. 



minosce. They are nearly related to Pultencea; but 
whilst the plants in this last-named family have two 
ear-like appendages to the cah^x, the members of 
this genus are entirely destitute of them ; and hence 
the name Aotus, which signifies earless. 

These plants are by no means difl&cult to manage, 
the soil they prefer being light sandy loam and 
peat in about equal parts, broken up rather rough, 
in order to keep it open and porous. 
11 



preceding, with small downy leaves, and bright 
yellow flowers, which are produced during J une and 
J uly. Western Australia . 

Aphelexis. — The plants found in gardens under 
this name really belong to the genus KeVipterum ; 
but as they have become so generally known as 
Aphelexis, it is not well perhaps to attempt an alte- 
ration here. They are all distinguished by slender 



162 



CASSELL'S POPrLAH GAEDEXIXG. 



stems, having compressed leaves, clothed with a 
hoary tomentum. The tiowers are produced singly, 
and are terminal. The peculiar dry and chaffy 
chai-acter of the petals renders them very persistent, 
and they are popularly known as everlasting flowers. 
All the kinds bloom during spring and early summer, 
and are very effective ornaments to the plant-house. 

The soil best adapted for Aphelexis is good fibrous 
peat and sharp sand ; a few pieces of charcoal mixed 
with the soil, serve to keep it open, and are very bene- 



at all seasons, but are especially valuable during the 
dull winter months, when flowers are comparatively 
scarce. Ai-aHas, and many other flne-foliaged plants, 
are also of the greatest service for the decoration cf 
halls, conidors, and such places; the smaller-growing 
kinds for decorating the dinner-table, and also for 
using in the flower garden in the open air, giving a 
rich and varied tropical effect, which is strikingly 
different from the foliage of our native trees, and 
that of the majority of the flowering shrubs usually 




Aralia Sieboldii. 



ficial to them. There are not many kinds ; the best 
are here enumerated. 

A. Barnesii. — Elowers large, rosy-pink. 

A. macrantha rosea. — This is a more compact 
grower than some of the kinds, and is extremely 
handsome ; flowers soft rose. 

A. macrantha purpurea. — The finest variety in 
cultivation ; leaves bright green ; flowers large, dark 
purple. 

Aralia. — A family of plants which give the name 
to the order, Aralia^ece, or Ivyworts, to which they be- 
long. They consist of shrubs and trees possessing 
very ornamental characters in their leaves ; but their 
flowers are inconspicuous ; hence such plants liave 
become popularly known as fine-foliaged, or orna- 
mental-leaved plants, and commend themselves to 
the gardener and amateur, inasmuch as they pro- 
duce gi-and and striking effects in the plant-houses 



planted in the borders. From their use in this 
manner, these plants are usually denominated sub- 
tropical plants. The use of this class of plants 
generally in the open air is described elsewhere, 
under the head of Sub-tropical Gardening. Besides 
the strictly green-house or sub-tropical division, 
there are several species of Aralia which are per- 
fectly hardy, bearing strikingly beautiful leaves ; 
but we refer in this place to those more especially 
which deserve a place in the green-house or con- 
servatory. 

The soil for Aralias should consist of two parts 
rich loam, and one part peat and leaf -mould togethcx. 
They enjoy a liberal supply of water. "With these 
essentials there is no difficulty in their management. 
The following will be a good selection : — 
A. crassifolia, an erect handsome plant, attaining 
a height of between twenty and thirty feet, witn 
alternate linear-oblong leaves, which are thick and 



GREEN -HOUSE PLANTS. 



133 



coriaceous in texture. In different stages and ages 
of its growth., this plant would appear to assume 
distinct characters, insomuch, that these different 
forms have received specific rank. Thus in some 
instances the leaves are narrow, one to two feet long, 
dull purple, blotched with emerald-green, and this 
form has been named Crassifolia punctata ; again, tbe 
leaves from old plants become bifid, or even tri- 
foliate, and in this state it has been named hetero- 
morpha, and trifoliata ; whilst the younger leaves, 
from which the name of Crassifolia is derived, 
are oblong - acute, tapering towards the base, 
\dth. a broad obtuse apex, and are sinuate or 
lobed at the edges. Widely distributed in New 
Zealand. 

A. papyrifera, or Fatsla papyrifera. — This species 
is highly ornamental, and is much used in the sub- 
tropical garden. Its stems, however, are usually 
killed in wiater, but young plants come up from the 
roots in the following spring ; the pith of the plant 
is known as the Chinese rice-paper, and is largely 
used by the natives of the Celestial Empire in the 
formation of artificial flowers, animals, <fcc., in which 
they display exquisite taste. This plant usually 
attains a height of about six feet ; sometimes it 
reaches to ten feet, but very rarely exceeds this size. 
The stem varies from three to six inches in diameter ; 
leaves borne on long foot-stalks, palmate, five to seven- 
lobed, soft in texture, and densely clothed with a pale 
tomentum, as are also the branches and flower-spike. 
It is peculiar to the Island of Formosa. 

A. pentaphylla. — A handsome, but comparatively 
dwarf species, bearing its five-lobed leaves on long 
foot-stalks, which are deep green and serrated at the 
edges. It is admirably adapted for all purposes of 
decoration. Japan. 

A. pentaphylla variegata. — A form of the pre- 
ceding, ha\'ing the margins of the leaves broadly 
margined with yellowish- white, which renders it a 
most attractive object. Japan. 

A. Sieboldii, more correctly Fatsia Japonica, is a 
bold plant, bearing an umbrella-like head of large 
palmate leaves, which are deeply lobed, slightly 
serrate at the edges, very firm in texture, and of a 
bright shining green. Japan. 

A. Sieboldii aicreo reticulata differs from the species 
in the midribs of the lobes being white, and also 
having the whole blade of the leaf closely reti- 
culated with fine yellow lines. Japan. 

A. Sieboldii variegata. — The leaves of this variety 
are profusely blotched with white, which also gene- 
rally forms a continuous marginal band— a very at- 
tractive form. Japan. 

A. Sieboldii aureo variegata resembles the last 
variety in all particulars except colour, which, in- 
stead of white, is here rich yellow. Japan. 



Araucaria. — This is a genus of Conifers, contain- 
ing a few magnificent trees ; one species, A. imbricata 
(the Chili Pine), is hardy. The species here enume- 
rated attain a great size, and although extremely 
handsome in a young state, it is only in large con- 
servatories and winter gardens that their full beauties 
can be developed. The soil best suited to the re- 
quirements of Ai^aucarias is good strong loam ; like 
all Conifers they require thorough di-ainage to keep 
them in health and \-igoui\ 

A. Bidivillii is called Bunya-Bunya in its native 
country, and forms a majestic tree some 150 feet or 
more in height ; the branches are arranged in a very 
symmetrical manner ; leaves flat, ovate-lanceolate, 
hard and sharp-pointed, deep hea%y green in colour ; 
the frmt is a very large cone, with reflexed hooks 
upon each scale. Moreton Bay. 

A. Braziliensis. — A rapid-growing kind, with large, 
flat, pungent, dark green leaves ; it is rather lax in 
gi'owth, but, like all the species, very symmetrical, 
and where space can be afforded it soon forms a very 
ornamental plant. Native of Brazil, where it attains 
a height of 100 feet or more. 

A. Cookii. — Named in honour of the famous navi- 
gator, Capt. Cook, it is sometimes called A. colurnnaris, 
in reference to the beautiful habit it takes on when 
it attains size. It is similar in appearance to A. 
excelsa, but its branches are stouter, and it is 
altogether a more robust tree, and attains a height 
of nearly 100 feet. New Caledonia. 

A. Cunninghamii. — This is a magnificent and very 
s^-m metrical plant, named in commemoration of the 
celebrated botanical traveller, Cunningham ; the broad 
and flat branches are arranged in whorls, and assume 
a very graceful habit, which will be fully understood 
by a reference to the illustration; the leaves are 
bright rich green in colom- ; it attains a height of 60 
to 100 feet. Moreton Bay. 

A. Cunninghamii glauca. — Somewhat more robust 
in habit than the species, and the whole plant is 
beautifully glaucous, instead of bright green, which 
renders it very distinct and attractive. Moreton Bay. 

A. elegans. — For a member of this genus, this is a 
somewhat dwarf plant, and is one of the most hand- 
some in a young state. New Caledonia. 

A. excelsa (the Norfolk Island Pine) is a grand 
and symmetrical tree, as our illustration aptly shows, 
with broad, flat, dark green branches, which have a 
beautiful drooping habit ; it is an invaluable plant 
for decoration in a young state ; it attains a height 
of 100 to 150 feet. Peculiar to Norfolk Island. 

A. excelsa Xapoleon Baumann. — A rare and very 
bold-growing variety of the preceding species, with 
rich dark green leaves and branches. 

A. Rulei. — This species is the most robust grower 
in the whole family, except the hardy Chilian kind 5 



154 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENIE^G. 




AHAUCAIlIA CUKKINUHAIIII. 



THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 



165 



it has only been seen in this country in a compara- 
tively small state, although it attains gigantic pro- 
portions with age ; the branches are very stout, with 
closely-set deep green leaves. New Caledonia. 

A. Goldieana is a plant of recent introduction, 
and very elegant ; it is apparently intermediate in 



THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 

By William Earley. 

GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 
Artificial Waterings do not receive such an 
amount of countenance and support as they deserve. 




ARATJC4RIA Excels A. 



growth between A. eJegans and A, Rutei, whilst it 
retains the beauties of them both. New Caledonia. 
This will probably become equally popular with e^fltn.s 
as a fine foliage plant, few plants affording a more 
pleasing contrast to the usual flowering and other 
plants used for conservatory furnishing, than healthy 
young plants of these species and Cunninghamii. 



This happens owing to a common practice which 
exists of gi\'ing occasional or frequent surface 
sprinklings, which during dry weather periods do 
not support the root-demands, and are, as a natural 
consequence, of indifferent result. Such waterings, 
to be effective, should be copious and abundant for 
the moistening of the soil throughout down to the 



166 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



root-base. TL.ey should be given at least once a 
week during hot dry weather ; and so soon afterwards 
as the soil becomes sufficiently dry, a deep hoeing to 
the soil should follow. The latter process neutralises 
the surface-caking, burning tendency of direct sun- 
shine, and retains the water given within the soil. 
Water exposed to the air is always preferable. 
When, therefore, a pond or minor ponds can be 
formed within the garden, as described elsewhere, 
the advantage will be, as suggested, great. Surface 
mulchings have dual advantages if given previous 
to waterings. Manurial support is by their means 
washed down to the roots during the waterings, 
and there is more perfect retention of the water, 
owing to a further neutralising of evaporation. All 
artificial waterings should be applied during dull 
weather, or else during the early morning or after- 
noon. To water such plants even superficially at 
mid-day under a hot sunshine may have injurious 
effects. 

Summer Culture. — Hoeing and weeding, so in- 
timately associated with watering and growth, though 
such simple operations, are often performed very in- 
judiciously. The whole should consist of one' and 
the same operation, which, if timely and judiciously 
done, is an immense aid to plant-growth. 

All cultivated plants develop wonderfully under 
deep soil-stirring, or hoeing beside and around them. 
Hence it is that during the whole period of growth 
the surface soil should be kept quite free. This is 
easily done by hoeing always so soon as the sur- 
face is dry enough, following heavy rains. Proper 
hoeing is to move the whole of the sm"face soil to a 
depth of two to four inches. Simply scraping over 
hard surfaces, in view of beheading or grinding off 
weeds, is the very extreme of indifferent and bad 
culture. Periodical hoeings, such as suggested, are 
easy and agreeable work ; whereas neglect, whether 
enforced or not, entails a most laborious process, as 
it is inefficient in meeting the need in view. It 
will be seen besides, by this system, weeds will only 
exist in an occasional minute and unobserved form, 
decreasing the chances of seeding, and all the sub- 
sequent progeny of descendants. 

Cropping sj^stematically followed, or in other 
words, rotation and change of crops, is of immense 
advantage, not only because various crops take from 
the soil distinct and separate constituents, but also 
owing to the consideration that different sorts dis- 
integrate and "work" the soil very variously. Some 
are superficial, others deep-rooting, &c. By change, 
therefore, profitable successions are insured. Thus 
Peas follow Celery ; Cabbages, Onions ; Turnips, 
Potatoes, &c. 

Kitchen gardeners are greatly behindhand by 



comparison with market-garden farmers in the pro- 
duction of bulk from given spaces. Moderately thick 
cropping is essential to profitable cropping. It has 
merits beyond the actual margin of bulk obtained, 
for it lessens labour. For instance : hardy Greens, 
Cabbages, Broccoli, Turnips, &c., are planted or 
sown so thickly as to insure, after one good hoe- 
ing, that the leaves meet sufficiently to deter the 
growth of weeds, and thereby maintain more mois- 
ture in the ground beneath than is possible when 
the soil on either side is more or less bare. 

This fact has some bearing in connection with 
all minor succulent vegetables also. However w^ell 
the surface soil be hoed, &c., dm-ing continuous 
arid periods, the action of the sun is such as to 
unduly dry the soil in the vicinity of the roots. 
Where crops are just so closely grown together as to 
about meet, all this is avoided, and the plant's shade 
is all-powerful: Lettuces, Endive, &c., along with 
the above being plants in point. Too thick planting 
and seedling-growdng is equally objectionable, if not 
more so, and is a too general error. It is impos- 
sible for any individual plant to attain to a good 
size, when two or three young seedling or other 
plants are crowded together upon such space as is 
capable of maintaining the single plant only. These 
remarks apply to all kinds, but especially to Spinach, 
Turnips, Radishes, and all plants which require space 
to show distinct individuality before actual merit is 
possible. The thinning out of all seedling plants is 
therefore a matter of much importance, and it is 
essential that this be done at the earliest moment 
possible after the young plants assume the foui'th 
or fifth leaf. The practice of hoeing out sui-plus 
seedling plants is also an important and a useful 
one. By loosening the soil around such as are 
chosen to remain, more inducement is given for 
the primary roots to travel downwards, whilst other 
young roots are also induced to push from around 
the base of the plant, owing to the latent moisture 
thereby retained, and the more favourable state of the 
soil for root-progress. 

The practice of gi'owing certain crops, such as 
Onions, Carrots, &c., in beds should be discontinued. 
This practice increases labour without compensatory 
returns. Drill-rows, across the quarters or borders, 
are to be preferred. By their use, subsequent hoeing 
can be more rapidly done, weeds thereby destroyed, 
and in due course the needful thinning out of all 
where too thick can also be accomplished. 

Seasonable Operations should be undertaken 
to date as exactly as possible, without which it is im- 
possible for perfect order to reign and all crops in 
season to be secured. Whatever the weather be this 
day, or this month, the divisions of the year alter 



THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 



167 



not, really. Hence, if owing to the weather, &c., 
important operations are deferred, many important 
results anticipated at the proper time will be deferred 
also, if not entirely nil. 

Transplanting Seedling Plants is an impor- 
tant operation, upon the proper performance of which 
much depends. More good crops of vegetables are 
destroyed in the seed-pans and seed-beds than owing 
to any indifferent system of after-culture. Such 
tender young seedlings, overcrowded for any length 
of time together, and overdrawn, are, to say the 
least, so enervated that they cannot possibly re- 
assume such a degree of initial vigour as to 
ultimately grow into the most meritorious of their 
kind. " Pricking out " such tender 
sucklings, or transplanting them 
thickly together in an early stage, 
so as to insure strength to each, 
prior to another and sometimes a 
third and final transplanting, is 
in practice greatly neglected. Thus 
are observed seed-pans with Celery, 
&c., placed aside for a convenient 
time for such work, whilst the first 
transplanting should have taken 
place, and progress in growth be re- 
ported. Thus the delay limits future 
growth, and often is the cause of 
that " bolting," or running to heart, 
or " seed," so often complained of. 
Nature has a very wonderful power 
in the revival of her checked and 
stem-hardened seedlings ; not suffi- 
cient, however, to reassure full 
vigour. With a loss of time, a limit of season takes 
place, which cannot be reimbursed. It will appear, 
therefore, an act of folly to sow seeds so early, and to 
subsequently permit them to suffer in the infant and 
far most delicate state of existence. 

Doing Work in Season has an important bear- 
ing on the whole ultimate success. Thus all seedling 
plants should not only be transplanted as quickly as 
possible after the attainment of the necessary size, 
and the knowledge that they cannot make further 
advance within the limits of seed-pan or seed-bed, 
but, as regards such as are transplanted into open 
borders, a showery season should always if possible 
be selected for the operation. When this is not prac- 
ticable the later part of the day should be chosen, 
and superficial waterings, with aid from temporary 
shadings, applied. None of these things should be 
left to chance, in the belief that the examples treated 
will succeed somehow. These remarks apply par- 
ticularly to Celery, Lettuce, Cauliflower, and similar 




subjects, which depend upon an uninterrupted 
growth from the seed-leaf onward, to insure the full 
measure of success. Similarly, hoeing done just 
when the ground is changing from moist to dry is 
far more efficient and more easily done. Waterings 
undertaken before the soil is parched have, with half 
quantities, double merit and assistance to all roots. 
In a word, to succeed thoroughly throughout this de- 
partment, a large amount of foresight must constantly 
comm^and the position and the labour. 

Exhausted Crops.— Do not permit these to re- 
main on the ground beyond such time as they are in 
profitable use. Whether they consist of stalks of the 
Brassica tribe, haulms, vines, or " running " and seedy 
Spinach, Lettuce, &c., they prove not 
only unsightly, but tend to greatly 
impoverish the soil. In the case of 
^ all such, wherever permitted to re- 
main beyond their wonted time, it is 
easy to determine that labour is either 
excessively handicapped, or the gar- 
dener is indifferent as to the futiu-e. 



Brussels 



CULTURE OF VEGETABLES. 

Brussels Sprouts, or Brus- 
sels Borecole {Brassica oleracea, 
var. sabauda). French, Chou de 
Bruxellcs ; German, Kopfkohl Grilner. 
■ — The vegetable so popularly named 
" Brussels Sprouts," from the fact 
that it was originally introduced 
Sprouts. from the neighbourhood of Brussels, 

has ever proved one of the most 
reliable and useful for winter uses. It is most con- 
stant in form, and hardy. Its efficient culture is 
very simple. 

Sow seeds, as recommended for Broccoli, during 
the months of March and April. Where convenience 
exists, it will repay to sow chem somewhat earlier 
in boxes, or broadcast within frames. The young 
seedling plants cannot be prepared and permanently 
planted too early, whatever system be followed. So 
soon as large enough, plant them out, from two to 
three feet apart, in any generous soil, which has 
been prepared also as for Broccoli. Though two- 
feet distances will be ample as regards the last-sown 
and late young seedling plants, it is economy in the 
end to give abundant room to the early ones, with- 
out which the plants cannot grow to a large size, 
and a good crop of fine sprouts cannot possibly be 
secured. Care must be taken not to plant the young 
plants too deeply ; though they are known to produce 
roots around the buried stalks when they are buried, 
the growth is retarded rather than improved ulti- 



168 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



mately. Mould the rows up when the plants com- 
mence growing freely, and continue to hoe amongst 
them as frequently as needful to keep the surface of 
the soil somewhat free. During arid periods, about 
midsummer, it is very advantageous to give artificial 
aid occasionally in the form of manurial waterings. 
These, if given at aU, should he copious, and when 
once commenced should he continued weekly duiing 
the continued prevalence of dry weather. 

Early and fine-grown plantations often commence 
to shed their lower leaves towards autumn. It is a 
good practice, when this is observed, to go carefully 
through the plantation and remove such as will 
part freely from the stems, clearing them right away. 
By this means air and the remaining influences of 
autumn sunshine 
will penetrate more 
f reel)'' and rip en them 
better, hastening the 
production of the 
sprouts from above 
the axi] 5 of past and 
present leaves. 

The practice some- 
times followed of 
removing the heads 
off the entire plants 
at the approach of 
winter, under the 
fancy that better 
sprouts are pro- 
duced, is a fallacious 
one. Doing so causes 
injury to the crowns, 
limits the , succes- 
sional supply, and hurries such sprouts as do exist 
to the flowering stage unduly. 

The produce of Continental seeds is as merito- 
rious as any; English seeds from selected growths 
being good when procurable. For large sprouts the 
Rosebery may be grown with advantage. Approved 
varieties comprise — Aigburth, Rosebery, and the 
Wroxton. 

Borecole, or Kale (Brassica oJeracea). French, 
Chou vert; German, Blatter Kohl; Spanish, Bre- 
ton. — Borecoles have generally of late years been 
called Kales. They consist of curled-leaved varieties 
of the Cabbage tribe, not given to heart in any 
degree, and stand midway between the single- 
hearted Cabbage and the multiple-hearting Brussels 
Sprouts. They are esteemed as tender vegetables, 
possessing the merit of great hardihood, and are 
used mostly in the early spring months, when 
" greens " generally are scarce. Their culture is 
simple, and similar to that of preceding crops, ex- 



cepting that they may be planted more thickly 
together, and that they grow freely in all kinds 
of t^oil. 

Dwarf curled varieties, called both Scotch, and 
German Buda, and an intermediate form named 
" Cottager's Kale," from which spring some singular 
variegated-leaved forms, are all more or less grown 
and appreciated. The young crown shoots and 
leaves are first used, and then the side-shoots which 
succeed them. 

The best varieties comprise — Asparagus, Cottager's 
Kale or Buda, Dwarf Green Curled, and Variegated, 
which is used for garnishing purposes. One variety 
of the latter, Melville's Garnishing, so far exceeds 
most others in the richness and variety of its vivid 

colouring, that it is 
pften raised in con- 
siderable quantities 
late in the autumn, 
for planting out in 
winter gardens and 
shrubberies for its 
decorative effect. 
Viewed from a dis- 
tance no plants can 
compete with them 
in colour throughout 
the winter and early 
spring. Some even 
appreciate them so 
highly as to use the 
richly - coloured 
leaves for table and 
other decorative 
purposes, and there 
really are occasions when they look exceedingly 
appropriate. 

The Asparagus Kale, and another variety much 
prized by some, the Couve Tronchuda— more of a 
Cabbage than a Kale — differ widely from others, 
and while among the hardiest and sweetest Kales for 
winter and spring use, are often either taken up and 
placed in Mushroom-houses, or other warm places in 
the dark, and fresh growth forced, which can hardly 
be distinguished from Sea-kale. Or the plants may 
have pots placed over their crowns where they 
stand, and a few warm leaves or a little manure 
built up round them to force the fresh growth. 

Cabbage {Brassica oleracea^^ox.capitatd). French, 
Cabus, or Choti. pomme ; G-evman, Xopf/io hi ; Italian, 
Cavolo ; Spanish, Repollo. — The popular and abun- 
dantly cultivated Cabbage is a biennial plant, in- 
habiting in its normal form the sea- shores of both 
England and Scotland. Known originally, doubt- 
less, as " Colewort," it has been gradually improved 




Borecole, Curled "Wls-tee. 



THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 



169 



until the present compact and solid-headed varieties 
have been secured. 

It -will succeed in almost any kind of soil prepared 
and manured by the usual process of digging, &c., 
having a preference for light stony soils. Where 
these are available, however, it is well to have the 
needful space dug over a few. months before planting. 
All heavy tenacious soils may be planted as soon as 
prepared. The main and most appreciated crop is 
that of spring and early summer, and is grown as 
follows : — Sow seeds of an approved variety from 
late in the month of July until August 11. The 
earlier date is a proper one for the southern parts of 
the . island, later ones being more suited for the 
north, owing to the fact that if the seeds are sown 
too early the plants 
become so large 

forward") as to 
be incapable of 
withstanding winter 
severities. The seeds 
are sown broadcast 
upon a finely-pre- 
pared border, and 
the plants are drawn 
so soon as the ear- 
liest possess three or 
four leaves, and 
transplanted into 
beds very thickly, 
so as to forward 
their growth and 
give room for suc- 
ceeding seedlings to 
attain more robust- 
ness in the seed-bed. 

Having prepared the permanent winter beds, it is 
■well to plant out a certain number during each of 
the two months of October and November. Plant 
them in rows, thirteen to fifteen inches between rows, 
and nine to eleven inches from plant to plant in 
the rows. Towards the south and around LoTidon, 
place the roots of the plants as shallow as possible, 
with certainty of their being well covered with soil ; 
and the more north the deeper let them be, to protect 
the stem from severe winters. 

As soon as such plants take hold of the ground 
and commence to grow, mould them up deeply, 
drawing half the soil between the rows up to 
each row, and on both sides. When the most 
severe weather of winter is past, look carefully 
through the plantation, making good any plants 
lost ; draw a little fresh soil up to them, and well hoe 
the space between each plant. This crop will come 
in during the months of April, May, and June. 
Each head must be cut immediately it is ready for 




Curled Victoria Savot. 



use, removing at the same time some of the old 
leaves remaining attached to the stalk. A goodly 
crop of sprouts will ultimately form upon_ such, 
which will assure a good supply through a greater 
portion of the next winter. The only attention 
needed is to hoe well between the plants, to keep 
the weeds down. 

Excellent varieties are Early Dwarf York, Enfield 
Market, Early Rainham, Defiance, Little Pixie, 
Hill's Dwarf, and Wheeler's Cocoanut. Couve 
Tronchuda, the " Sea-kale Cabbage," and Chou de 
Burghley (Cabbage Broccoli) are interesting addi- 
tions to large collections. 

Cabbage-Coleworts, known in market gardens 
as " Hardy Greens," 
are grown to meet 
the demand at such 
times as Cabbages 
proper do not exist ; 
and as an aid, a few 
Cabbages — Early 
York — are some- 
times cultivated in 
gardens. Seeds of 
the common Cole- 
worts, or that named 
Rosette, are sown 
for these crops dur- 
ing the months of 
March, May, •and 
July. The seedlings 
are forwarded in the 
same way as those 
of the larger Cab- 
bage, and are trans- 
planted into rows one and a half to two feet apart, 
and about four inches apart in the rows ; so thick, in 
fact, as to admit of every other one being drawn for 
immediate use when the crop in the rows becomes at 
all thick, which leaves room for the remainder to 
grow and heart properly. So planted, a hoeing and 
one slight earthing up is all the crop requires. It 
so quickly covers the whole ground as to stop the 
growth of seedling weeds. By transplanting the 
young plants produced from the three seed-sowings 
above, an ample supply of Greens in the young state 
and minute white-hearted Cabbages is secured, ob- 
viating the necessity of retaining the old Cabbage- 
stalks referred to above ; and it is a far neater 
mode of procedure. 

Cabbage, Red, or "Pickling," from which the 
" Sour Krout " of the Germans is made, is a variety 
of the white-hearting Cabbage, and requires similar 
treatment. For the future year, sow seeds in the 



170 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GAEDEXING. 



month of August, thin the seedling plants out some- 
what, permit them to remain in the seed-bei until 
the month of March, and transplant in rows. 

Sow seeds also in the month of March, and trans- 
plant into deep, stiff ground, as early as.,. the plants 
become large enough so to do. 

The produce is always more crisp and appreciated 
after it has undergone frosts ; though, as this often 
spoils appearance, they are despatched to the London 
markets before they are likely to experience any. 
Dwarf, highly-coloured selections exist, and should 
be sought .for, in seed 
form or as young plants. 

Cabbage, Savoy 

{Brassica, var. Sabauda 
bullata). French, Cliou 
pomme frise. — This, the 
Blistered-leaved " Cab- 
bage, from which is sup- 
posed to have originated 
the Brussels Sprouts, 
possessing as both do a 
kindred flavour, is essen- 
tially a winter vegetable. 
Formerly it was grown 
in large form, to which 
was given the name of 
Drumhead, Now, how- 
ever, dwarfer selections 
gain* precedence. It is 
noteworthy, as one of an 
extensive family, that to 
grow it well, very gene- 
rous treatment must be 
given and maintained ; 
without which it is likely 
to prove a poor crop, and 
more subject to finger- 
and-toe, or club-root, and 

the attacks of aphis pests, mildew, &c., to which 
the whole are more or less liable. Seeds should 
be sown during the months of April and May, 
not too thickly, upon well-enriched soil. The site 
whereon they are to be planted permanently must 
be open, and exposed to the full air and sun. 
Unless the soil be deep and in excellent heart, trench- 
ing to a depth as nearly approaching four feet as 
possible is desirable, adding in the process manure 
with liberality. 

Transplant the seedling plants, as soon as large 
enough, during showery dull weather, watering 
them if necessary. The earliest plants require a 
space of two feet to two and a half apart all ways, 
when the larger type is grown, one foot and 
three-quarters being enough for the dwarfer kinds. 




Cabdoon (Tours 



For early autumn those which approach the green 
form are best, solid-hearting white next ; the 
Drumhead type are best for midwinter. These 
latter are not so good, however, until they have 
been subjected to frost. Deep hoeing and mould- 
ing up is beneficial, and this should be done two 
or three times during the earlier stages of summer 
growth. 

The most popular varieties of this Cabbage are 
Drumhead, Dwarf Green (curled). Universal, Early 
Dwarf Ulm, and Boemenihal, or Yellow. 

Cardoon, or Char- 
doon {Cynara Cardun- 
culus). French, Cardon ; 
German, Kardon ; Span- 
ish, Cardo Eortense. — ^A 
perennial plant intro- 
duced from Candia, not 
unlike the Globe Arti- 
choke in appearance, the 
midrib of the leaf, &c., 
being used for stewing, 
salads, and soups. Though 
of considerable repute on 
the Continent, it is not 
often cultivated in this 
country. A deep sandy 
soil, moderately manured, 
suits it best. Sow seeds 
on a warm border about 
the middle of April. So 
soon as the plants are 
well above ground, thin 
them out to about four 
inches apart. Prepare 
the permanent space for 
them either so as to plant 
them singly four feet 
apart, or in rows similar 
to Celery. Make a trench 
for the latter, and lower the soil where each plant is 
to go ; in connection with the former method choose 
a rainy period during which to transplant them, 
taking each up carefully so as not to injure the 
roots, and reduce the leaf surface by cutting off a 
portion of the point evenly. Well water them in 
after planting. Between the months of August and 
October inclusive, the plants will have grown 
greatly, especially if aided by occasional copious 
waterings, when hay-bands should be used to tie the 
whole of the leaves up tightly together, similar to 
Celery when blanched. Then earth them up all 
around deeply and well, excluding the air from 
entering amongst the leaves at the apices, adding 
more soil as needed, whilst active growth con- 
tinues. 



THE KITCHEX GAEDEX, 



171 



Carrot [Laucus carota). Frencli, Carotte ; Ger- 
man, Aiohre ; Spanish, Zanahorla ; Italian, Carota. — 
As a native perennial plant, the Carrot is more hardy 
than is generally surmised, for which reason crops 
may Le secured earlier each summer than is cus- 
tomary. It stands apart, however, in regard to the 
kind of soil which is alone suitable to it, as it will 
succeed thoroughly in a deep, very free, sandy loam 
only. For which reason certain districts in Bed- 
fordshire and elsewhere have become noted for its 
culture. 

In view of this the freest, most sandy portion of 
vegetable groimds should be chosen wherein the 
annual crop is to be grown. It should also be one 
freely exposed to air and sunshine. Where gardens 
are naturally damp, and with adhesive tenacious soil, 
those who appreciate the crop will do well to add 
light, sandy materials as much as possible thereto 
on every favourable opportunity. 

In the case of stiff soils, autumn trenching, or 
turning up, is essential. Manure will always be best 
placed six or eight inches deep, and it should consist 
of such as is moderately decomposed. 

The earliest sowings, which should consist of the 
Short Horn type, of which excellent varieties of 
French origin exist, may always be made during 
a mild period in the month of February, wherever a 
warm sunny border exists. These are to be followed 
by a general sowing, towards the end of the month 
of March, or verj^ early in April. Well fork over 
the previously dug and worked ground, breaking up 
all lumps ; rake finely and level. Make shallow 
drill-rows fifteen inches apart, sowing the seeds 
thinly therein. To insure this it is desirable to mix 
a little dry sand or soil with them previously. 
Lightly draw the rake across the rows to cover the 
seeds in, drawing off at the same time all stones, 
&c., which lie upon the surface. 

So soon as the young plants are well up and dis- 
cernible, hoe carefully up and down the rows 
between them. AVhen large enough thin the young- 
plants out to six or eight inches apart in the rows. 

It is excellent practice to sow a few rows of the 
Short Horn variety besides the main crop, at the same 
time. The drill-rows need not be more than ten 
inches apart, and the young crop may be used con- 
tinuously after it has become large enough, in process 
of thinning, until the time arrives when such as 
remain can be " drawn," and stored away with the 
others. 

The sorts which are most esteemed at this date 
are Intermediate and Long Red. As young crops 
are always greatly appreciated, other sowings of 
Short Horn may also be made about August 1st and 
October 1st for drawing so soon as large enough. At 
the approach of winter the crop is carefuUy dug up, 



each root having its crown neatly cut off, and tho 
custom is to store them neatly in a stack, heads out- 
ward, filling in the spaces between, and covering all 
over, with sand, ifcc. A better plan, in view of keep- 
ing them fresh and succulent, is to clamp them out 
of doors in a similar manner to that which is fol- 
lowed with Potatoes. 

Short Horn varieties are very easily forced in 
frames, and are especially early, sweet, and edible 
when grown over a heap of fermenting material, 
upon which a nice depth of free soil has been placed, 
covered over with a frame, and attended to in the 
matter of air-giving, watering, &:c. As the crop and 
season advance, the lights may be entirely removed 
for use elsewhere. 

The best varieties are Early Xantes and French 
Forcing (Short Horn), Button's New Intermediate, 
James's Intermediate Scarlet, and Long Eed Sui'rey, 
for main crops. 

Cauliflower [Brassica oleracea, var. botrytis). 
French, Choujieiir ; German, BlumenTihol ; Italian, 
Cavoli fiori ; Spanish, Colifior. — Where the several 
members of the Brassica family pre\'iously referred 
to will succeed, there also will the Cauliflower grow ; 
though, owing to its superior merits, it is deserving 
of far more attention, and amply repays every ad- 
ditional outlay of labour and manure expended upon 
it. A deep sandy loam, highly enriched with 
manure, gives the best possible results. It is 
treated both as a biennial and annual. 

Seeds are sown during the first and third weeks in 
August, and the young seedling plants resulting 
therefrom grown on in the seed-bed if, owing to dry 
weather, they have not made any great advance ; or 
transplanted singly into nursery beds, when a damp 
growing period ensues, in view of cheeking too 
great a growth, until the approach of winter, when 
they are transplanted thence into cold frames, having 
the bed of soil made up to within six or nine inches 
of the glass ; or into hand and bell-glasses, from five 
to eight plants under each ; where, aided by abundant 
air-giving during all mild periods, they are kept 
hardy and strong, in ^iew of withstanding the 
severest frosts, and retaining robustness for early 
spring growth and flowering. Dui-ing the month of 
April subsequently the plants in the bell-glasses are 
thinned out, and, along with those wintered in the 
cold frame, are planted out on to an eligible piece of 
ground, there also to grow and bloom. Meantime, 
from three to five plants are selected as the strongest 
to remain under the hand-glasses, receiving air as 
needful and manure-water occasionally. These 
head in for use towards the end of May, and usefully 
precede those planted out. The variety used for 
this purpose is one long known as Early London. 



172 



CASSELL'S POPULAR aARDENING. 



Other, or summer, varieties are numerous, the 
seeds of which are sown during the months of April 
and May to secure successional crops, the seedlings 
from which should be planted out upon very rich, 
somewhat stiffer or damper soil, being mulched 
around and watered as the exigencies of an arid 
summer may demand. These head in towards the 
middle and end of summer. 

A very valuable variety, named Veitch's Autumn 
Giant, should succeed the last-named. Sow seeds 
of this variety also during the month of April. 
Grow the plants on in soil, (fee, similar to that re- 
commended also for the last, earthing the young 
plants up deeply as they grow. The huge heads 
resulting fill in the gap between early autumn and 
the first frosts of real winter. By pulling up the 
plants having heads within at the approach of frost, 
and hanging them up by the root in a cool dark 
shed or cellar, they last some time in a state fit for 
use. Many improvised methods are practised in 
view of prolonging or extending the usefulness of 
this invaluable crop, which, in connection with 
Broccoli, gives a supply, more or less, the whole year 
through. Our directions are such as to leave a 
margin for other methods of supply, though for the 
main crops the suggestions given are indispensable. 

Excellent varieties are Early London and Dwarf 
Erfurt for early spring use ; Eclipse, Asiatic Large, 
Snowball, and Walcheren for summer and autumn 
uses. 



THE YESTE AND ITS FEUIT. 

By William Colemait. 



VINE BORBEES. 

IN the formation of vine borders it is usual to 
allow the roots a body of compost equal in 
width to that of the house. A house fifteen feet in 
width will require six to eight feet inside, and about 
the sam-e breadth outside, by the time the vines 
come into full bearing ; but instead of making all at 
once, it is best to form half the inside border the first 
year, add three feet outside the second year, and so 
on, adding fresh compost from time to time as the 
roots require more soil. The depth may vary from 
two feet to two feet six inches, and there should be 
not less than from twelve to twenty-four inches of 
drainage, to carry off the water and keep the border 
dry, warm, and well aerated. It will thus be seen 
— the surface-line of the border having been decided 
upon — that a depth of four feet below the front sill 
will be needed to admit of a layer of concrete and 
eighteen inches of broken brick, stone, or lime rub- 
ble for the soil to rest upon. In cold, low-lying 
gardens it will not be advisable to strike the surface- 



line on the ground-level, but to raise the founda- 
tions of the house and economise labour by raising 
the borders in like proportion. 

In selecting the position for a set of vineries, it 
may be assumed that the situation, while being 
sheltered, is sufficiently high to admit of natural or 
easy drainage, as it is generally conceded that vines 
do not succeed well where the subsoil is cold, wet, 
and liable to be inundated, either from above or 
below, with fiood or spring water. If every grape- 
grower could make his own choice, he would select 
a warm sunny slope, where natural drainage would 
carry off all surplus water, and ground springs 
would not trouble him. But as many old gardens 
do not offer these advantages, the first thing to be 
considered is a perfect system of drainage, con- 
siderably lower than the front of the external 
border, a good sound bottom of concrete, some three 
inches in thickness, and clean drainage, which may 
vary from twelve to twenty-four inches, according 
to the position of the garden and the nature of the 
subsoil. 

Drainage. — As it is well known that an effi- 
ciently drained border is much drier and warmer 
than one that is water-logged and impervious to an 
under-current of air, a good barrel-drain should run 
along the front of the excavation, for the reception 
of the water as it passes off the concrete placed over 
the subsoil. The concrete should have a gentle slope 
outwards, as is shown in the sections, and it should 
be laid down some days in advance of the drainage, 
to get thoroughly dry and hard before it is excluded 
from the external air. 

Having at hand a supply of broken brickbats or 
sandstone — two materials which will be found 
warmer than limestone, as they absorb while the 
latter condenses moisture — wheel them in as soon as 
the concrete is hard, and form the foundation for 
the first moiety of the border, by placing the 
roughest pieces at the bottom and the finest on the 
surface. As success or failure very often depends 
upon the way in which the border is drained, no 
pains should be spared in finishing off the sur- 
face, by carefully breaking and levelling the last 
layer of rubble, and filling up all the interstices 
on the top surface, otherwise the soil will in 
course of time get into the drainage, roots will 
follow, and a gross growth of wood and foliage, a 
disinclination to go to rest, and a tendency to 
shanking, will indicate that this part of the work, 
no small item, will soon have to be gone over 
again. 

Soil, or Compost. — Notwithstanding th-e fact 
that the vine is found growing, if not flourishing, in 



THE VINE AND ITS FRUIT. 



173 



almost every kind of soil, from strong- clay to sandy 
loam, in a thin stratum of light soil on the oolite or 
gravel, and deep alluvial deposits in our river valleys, 
it does not follow that all alike supply the materials 
necessary to its continuous fruit-producing power 
and longevity. If the question were put to twenty 
successful grape-growers, all would admit that good 
drainage is of the first importance, and all would 
agree that fresh virgin loam, which may include any 
kind of old turf from the side of a road to a stiff 
calcareous sheep-pasture, is necessary for the forma- 
tion of the staple of the horder. Beyond this, it is 
probable that every man would diverge, more or less, 
from the line which is to lead to the production of 
first-rate grapes. But with the numerous facts now 
before us there can be but little doubt that some 
fresh materials, pervious to the passage of solar heat, 
air, and water, be they calcareous or sandy, will 
form a suitable compost for a free-living plant like 
the Yine. Often in the neighbourhood of towns, 
where new turf cannot be obtained, many people 
make a virtue of necessity, b}' using old garden soil, 
often hea^^.ly charged with organic matter, but quite 
destitute of fibre. This is made up and corrected 
with short horse -manure, chopped straw, road- 
scrapings, bone-dust, and chaiTed wood and garden 
refuse, or 'a liberal admixture of old lime rubble. 
In a compost of this kind grapes generally colour 
and finish weU, and where the outside borders are 
weU mulched and watered in dry weather they do not 
often shank ; but, as may be supposed, the vines do 
not last so long as they would do in the open coun- 
try, where the grower has the run of an old sheep- 
pasture, or sloping hill. 

Having shown that the vine is by no means fasti- 
dious, provided it can have a regular suppl}^ of fresh 
food, little and often, and that some kinds are better 
than others, the reader will now wish to be made 
acquainted with the details of the management of 
the materials, and the preparation of the compost. 
This should consist of two-thirds of good friable 
turfy loam, the fibre of which will not readily decay, 
and which wiU. at all times be per^'ious to the free 
passage of water, of which the \'ine requires copious 
supplies. But lest this should in course of time 
become close, heavy, and inert, a liberal admixture 
of the remaining third should consist of lime rubble, 
charcoal, and burnt earth, with twelve per cent, of 
crushed half -inch bones added to insure a vigorous, 
short- jointed growth. If wire-worm is present, add 
a little soot. Chop the turf into rough squares with 
spades, mix well, and thi'ow the compost into a heap 
to ferment, when it will be ready for use. No 
animal manure need be added, as young ^dnes always 
grow freely enough in almost any fresh well-drained 
soil ; but it may be used as a mulching to keep the 



roots near the surface, and so prevent them from 
striking downwards into the moist drainage, which is 
too often the first step towards shanking. 

As success or failm^e very often depends upon the 
condition and preparation of the compost, it may be 
well to observe that the turf, be it rich or poor, 
should always be used freshly cut fi-om the pastui-e. 
and on no account should it be cut or handled when 
in a wet condition. It is much better to defer ad 
border operations than to persevere with the work 
when the elements are unpropitious. 

Although the vine may be planted in an internal 
border at almost any season of the year, the best 
time for the operation is early spring ; and as a little 
bottom heat is a powerful agent, it is important that 
the turf be newly cut and chopped some time before 
the vines are ready, when fermentation will set in 
and most likely raise the whole mass to a temperature 
of 90'^. Before the compost is wheeled in, thin sods 
of turf, grass-side downwards, must be laid over the 
drainage, and similar sods may be used for building 
up the retaining walls of the border as the work 
proceeds. When the border is finished, the external 
turf wall, which will be exposed to the full force of 
the sun and drying winds, should be protected by 
means of thatch, or a lining of oak-leaves. 

Exceptional Borders. — Hungry Soils. — 

As grapes are now grown m almost every parish in 
the ITnited Kingdom, it is hardly necessary to re- 
mind the reader that there are many places, notably 
on the sandstones, the granite, or the oolite, so 
completely favourable to the free passage of water, 
as to render the precautions which have been laid 
down for unfavourable neighbourhoods unnecessary. 
On the gravel and sand many people think drainage 
or concrete qrdte superfluous ; but this is a mistake, 
as all hot, himgry substances beneath a border, do 
jDOsitive harm to the vines when the roots get deeply 
imbedded in them. It is, therefore, well to guard 
against all hidden dangers at the outset, by laying 
thin layers of concrete and di-ainage, and making the 
borders a little deeper, in preference to having to 
encounter the expense and annoyance of doing im- 
perfect work a second time over. 

Cold Soils Subject to Flooding. — So likewise 
in cold, calcareous valleys, subject to flooding, the 
preceding directions may not be sufficient to meet 
isolated cases. In many places, where destructive 
floods pour down from the surrounding hills, or back- 
water from tidal rivers is a possibility, it is prudent 
to raise the borders above the ground-line, by means 
of two feet or more of drainage, and confine the roots 
to narrow, shallow borders, composed of extra-porous 
materials. In such situations, the concrete should 



174 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXIXa. 



have a sharp slope to the front, and six-inch di-ain- 
pipes should be placed upon it in rows, three feet 
apart, running from the interior to the front, before 
the drainage is introduced. 

Heated Borders. — Some years ago, heated 
borders were brought under the notice of grape- 
growers, and much discussion followed. But it is 
questionable if any one, save the raisers of young 
"S'ines for sale, derived any benefit from the system. 
The usual mode of heating is to place hot-water 
pipes, either in tanks or rubble, and form the 
borders over them in precisely the same way as is 
usually adopted for Pines. ^Tien the pipes are 
placed in tanks, the soil is liable to become soui' and 
pasty and unfavourable to healthy root-action. In 
rubble, the bottom of the border is apt to become too 
dry ; the roots suffer from the opposite extreme ; red 
spider follows, and the expense of putting in the pipes 
ends in disappointment and failui-e. Before the system 
of bottling late grapes came into general use, some kind 
of bottom heat was considered necessary for starting 
early houses in Xovember ; but with grape-rooms, in 
which the fruit can be kept fresh and plimip until 
May, the system, which was little better than a trap 
for the unwary, has now passed away In the few 
places where early forcing is still practised, aerated 
borders are much more satisfactory, as war-:nth, 
ammonia, and moistui'e can be forced into the 
drainage in sufiicient quantity to excite the roots 
in the compost immediately above it. As the borders 
for early work should always be internal, a series of 
drain-pipes, running quite through the drainage from 
back to front, and opening into areas wide enough for 
the reception of fermenting material, consisting of 
horse-litter and leaves, will do good ser^'ice, as soon 
as the buds on the Aines begin to swell. If applied 
earlier, the new roots are formed out of the stored- 
up sap, which should force the buds into actiA-ity. 
Independently of the benefit which may be derived 
from the warmth and ammonia, so complete a 
system of root-ventilation is always advantageous, 
particularly in low, cold, damp situations. 

Water. — "SVith all the other elements entirely 
under his control, the grape-grower would not be 
able to move one single step forward without an 
abundant supply of water ; and yet how often do we 
see the greater part of the rainfall running away 
into the drains, or the provision for its retention so 
sparingly made, as to leave the puny tanks in a jet 
of houses quite empty a few days after the rain 
ceases to fall 1 As special attention will be drawn to 
this important element in the papers upon Pines, it 
is not necessary to do more than refer the reader to 
those pages, and to say that the supply in the vinery is 



quite as imperative as it is in the pinery. Indeed, 
it is not an exaggerated assertion to say more vines 
are ruined through the want of water than from 
any other cause. Independently of the requirements 
of the roots, the daily syringing and damping must 
be carried out on a liberal scale; and as there is 
nothing to equal good rain-water, copious tanks 
should be provided for its preservation, if possible in 
elevated positions, for supplying minor tanks in the 
houses, and for use with the hose. Although many 
growers never think of giving artificial wa' erings to 
external borders, there can be no doubt that an 
occasional deluge, dm-ing the growing season, would 
greatly benefit the vines, at times when the strain 
upon them is more than the roots can sustain. But 
it is to internal borders that the greatest quantity 
should be given, not in driblets, but in quantities 
that wiU amount to something like a rainfall of 
thii'ty-six inches in the course of the growing 
season. 

As no rule can be laid down for watering an 
internal border, the amateur will do well to saturate 
every particle of the soil before the vines are started, 
and to repeat the operation at short intervals from 
the time the leaves unfold until the fruit is nearly 
ripe. After that stage is reached less water will be 
needed ; but the borders shovdd never be allowed 
to become diy. After the last heavy watering, the 
surface of the border should be well mulched to 
keep in moisture until after the fruit is cut. 

Covering Vine Borders. — Of aU the opera- 
tions in grape-culture, the covering of vine borders 
has been more fi'equently discussed and abused than 
all others put together ; some maintaining that it is 
positively injurious, while others as strongly assert 
that it is absolutely necessary. "With powerful argu- 
ments for and against it fresh in their memory, the 
majority of good gi-ape-growers, very wisely guided 
by their own experience, have arrived at the conclu- 
sion that it is in the abuse, and not in the use, of fer- 
menting material that many have gone wrong. "Uliere 
A-ines haA-ing the run of internal and external borders 
are expected to produce ripe gi'apes in May, a good 
covering of fermenting oak-leaves, at all times pre- 
ferable to manure, is undoubtedly of great service 
This win not only protect the surface roots from the 
chilling effects of cold, rain, and snow through the 
dead months of December and January, but will also 
keep up a degree of warmth when the A-ines requii-e 
all the assistance which nature supplies to them in 
A-ine-gi'owing countries, where the heat of the soil 
never descends below temperate. But instead of ap- 
plying the fermenting leaves at the time the house 
is closed, many prefer covering with bracken early in 
the autumn, to keep in latent heat, and putting on the 



TIIE VINE AND ITS FEUIT. 



175 



leaves when the buds are fairly on the move. If 
applied earlier the system is abused, as new roots are 
formed out of the stored-up sap contained in the 
vines, and the latter break weakly in consequence. 
Mid-season houses, which ripen grapes in June and 
July, may also have a good covering of dry leaves to 
prevent loss of waimth ; but fermentation is not ne- 
cessary, as the strain does not fall on the vines until 
awakening spring sets the roots in motion. When 
any description of covering is applied to early 
borders, great care should be observed in its re- 
moval, as this is the operation which so frequently 
brings covering into disrepute. 

If carefully examined, say in June, when the 
grapes are ripe, the surface of a good border will 
present the appearance of a sheet of tender rootlets, 
to which sudden exposure is death. The covering 
should, therefore, be removed piecemeal, four to 
six inches being left as a mulching and protec- 
tion until the wood is ripe in September, when 
every particle must be removed down to the solid 
staple of the border, preparatory to the autumnal 
dressing of bone-dust and a thin layer of new loam. 

A steady smiace warmth being highly important, 
a covering of some description, such as wooden 
shutters, glass Hghts, or tai^aulin, should be placed 
over, but not touching the fermenting material, to 
protect it from rain and snow. 

Late houses may be thrown open as soon as the 
grapes are bottled in December, when full exposure of 
internal and external borders to the elements will do 
more good than covering ; b^t they should be well 
mulched with rotten manure when they are started in 
the spring. 

Renovating Vine Borders.— In nearly aU 
good grape-growing gardens, where fruit of the 
finest quality is produced from year to year, the 
cultivator can never say his work is finished. One 
or other of his vineries, which have been producing 
full crops, early or late, over a long series of good 
and bad seasons, will gradually, sometimes suddenly, 
show a decided railing off ia quality or quantity. 
Something must be done to arrest the downhill 
course of the vines, which may be perfectly sound 
and healthy, but decidedly weak. The experienced 
grower will at once make an examination of his 
borders, which iri nine cases out of ten will be found 
to have become inert and heavy, and no longer 
capable of supphdng the food necessary for the 
production of sound healthy wood and foliage, so 
essential to the growth of good grapes. To root out 
the vines and re-plant in a new border, means a 
heavy outlay and the loss of a crop for two or 
three years; but if he has followed the modem 
practice of planting inside the house, and has pro- 



vided internal and external borders, renovation of 
one or other of these may be performed over and 
over again without the slightest risk to the vines, or 
fear of losing a full crop of fruit. There are various 
modes of renovating exhausted borders. Some re- 
move the surface soil quite down to the roots and 
replace it with fresh compost, similar to that 
recommended for new borders ; but this is only a 
temporary means of relief, as it does not improve 
the condition or position of the lower roots, which 
may have found their way into the drainage or 
through some chink or crevice into the subsoil, 
whence a supply of crude cold matter, which the 
vines cannot assimilate, is being constantly forced 
up, and is undoubtedly the cause of all the mischief. 
The best method which long and successful experience 
dictates, is first to decide upon the border to be taken 
out and re-made with fresh compost. The next effort 
must be the early maturing and disposing of the 
crop ; as notwithstanding the fact that the work 
may be performed at any period after the grapes are 
cut and before the vines break again, the best time 
is during the ripening of the wood and foliage. At 
that time the buds are properly formed and the fully 
developed, but immature foliage, is in the best con- 
dition for again setting the roots in action after they 
have been disturbed. As so much depends upon 
gettiag the mutilated roots to form fresh spongioles 
in the new soil, which during the summer or early 
autumn months is naturally warm, no other 
operation, be it never so pressing, should cause 
delay, otherwise the sap will become comparatively 
inactive, and incapable of aiding in this important 
effort on the part of the \'ines. If internal and 
external borders supplied no other advantage, it 
must be conceded that they are of the greatest 
value when renovating becomes necessary ; as one or 
other of them can be taken out with impunity, 
without in any way interfering with the quantity or 
quality of the succeeding year's crop. 

Assuming then that the grapes have been cut by 
the end of July, and the leaves are quite fresh and 
green, throw a slight shade over the roof ; then com- 
mence at the foot of the border by thi^owing out all 
the old soil quite down to the drainage ; carefully 
trace and preserve all the roots, which mr.st be kept 
moist and shaded from the sun, otherwise they will 
soon perish. When all the soil has been removed, 
sling the roots in bimdles near the wall-plate, 
syringe well, and shade. Examine the drainage, and 
if not quite satisfactory, make it so by turning it 
over ; then make up the new border, and carefully 
re-lay the roots as the work proceeds. As nothing 
succeeds like success, it may be well to direct atten- 
tion to the following points. Use steel forks for 
getting out the roots, and never allow the latter to 



178 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



become dry. Employ a strong body of skilful hands, 
as despatch is more than half the battle. Carefully 
prune any defective or inj ured roots as they are re- 
laid ; keep them well up in the new border to allow 
for settling, and mulch with fresh horse-litter when 
all is finished. If the undisturbed border is pretty 
full of roots, the foliage will not suffer ; but if it 
shows signs of flagging, allow the shading to remain 
on the roof, and keep the house constantly moist, 
close, and warm, to induce fresh growth. When this 
takes place, as will be easily seen by the bold, crisp 
appearance of the leaves, remove the shading by 
night and on dull days, gradually give more air, and 
by degrees allow the house to fall under the usual 
routine of management. 

The uninitiated, often driven to despair by the 
down-hill course of their vines, by their persistent 
growth when they ought to be resting, and by the 
wholesale shanking of the grapes, will be astounded 
at the magic effect produced by lifting and re-laying 
the roots in new compost. Vines w^hich produced 
long straggling bunches, with a strong tendency to 
run to tendrils, at once change their character and 
ripen off close, compact clusters, perfect in colour 
and finish, without which the highest quality cannot 
be attained. 

Mulching. — At the close of the preceding para- 
graph on Renovation, the use of stable manure was 
mentioned as suitable for covering up the newly- 
made border. As this material is well calculated to 
admit the free passage of solar heat into the soil, 
while it is a preventive of evaporation, and this at a 
time when the new compost contains more food than 
the roots are in a condition to absorb, it is preferable 
to solid manure. But when the spring comes round 
and the roots are again in acti\dty, a covering of 
three inches of the best spit manure will supply rich 
stimulating food, while it draws them upwards into 
the invigorating influence of the sun and au\ 

So also in the management of old-established ex- 
ternal borders, unless the vines are very vigorous 
(when it may be deferred until after the fruit is set), 
lay on four inches as soon as they start into growth. 
In the case of old vines, the first mulching may be re- 
moved and renewed after the stoning process ; but 
never after the grapes begin to colour. Internal 
borders require similar treatment ; but being regu- 
larly watered with copious supplies of tepid liquid, 
they are better left without the manure until the 
fruit is set, as too much feeding sometimes leads 
to sterility. 

Unless the soil of which new borders are made is 
very light and poor, this mode of stimulating the roots 
of vines is in every way preferable to mixing manure 
with the compost, as the latter induces a gross habit 



of growth for a year or two, and is the first ingre- 
dient in iaducing an otherwise good border to become 
dead, pasty, and worse than useless by the time the 
vines ripen off their first full crop of grapes. 



THE EOSE AND ITS CULTURE. 

By D. T. Fish. 



THE PROPAGATION OF ROSES. 

THE science and practice of propagation generally 
will be treated separately in this work by the 
most competent authority. Hence it will not be 
needful to go deeply into the subject here. Never- 
theless, no guide to Rose-culture could be complete, or 
become popular, unless it gave plain insti'uctions in 
the art of multiph'ing their numbers with success and 
speed. The successful prosecution of this art brings a 
new pleasure to Rose- culture ; that of something akin 
to parentage. It is weU. to grow Roses propagated by 
others ; but the delight has a keener edge when the 
Roses have been reared by the growers. In not a few 
cases, too, the special knowledge of how Roses have 
been raised, furnishes valuable hints for their culture. 
Neither need the trade fear the competition of 
amateur growers. The more the latter raise at home, 
the more they seem to buy, for the desire for Roses is 
seldom or never satisfied. Some one has said that 
had they their garden full of Roses, they would still 
want part of their farm for a briar and budding 
ground. Another great advantage of home propa- 
gation is that only, or chiefly, those sorts that thrive 
in that given locality should be largely increased. 
For every rosarian to grow the same Roses is about 
as absurd as for all ladies to wear the same sized, 
shaped, and coloured bonnets. Rose shows are 
answerable for much of the Rose monotony that pre- 
vails in gardens. Local propagation will, it is hoped, 
do much to break this up. For, after aU, not a tenth 
of the Rose-growers grow for showing at exhibitions ; 
and for real pleasure give me a hundred Rose-trees 
of one variety, in robust health and perfect beauty, 
rather than a hundred distinct varieties, seventy- 
five of which look seedy or weedy. Of course the 
relative number here may be extreme, and yet in 
most gardens fully half the Roses grown do not 
thrive well in the locality. 

The propagation of Roses resolves itself into one 
of seeds, buds, cuttings, grafting, layering, suckers^ 
and root- division. We will take them all in order. 

PROPAGATION BT SEEDS. 
Unless for the obtaining of new and improved 
varieties, it is hardly worth while to raise Roses in 
this way. Seedlings can hardly flower tiQ two years 



THE EOSE AXD ITS CULTURE. 



177 



old, some not till tkree, or even more, and tlie re- 
sult is very uncertain ; for, imfortunately, Roses are 
more prone to degenerate than most cultivated 
plants when raised from seeds. A large proportion 
of them, it may be ninety-five out of every hundi^ed, 
will come single or worthless. Still, as single flowers 
are now the fashion, all the sweetest and most bril- 
liant even of these should be saved for gro'^'ing in 
the wild garden or shrubbery. Nevertheless, few will 
take the trouble of raising many Roses from seeds, 
while the result continues as now to be so many 
blanks in proportion to prizes. But in Roses, as in 
ever^-thing else, the cultivator reaps what he sows. 
Hence, the trade and others who make the propa- 
gation of Roses from seeds the business or pleasure 
of their lives, begin by attempting to improve the 
seeds themselves. This is done by careful cross- 
breeding or hybridising, by skilful selections of new 
strains, by perpetuating sports, and other means. 
(See articles on Propagatiox.) 

The rosarian's difficulties in these matters are 
increased by the fact, that some of the finest Roses 
cannot be seeded at all under ordinary circumstances. 
The transformatif^n of pistils and stamens into petals 
piled on petals, has in such cases been so thorough 
and complete, that the powers of fructification are 
necessarily suppressed. 

Still there are certain, and those chiefly what are 
termed thin Roses by rosarians, which seed freely and 
plentifully. Among these are all the briars, Aus- 
trian and English, most of the Bourbons, the !Moss, 
Chinese, several of the Teas, and such Hybrid 
Perpetuals as Charles Crapelot, Madam Domage, 
Prince Camille de Rohan, Fisher Holmes, Jules 
!Margottin, William Jesse, and the old General Jac- 
queminot. So freely does the latter seed, and so 
potentially has the parental likeness been stamjDed 
on its offspring, that there is rather more fact than 
fancy in the humorous receipt for new Roses once 
commonly in vogue: " Cut any number of- General 
Jacqueminots, place them in yoirr hat, draw them 
out blindfold, and nam.e as you like." Among pink 
Roses the old Chenedole, and Coupe d'Hebe, have 
been very fruitful sources of new varieties. 

Cross-breeding consists in collecting the pollen of 
one Rose and placing it on the stigma of another of a 
difl^erent colour or character. (For mode of fertilisa- 
tion, kc, see articles on Phopagatiox). AMien the 
seed ripens, the seedlings may be expected to manifest 
some of the features of either or both parents. It 
is by such simple means, as well as by chance fertili- 
sation, that most of our new Roses have been raised. 
Of late years M. Bennet has foUov/ed this plan 
with considerable enthusiasm, and has been at last 
rewarded by such Roses as Lady ]Mary Fitz-u-illiam. 
IJer Majesty, and several others of almost equal 
12 



merit. Great patience and perseverance are neces- 
sary, as the offspring is often no improvement on the 
parent, but more frequently a reversion to a more 
primitive, and hence more worthless t\^e. Still, 
where intelligent forethought is brought to bear 
rather than mere haphazard practices, a satisfactory 
result is rendered more certain, and its attainment 
more speedy. 

G-athering and Sowing of the Seeds. — 

Whether any special efl:orts have been made to 
obtain seeds or not, towards the end of most 
seasons a considerable number of hips will appear 
on the Rose-trees. These should be gathered so soon 
as ripe, and laid out in the sun or in a hot-house to 
dry. Break up the hips, separate and clean the 
seeds, and either sow at once, or store safely in paper 
bags in drawers till the spring. Autumnal sowing, 
however, is mostly reckoned to be the best, and a 
warm, dry, sheltered border in the open air is con- 
sidered the best place. Time may be gained as well 
as greater immunity from the ravages of mice and 
rats — both extremely partial to the sweet seeds of 
Roses as well as the more common hips of the Sweet- 
briar and other briars—by sowing the seeds in pots 
or pans, in pits or frames under glass. But the evils 
and risks of attenuation and niiJdew are thought to 
more than counterbalance the benefits of such safety 
and shelter as the glass afl'ords. Spring-sown seeds 
seldom vegetate so soon or so freely as those so^nti 
as soon as ripe ; time, though spent in the cold and 
wet grovmd, favom^ing the gradual swelling and 
earlier germination of the seeds. 

The seeds may be sown in drills or broadcast. 
If the fonner, from six inches to a foot is a hand}- 
distance ; from half an inch to three-quarters a 
suitable depth. If sown in drills, tread in the seeds, 
and rake smooth in the usual way. If broadcast, 
scatter half an inch or so of fine compost over the 
bed, and pat the surface firmly down with the back 
of the spade. This hardness and smoothness helps 
the seeds to gei-minate, and is also a most useful and 
much-needed indicator of the visitation of such pests 
as slugs, worms, rats, mice, or birds to the seed- 
beds. The former mow the Roselets off with their 
saw-like teeth before they are well out of the 
grotmd ; the worms drag them into their holes ; the 
birds pull them up to see if a sweet seed may be 
found at the roots ; and rats and mice devour the 
seeds wholesale. To forewarn is to arm the rosariar 
with lime-wHter, and other traps and engines of de- 
struction, to the saving of hi^; seedling Roses. 

Irregularity in Germination. — Amateur 
propagators will need to be cautioned under this 
heading. The seed-bed of- Roses is as unlike a bed 



178 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



of Cabbages or Lettuces as can well be. Instead of 
breaking ground all at once, the seeds spring forth, 
tentatively, one or a few at a time, as their vital 
force moves them. Full half the seeds mostly lie 
dormant throughout the first year, and many never 
grow at all ; the others spring forth at intervals of 
three or six months between the plants or batches. 

Their irregularity of growth almost matches their 
varying times of germination. Some come up but 
to wither and die, as though all their strength had 
been expended in breaking ground. Others stand 
still for weeks, months at a stretch, and ultimately 
die ; but not always, for occasionally these stunted 
ones grow with unexpected luxuriance, and mani- 
fest considerable merit. Others again grow away 
from the first as if they had been used to it ; these 
extra- vigorous ones, however, mostly reverting into 
singleness. 

Seedling Roses also differ widely in their age of 
flowering. Some have been known to bloom in six 
or nine months ; others have been five years old be- 
fore they blossomed. A few, however, bloom the first 
year, more the second, a yet greater number the 
third, though some are several years in flowering. 

First Flowers. — The early flowers of seed- 
lings may be relied . on to reveal their colour, but 
scarcely any other quality. Neither size, form, nor 
substance of the blooms is formed or fixed for a 
year or two. It is most necessary to bear this in 
mind and act upon it, otherwise many of the best 
seedlings may be sacrificed before their merits are 
established. The qualities of seedling Roses and 
most other plants may be fixed sooner, and be more 
fully and speedily developed, when budded or grafted 
on other plants than on their own roots, 

G-eneral Treatment of Seedlings.--^In the 

open during the first year, the tiny plantlets, 
like their grown-up parents, need shelter, ghade, 
water, and weeding. Rough winds must be broken, 
and severe frosts tempered, by the shelter of walls 
and fences, or boughs or bracken placed in, over, 
or among the Rose§. Shade is also needful from 
excessive sunshine ; otherwise, its fierce heat often 
withers up the more delicate seedlings in a few 
hours. Water should be given early in the morn- 
ing or late in the evening when needful, to keep the 
soil fairly moist, as anything like flagging not only 
p.'-rests growth, but invites the attacks of mildew 
and red spider, both most injurious and often fatal 
to seedling Roses. 

Transplanting of Seedling Roses,— To- 
wards the end of October or early in November, 
all the seedlings large enough to handle should be 



lifted ; the roots, when long, are very slightly pruned, 
and the seedlings planted in fresh soil, in rows nine 
inches or a foot apart, and six from plant to plant. 
Tread the seedlings in firmly, and shorten the tops 
slightly when they are long and heavJ^ 

Protect from severe cold as before, and prune the 
seedlings back to one of their best buds about two 
months after planting; keep clean, water when 
needful, and carefully cultivate throughout the 
summer, and so on for several years, till the whole 
have bloomed. Many of the seedlings wiU flower 
the second year, when the best should be selected. 

When planting out the seedlings, any that re- 
vealed the Tea character and seemed specially tender 
should be potted up, and grown in a green-house, pit, 
or frame until they bloom. 

During the second winter, and all subsequent ones 
until proved, the seedlings should be mulched with 
manure, and protected as already described. 

After the third or fourth year nearly all the 
seedlings will have proved themselves, and selection 
and rejection may proceed with confidence, without 
fear of ha"sdng discarded any Rose treasures. 

After the removal of the forward est and strongest 
plants, top-dress the seedling-bed slightly with fine 
soil or rich compost ; beat down firmly with the back 
of a spade ; dress with a sprinkling of soot and lime, 
to give a quietus to slugs and worms, and wait 
patiently fpr the second and other successive croj)s, 
which not seldom prove more fruitful alike of j^lants 
and merit than the first. 

There are other modes of raising seedling Roses, 
more swift, but certainly not more sure ; and this is 
within reach of all who have a square yard of gar- 
den ground and a few Rose -hips or seeds in their 
possession. 

All this may seem slow and tedious on paper, but 
in reality it is not so in practice ; and assuredly no 
means of propagating Roses equals the pleasure of 
raising them from seeds, which is so fruitful in plea- 
sant excitement and sustained expectation. Hardly 
any two seedlings are alike in foliage, habit, prickles, 
or wood ; and a Rose of surprising excellence, of a 
new colour or strain, may open at any moment, and 
establish at one bound the fame and fortune of the 
raiser. 

Sports. — These may be described as new and 
short cuts to novelty in Roses, and most other plants. 
Notwithstanding all that has been written by Dar- 
win, INIasters, and others, on the origin and j)robable 
cause of sports, the laws that govern their develop- 
ment can hardly be said to be understood. Once, 
however, admit the theory of "pangenesis," the po- 
tency of germs and their latent powers of dormancy 
and development, and the possibility and even pro- 



THE EOSE AND ITS CULTUEE. 



179 



bability of sports follows as a matter of course. Bud- 
variation, though not so common as that of seeds, 
being exposed to far fewer disturbing causes, never- 
theless exists, and inay develop at any time into a 
sport that is some more or less striking variation 
from the ordinary type. In the present state of our 
knowledge, sports cannot be produced by art : fortu- 
nately, however, they can be fixed and perpetuated 
by the ordinary means of propagation. Some have 
thought that high culture may force sports. Be 
that as it may, a starving regimen seems the best 
for perpetuating them. And this is especially 
so in regard to all sports that take the form of 
variegated leaves. Most fonns of variegation can be 
grown into verdure again by a forcing regimen. This 
fact furnishes a useful hint to the rosarian. So soon 
as a sport appears on the highway of evolution to- 
wards something better in size, form, substance, and 
colour, the plant should be left to finish its new 
departui-e in its own way, and no changes of treat- 
ment nor of food given till it has fixed its spori. 
Only once have I seen the old Cineraria maritimd 
show a real golden sport, yellow as a guinea. The 
plant was at once lifted and placed in heat to force 
the golden branch into cuttings : from that moment 
it lost its gold, and went back to its normal whiteness 
"udth a double percentage of green in it. From that 
day to this I have never again met with a good 
golden sport on the old Cineraria. The sports of 
Pelargoniums, again, are w^ell known. Perhaps the 
most striking example of this sporting family will be 
found in P. Vesuvius, one of the most brilliant of all 
the scarlets, which has sported into a pure white, a 
variegated-flowered, white and scarlet ; a double- 
flowered sort, well called "Wonderful," and many 
others. Sports, however, are occasionally produced 
in almost all families of plants. From a full list of 
Eoses originating in sports, in Carriere's work on the 
production and fixation of some varieties in vegeta- 
tion, it seems that far more Eoses have originated 
thus than is generally supposed. Carriere's -list is 
as follows : — 

From Rosa ccnti/oZia.— Cabbage-leaved variety ; Lettuce- 
leaved variety ; Celery -leaved variety ; Anemone de 
Nancy (the town of the painters) ; Flore magno or foliaceo, 
without petals ; White Unique ; Variegated Unique 
(striped) ; Pompon de Bourgogne ; Pompon Blanc 
(white) ; Pompon de Bordeaux ; Pompon de Kingston. 

From the Moss Eose.— Cristata ; ordinary Centifolia, white 
flower ; ordinary Centifolia, striped flower ; ordinary 
Centifolia, Sage-leaved ; Provence ; Unique Zoe ; Pompon 
Moss. 

From the Rosier du Roi. — Perpetuelle Bernard; Posier du 

Eoi (long-stalked variety) ; Madame Tellier ; Mogador ; 

Captain Eenard ; Coelina {sic) Dubos. 
From Rosier de la Reine.— "Belle Normande ; Madame Cambel 

d'Isly (sic), iTTobably Campbell of Islay, or Triomphe 

de Valenciennes. 



From Buchesse de Cvembaceres. — Belle de Printemps. 

From Baronne Prevost. — Madame Desiree Giraud ; Panachee 

d'Oi'leans ; Baronne Prevost Marbre'e ; Madame La-' 

charme ; and one unnamed variety, paler in colour thaa 

the type, but not otherwise different. 
From Duchesse d'Orleans. — Soeur des Anges. 
From Quatre Saisons. — Posier Thionville, or White Moss 

Quatre Saisons. 
From the Provence. — Pompon St. Fran9ois ; Pompon St. 

Jacques ; Camai'en ; Panache, semi-double ; Tricolore de 

Flandre. 

From the Damask. — York and Lancaster ; variety with 

bullate leaves. 
Prom the Bengal. — Variety with striped wood. 
From Rosa alba.— Variety with Hemp-like leaves. 

Among the later examples are the pink Gloire de 
Dijon, from the common or yellow variety, about 
which, however, there is still some degree of doubt ; 
Baron Taylor, a pink sport from John Hopper ; Pride 
of Waltham, a salmon-pink sport from the Comtesse 
of Oxford ; William Warden, a pink sport from 
Madame Clemence Joigneaux ; and Mabel Morrisson, 
Merveille de Lyon, and White Baroness, the latter 
two certainly, and the former probably, a white sport 
from the Baroness Eothschild. It seems probable 
that one of the parents of the Baroness Eothschild 
was a single or semi-double white Eose, as the whole 
of the white varieties that have either sported or 
been raised from it are less double than their parent 
— losing petals as well as colour in their reversion to 
more primitive and inferior types. But, however 
produced, sports are readily fixed and multiplied by 
the usual processes of propagation. 

It would almost seem at times as if these in them- 
selves became means of developing sports. A curious 
case is recorded by Mr. Henderson, the distinguished 
American nurseryman, which confirms to some 
extent this theory. A hundred cuttings of the Tea 
Eose, La Nankin, were put in, all from the same 
plant. When the cuttings flowered, four very dis- 
tinct varieties were developed. One had pure white 
flowers, others pure pink, a third were pure nankeen, 
and the fourth were like their parent, white above 
and nankeen below. Of course colom- is more given 
to sport than any other quality. The old York and 
Lancaster Eose, for example, often comes with the 
flakes or bands of white varying in width from a few 
lines to the overgrowing of the greater portion of the 
flower, ]\Iost of the parti- coloured Eoses are also 
less firmly fixed than the self s, as if the two or moi'e 
colours were felt to be a mistake, and they were 
tr;y'ing to get back to the state of single blessedness 
that they had left. The older traditions about Eoses 
would point to red as their primitive colour, and it 
is probably by a series of bud and seed variations 
that they have grown into their present state of 
perfection in regard to foim, size, texture, colour, 
and fragrance. Hence oui- advice — expect sporis, 



180 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENING. 



and when found, not only make a note of them, but 
fix, and propagate, and so perpetuate them, to the 
enhancement of youi' pleasui^e and the enrichment of 
your Rose garden. 

PROPAGATION BY BVDS. 
This is the best method that has yet been de^dsed 
for the rapid and sure multiplication of existing 
varieties. Expert grafters may challenge this state- 
ment, but they cannot disprove it. True, the per- 
centage of takes in grafting may be as high as the 
takes in budding. They may reach as high as 
95 per cent, in either budding or grafting, though 
such successes are rare; but then the majority of 
scions either have or have had at least two, and often 
more buds ; and, therefore, one or more plants in 
embryo are wasted in most of the modes of graftiag 
in vogue for Roses. 

Twofold Character of Propagation by 
Buds. — It may surprise some who have budded 
many Roses to hear that, whUe Roses are taken on by 
briars or other Roses, the buds may also be rooted 
into the soil. Budding Roses, however, as generally 
understood and practised, consists in so fixing the 
buds of a Rose into another plant, that the former 
shall form the head, and utilise the root-force or 
power, of the other. The foster-mother takes the 
strange bud in or on, and these two become one life 
or living Rose. Rose-budding is so generally prac- 
tised and so well understood, that only practical de- 
tails need be given here, especially as the art of 
budding in every possible way will be exhaustively 
treated under Propagation. A brief description, 
however, and a few diagrams will make the matter 
clear to the merest tyi'O in Rose- growing. 

Conditions of Success in Budding. — First, 
as to the stock. It must be a Rose or some plant 
nearly related to the Rose. All attempts to reach 
to permanent and lasting success through bud- 
ding Roses on White-thorns or other plants have 
failed. Possibly they have been far less tried 
than the fancies of poets would make us believe. 
Rose-buds will take freely on all other Roses 
and briars of all sorts — the Sweet-briar, however, 
proving a very indifferent stock for any sort of 
Rose. 

State of the Stock.— As free growth in the 
stock is needful to enable the bark to separate 
freely from the young wood beneath, it may be 
called one of the essential mechanical conditions ^to 
successful budding. It is probably, however, equally 
or more important on vital grounds. The mo\dng 
sap, provided the current is neither too full nor 



strong, carries healing to the wound, and the healing 
unites the bud to the stock. 

Bud before leafage, and the bud is either washed 
off, as it is called, drowned out, or decomposed. This 
is easily proved by experiment. Budding before 
leaves appear fails as a rule. In the absence of leaves 
the healing processes are so slow or so completely 
arrested that the buds are too often left to perish. 
The selfsame buds inserted by the same agents, in 
the same way, a few weeks later, succeed. There 
is a period or stage of growth most favourable to 
the taking of buds, that is, within a month or six 
weeks or so after the full development of the leaves. 
To bud earlier in%dtes failure ; to bud much later in 
a workmanlike manner is impossible. Later on the 
bark is bound so firmly to the young wood, against 
its inner surface, that the two become inseparable by 
any easy or fair means owing to the gradual con- 
sohdation of the tissues. 

Condition of Buds most Favourable for 
Propagation. — They should be plump and well 
matured, rather than merely large. Buds from 
flowering shoots, rather than from gourmands or 
rank-growing shoots, should be chosen ; round-formed 
buds are also far preferable to the long ones, how- 
ever large. These mature buds have a reserve of food 
and vital force within them, that 
enables them to bridge over the brief |^ 
interregnum of isolation before the 
stock takes them on without serious 
loss. More than this, they contribute 
towards the union of themselves 
with the stock. Meagre buds are 
like ill-assorted marriages, where the 
love is all on one side. They are 
simply taken in or on by the stocks, 
or they perish. Plump, well-filled 
buds, on the contrary, contribute 
their share to the process of union. 

The buds should be dormant. 
True, started or growing buds are 
sometimes used, and if skilfully in- 
serted, and circumstances of weather, 
Szc, are favourable, they take well. 
But to bud with growing buds is to 
vastly increase the difficulties of 
budding, and multiply the chances 
of failure. Dormant buds, full of 
vital force and energy, just on the 
point of stai'ting but yet not growing, 
are the very best for budding. They should, as 
far as maturity goes, be in advance of the stock, 
or behind, according as it is ^'iewed. The cm-- 
rent year's wood that furnishes the best buds for 
budding will, however, as a rule, be more maturo 



riar. 10.— Eose- 
brauch pre- 
pared for 
Budding-, 
and one Bud 
Eemoved. 



THE ROSE AND ITS CULTURE. 



181 



than the wood of briar or Rose, into which the buds 
are placed. 

Finally, the bud itself, and the section of bark 
attached to it, must separate freely from the wood. 
Unless this is the case, the base of the bud will be 
pulled out, and the bark itself also injured in pro- 
cess of separation. Either of these mishaps endangers 
the prompt and healthy union of the bud to the 
stock. The two combined may be said to render 
any union impossible. So much for the general 
condition of the scion and the stock at budding time. 

The condition of the prickles also affords a useful 
index to the best time to bud. In all cases they are 




Fig. il.— Briar with Prickles Etibbed off for Budding. 

removed of necessity to enable the bud with its 
section of bark to be easily slid into the stock, and 
the best way to remove them is to rub them off side- 
ways with the thumb. If they come off easily, the 
wood is in a good state for budding ; if with 
difficulty, the most favourable season has already 
passed. 

The Time to Bud.— Taking an average of 
seasons, the last week of June and the first three 
weeks in July will be found the very best time for 
budding. AU the more essential conditions already 
described will be found to be fully developed at this 
particular season. 

Preliminary Preparations.— These are a 
supply of labels, or numbers, with ties attached 
for prompt use ; a small pan or watering-pot about 



half full of damp moss ; some cotton, worsted, soft 
bast, or ratafia tie — if either of the latter, the 
softest and finest to be chosen, cut into lengths 
of about a foot and tied into a bunch, so as to be 
hung from a waistcoat-button for this operation — 
and a sharp budding-knife. That with a round- 
ended blade at one end, and a sharp wedge-shaped 
handle at the other, is the best. The use of all these 
will be obvious as we proceed. 

The Actual Removal of the Buds and 
their Insertion into the Stocks. — Cut a 

branch, or part of the branch, off the Rose-tree or 




rig. 12.— Tlie Briar with the Buds Inserted, one Tied in. 

bush that is to be thus propagated. It is generally 
necessary to cut almost the whole of it, as the best 
buds will mostly be found towards its base. If 
those nearer the top are not sufficiently developed, 
cut the shoot back to the last good bud, then care- 
fully rub off the prickles, and cut off the lea-s'es, 
leaving a small portion of the leaf-stalk intact, and 
lay it on the damp moss or place it in water (Fig. 
10). The same care must be taken of every other 
shoot, and in fact very few should be taken off at a 
time, as nothing lessens the chances of success in 
budding more than cutting numbers of branches 
at one time, and allowing them to become dried up, 
or plunging them into water to keep them fresh. 
Placed on rather than in damp moss, and covering 
them with a Cabbage-leaf or cloth, is the surest means 
of keeping the buds fresh and plump until they are 
placed in the stocks. Few budders remove the 



182 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GAEDEXING. 




Fig. 13.— Cut in Stock 
and Bud prepared 
for Insertion. 



spines till they are about to remove the buds from 
the branchlet. 

Arrived at the stocks (Figs. 11 and 12), with 
our dressed branches, rub off the prickles from 
two inches or so of the base of the shoots of these 
(Fig. 11), and make a slit with 
the budding - knife in the 
centre of the upper side of the 
shoot about an inch long, be- 
ing careful not to penetrate 
deeper than the bark. Most 
operators also make a cross- 
cut, which, with the longitu- 
dinal one, forms the letter T 
(Fig. 13). Hence the name of 
T-budding. The onl}^ use of 
the cross-cut is to facilitate the raising of the bark. 
It probably hinders rather than facilitates the 
" taking " of the bud. Taking the branchlet with 
its buds in the left hand, the lowest bud, with about 
an inch in length of its wood and bark, is cut out 
(Figs. 10, 13, 14). The form of cutting and the 
thickness of section removed are of great practical 
importance in the art of easy budding, though they 
may be less vital to the promotion of the union. 
In no case should the pith be reached or penetrated, 
about two-thirds of the half-circumference of the 
shoot being a good medium. Skilful 
budders, by inserting the knife about 
half or a quarter of an inch above the 
bud, reach a maximum depth imme- 
diately under the bud, and regain the 
surface about half an inch beyond it, 
in this way turning out pointed sections pet aTh ed 
like that given here (Fig. 14), almost with Baik. 
as if the knife were a cutting-mould. 

Those less skilful mostly try to imitate this form 
by several cuttings and parings with a knife. 
Unless, however, the section is so large or mis- 
shapen as to be unfit to enter the slit, it had better 
be left as it is, as the first cuts are always the 
cleanest and the best. 

The operator has now the bud detached from the 
branch, vnth its section of old wood adhering to 
the bark (Fig. 14). The next step in ordinary Eose- 
budding consists in the removal of the wood from 
the bark. This is the crucial process in the whole 
operation, and nothing but practice can enable it to 
be done with safety and dexterity. The simplest 
way of doing it is that of drawing it out from the 
bottom. Grasping the bud firmly in the left hand, 
take the knife in the right, and with its point bend 
back the bark till the wood is laid hold of between 
the point of the knife and the finger and thumb, and 
carefully remove upwards from the base to the point. 
Some remove it sideways, starting exactly opposite 



the bud, but the first way is the best. If the base of 
the bud remains in the section of bark, all is well ; 
but if it projects beyond, into the wood, it will not 
be likely to grow. 

Insertion into the Stock. — There are two 

general methods of doing this, both of which are 
perhaps about equally easy and successful. One 
may be called the horizontal, and the other the 
vertical mode of insertion. In the former the 
bud is placed parallel with the slit, the thin edge 
of the budding-knife being used to raise up one fiap 
at the side, and one edge of the section of bark in- 
serted. The same process is repeated on the other 
side, and the bud is thus securely inserted in the 
stock, the bark of which overlaps and almost covers 
its own bark. 

By the other method the bud itself takes a more 
prominent part in its insertion. The bark is raised 
in the same way on both sides as before, but just 
as the knife raises the second side, the sharp point of 
the base of the bud is inserted at the top of the slit, 
and follows the knife down to its base, the bud with 
its section of bark, as it were, ploughing its way to 
its home in the stock. 'VMien any difl&culties occur 
they may, however, be obviated by a little help from 
finger and thumb, or, in more obstinate cases, by 
placing the back of the knife across the leaf -stalk, 
and pressing the bud gently home. 

Buds with. Section of Wood left under the 
Bark. — The mode of inserting these does not differ 
from others, only that they are more easily pushed 
home, and with less risk of injury either to the bud 
or the bark, the wood acting as a shield. This method 
of budding is not, however, to be recommended, un- 
less in cases of necessity, such as in wet and sunless 
seasons, in which the wood or buds may not become 
mattu'ed enough to permit the buds to stand alone, or 
the wood to be separated from the bark without 
ruining the latter. In budding with the wood left 
in the bark, it may be accepted as an axiom, that the 
less wood the sooner the bud will take, and the more 
solid and permanent the union will prove. 

Position of Buds in the Slits. — The bud 

should be near to the middle of the space, or a little 
nearer to the top than the bottom. In all cases 
where the cross-cut is used, the upper section of 
bark should abut against it, and be cut so as to fit it 
perfectly, as the close contact of the bark of bud 
and stock at that point hastens the completion of the 
union. So important has the action of this cross- 
section been thought by some, that its position has 
been reversed and made at the base instead of the 
summit of the slit, in order to bring the full force of 



THE ROSE AND ITS CULTURE. 



183 



the rising sap to bear upon and pass into the hark 
section of the hud. There is no practical difficulty 
in placing- the hud in the base of the sHt and pushing 
the hud upwards to the top, excepting this, that it is 
impossible to place it so near to the base of the stock 
in this way. However, the cross could be made and 
the bud-bark butted up against it after the bud is in- 
serted. Neither is there any serious objection to 
cross-cutting the slit ahke at top and bottom, so as 
to have the bud helped to "take" alike by the rising 
sap from below, and the descending sap from above. 
This compound J-budding has proved quite success- 
ful when tried, and so also has mere slit-budding 
without any cross-cut at a,ll. 

Reversal of tlie Buds.— This has been thought 
to give greater vigour to them, and to make them 
break more strongly. It has, however, been found 
that buds so placed are more apt to be twisted 
out by the wind than any others. The buds grow 
very w^ell upside-down, as there is no anatomical 
reason to the contrary. But there is no practical 
advantage in their being turned upside-down. 

Tying in the Buds.— This should be done the 
moment they are inserted, for the greatest enemy to 
the rapid union of buds and stocks is air, or rather 
the drying effects of the latter on such delicate 
tissues. Hence the importance of not exposing 
the naked internal surface of the bark of the bud, 
nor the slit or cut in the stock, one moment more 
than is needful. The air not only wastes the 
most precious juices of the plant, but dries up and 
destroys their viscid properties, or those that cement 
the union between them. AVater is almost as re- 
pellant a force as air, hence budding should not be 
carried on in wet weather, nor the buds laid in water, 
as is often the case. Just as the clean blood is the 
best healing salve for all wounds amongst animals, 
so the fresh, sweet, unexposed, unwatered sap is the 
most powerful of all forces in welding into one any 
two fractured vegetable tissues. 

The tj^ing is therefore simply a mechanical safe- 
guard to keep the bud in position, and not, as many 
seem to suppose, an active uniting force.- It serves 
a similar purpose to the surgeon's splints on a 
broken limb, the insuring of complete repose and 
freedom fi'om movement of any kind. It is impor- 
tant, however, that it should be so firm as to render 
the parts immovable, yet not so tight as to hinder 
circulation or wound the bark. Begin at the bottom 
and pass the ligature three or four times round 
under the bnd, and as many above, and the tie is 
complete. Expert tiers mostly hold one end of the 
tie under the branch of the stock, whilst they wind 
mth the other, and thus find the tie-end ready for 



tying slightly beyond the cross-cut when finished. 
Some wind closely the whole way, so as to cover 
every portion of the slit. It matters little so long as 
the bark is not injured, the bud in the centre left 
free, and the bnd is held immovable till the two 
tissues are united. 

Labelling or numbering should follow close on the 
heels of budding, as it adds much to our pleasure to 
see at a glance 'which sorts take and which may have 
failed. 

Shading the Bud. — This is often done by 
amateurs, and may help buds to take that have 
not been inserted in a business-like manner. A 
little damp moss or a small leaf is the simplest 
mode of shading. These can be tied on so as to 
moderate the fierceness of the sun's heat for a day 
or so. But, generally speaking, shading is unneces- 
sary. In very hot weather it is safest not to bud 
during the two or three hours on either side of noon ; 
early in the morning, or late in the afternoon and 
throughout the evening, is the best time to bud, 
as well for the plants as the operator. 

Time of Taking. — This varies considerably ac- 
cording to the weather and other circumstances. 
Within a fortnight to a month the bud will either 
have become safely united to the stock or have 
perished. 

Removal of Ties. — This may be done about 
three weeks after budding. If left too long they often 
cause much injury to the bark, and irreparable mis- 
chief to the bud ; almost strangling it by their tight- 
ness, and checking or stopping its supplies of food. 
If the union is perfected, no further ties are needed. 

Re-tying. — This is not imfrequently necessary, 
and it needs experience and a practised eye to know 
when the union is so complete as to justify the re- 
moval of all ties. The wood may have grown so much 
since budding as to render the removal of the first 
tie necessary, and yet the wounds not be perfectly 
healed, or the union be so complete as to need no 
further binding. When any doubt exists on this 
point, the safer plan is to give a second tie, leaving 
it a little looser than the first. This second tie may 
be removed later in the autumn, or allowed to re- 
main till the spring. 

Keeping the Buds Dormant. — It is of 

almost "vital importance that this should be done. 
Some budders pride themselves on flowering their 
buds the same season. This may easily be done, 
but is bad form in budding, and may often weaken 
and greatly shorten the life of the plant. To have 



184 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING-. 



vigorous plants for life and perfect tlooms the 
following- season, it is essential that the buds he kept 
dormant till the following spring. A good deal 
depends on the choice of buds. As already observed, 
jDlump, round, and quite dormant buds are the best. 
The early removal of the ties is also an aid to 
dormancy, as any severe check to the equable 
growth of the stock, such as that caused by a 
tight ligature, forces the bud to break. The wild- 
ing shoots must also be left full length till the 
spring. Those who force their buds to break, cut 
these off three or four inches beyond the bud, about 
three weeks after budding. By this means growth 
is partly confined to the bud instead of being carried 
on through the whole briar-shoots as well, and the 




Fig. 15.— Briar Cut Back, aud finally Cut further Back to 
near the Bud at a, 

bud has the entire autumn, winter, and early spring 
to fill itself with a maximum amount of -vdgour and 
of beaut}'. 

If buds break into shoots soon after budding, 
on no account must these be allowed to grow or 
produce flowers. So soon as they have made three 
or four leaves, pinch off their tops. This course 
will enable them to form and to ripen several nice 
buds at their base, and these may break into shoots 
next season, not greatly inferior in vigour to 
dormant buds. 

Shortening Back the Wild Shoots on 
Briar or other Stocks. — Towards the end of 
January, or any time in Februarj^ these may be 
cut back to within aboiit six inches of the buds ; 
one result of this being to keep the newly adherent 
bud as free from disturbance as possible. Soon 
after the latter has fairly started — that is, towards 
the end of April or early in May — the wild shoots 
may be cut back to the top of the bark-section of the 
bud (Fig. 15). The cut should be made as short as 
possible by cutting the shoot almost at right angles. 



No dressing should be applied, as this only hinders 
the heahng of the wound, and is apt to cause canker 
and run down the wood, to the weakening or destruc- 
tion of the bud. This last cut finishes the operation 
of budding, the stock being now transformed into a 
Rose-tree (Fig. 15). 

Securing the Safety of the First Shoots 
of the Buds. — This is of the utmost importance, 
as otherwise all om' instructions may end in a fiasco 
most disheartening to the rosarian. The bud starts 
with all possible "\dgour, and shows blooms full of 
promise. A gust or a strong wind comes, and, lo, the 
bud and all its appendages are twisted off their 
stock in a moment, and their fair promise of beauty 
and sweetness is dashed to the ground. To render 
such mishaps impossible, at the heading back of 
the stocks tie one or more stout sticks, a foot or 
eighteen inches in length, on to the upper portions 
of their stems, and fasten the branchlets from the 
buds to these so soon as possible. 

When, as on a large scale, this mode of protecting 
the young shoots is impracticable, further stability 
may be given to the unity of buds with stocks, and 
less purchase given to the wind as a twisting-out 
force, by nipping the points out of the strong bud- 
shoot so soon as it has made a few leaves. This will 
force the one shoot to break into three or more, and 
while it puts back the flowering period considerably, 
it produces far better and more saleable plants before 
the end of the year. 

From this stage the budded briars are Roses, and 
must be treated as such. For some time, however, 
much of the vigour of the plant will try to rush back 
into briarhood again in the form of suckers, and 
these, whether springing from root-stom or branch- 
let, must be promptly and vigorously suppressed. 



BUDDING WITHOUT STOCKS. 
As each bud is in a degree an independent plant in 
embryo, it follows that it may be converted into such 
by artificial means. The art of budding on other 
plants proves so much; but the proof is still more 
decisive if buds are rooted in moist soil, sand, or 
other mediums. And though this mode of propagat- 
ing Roses is neither so common nor so easy as others, 
it is nevertheless quite practicable, and possesses 
the merit which is now more than ever recognised, 
that of producing rapidly Roses on their own roots. 

Size and Form of Bud Cuttings.— These 
may be larger than those used for inserting in briars, 
and the section of wood is left intact. The length 
is immaterial, but the depth of the bud-section 
should never penetrate the pith ; the woody section 
may also be of about the same depth throughout, 



COMMON GARDEN FLOWERS. 



185 



instead of coming to a sharp wedge at either end, 
as in the case of the ordinary bud. But even this is 
not essential, and some prefer buds for rooting with 
the end surface wedge-shaped, the thicker end of the 
wedges springing from half to three-quarters of an 
inch below the base of the buds, and tapering to a 
point half an inch beyond it. A thin paring of bark 
taken off either side also exposes a large surface of 
wounded bark or cambium to the contact with the 
rooting material. This is most important, as it 
invites a development of callus along both sides as 
well as both ends of cuttings thus manipulated ; and 
each atom of the callus is capable of emitting roots. 
Hence buds thus prepared root all round and de- 
velop a perfect network of fibrous roots as unlike 
as well can be to the single or dual whipcord-like 
samples produced by seedling briars or Roses. 

How to Root Rose-buds. — Prepare pots, 
pans, or a bed as directed in our articles on Pkopa- 
• GATiON. Thorough drainage being provided, pure 
sand, or some free-rooting material, should be used 
on the surface, which can hardly be made too hard 
and firm. Place the buds, prepared as described, 
on the surface, and press them firmly down, filling up 
with pure sand until all are covered excepting the 
upper surface of the bud- section, and the bud in the 
centre of it. Water freely, and just before the water 
disappears, gently tap the pot or pan on the bench 
to consolidate buds and surface soil more perfectly. 
Of course this cannot be done where the buds are 
planted in beds. In placing the buds leave at least 
an inch of clear space between any two buds at all 
points. This will be wanted to give room for the 
curious and most necessary development technically 
known as " callus." This is produced along the ends 
of the bud-section, between the bark and wood, and 
also along the sides of the bark. It is neither stem 
nor root, but something between the two, and the 
source from which all roots proceed. So soon as it 
is thoroughly developed the bud is safe, and will, 
under fair treatment, form roots all round the sides 
and ends of its outer extremities ; so that rooted 
buds are furnished with a perfect network of fibres 
at all points, and these of the best possible quality 
for feeding purposes. 

If the bud starts into growth before this hap- 
pens, it soon empties itself and the section of wood 
and bark around it of all the food which they con- 
tain, and it quickly perishes. On the contrary, if 
the buds remain dormant till the callus is formed, 
the sooner the buds break into leafage afterwards 
the sooner will roots be produced. The demands 
of the expanding leaves for more food quicken the 
development of roots by the callus. The simplest 
and best means of effecting these dual benefits is by 



keeping the tops' very cool, say in a temperature of 
40° to 45°, and placing the buds in a bottom heat 
ten or fifteen degrees in advance of the top. So 
soon as the bud-section's callus and roots begin to 
be formed, the tops may be pushed on in the same 
temperature as the roots. For after this stage the 
faster the tops grow the faster also the roots, and 
the two keep up a neck-and-neck race in the build- 
ing up of a vigorous Rose-plant. 

Potting off. — So soon as the plants are fairly 
rooted they should be potted off singly, and kept in 
close and genial quarters till established. They 
may then either be grown into plants in the 
green-house, close pit, or frames, or planted out of 
doors, so soon as they are gradually hardened off ; 
and finally planted out of doors in the autumn. 

Some cover Rose-buds from the first with a bell- 
glass, and subject them to a high temperature and 
a semi-satui'ated atmosphere. But tnis course is 
seldom successful, while that last described seldom 
or never fails. 



COMMON GARDEN FLOWEES. 



ADOmS AND CANDYTUFT. 

The Adonis is one of the smallest families in 
the great and beautiful order, Ranunculacem ; and 
the two perennial species, vernalis and Pyrenaica, 
used to be common plants in most old-fashioned 
gardens. Adonis vernalis is one of the earliest as 
well as most showy flowers of the early spring, 
blooming in early seasons in March, and in or- 
dinary ones early in April. It rises to a foot or 
more in height, and the rich golden crops of 
flowers look all the more rich and striking as they 
stand up on the elegantly-cut sessile foliage, some- 
what resembling that of a very light green carrot at 
a distance. It is perfectly hardy, as its native home 
is contiguous to the snow-line on the European Alps ; 
and hardly have the snows passed away when the 
Spring Adonis springs forth and blooms, covering, 
where it abounds, the mountains with gold, and 
affords a brilliant contrast to the vernal blue 
gentians that carpet the base-lines of the Adonis. 
Though it thrives on snow-water, with its roots 
running in the well-drained debris of the residuum 
of rocky waste, yet few plants are more sensitive 
to cold soils or wet bottoms than the vernal Adonis. 
Under such untoward conditions the light green of 
the leaves becomes almost yellow, and the crop of 
fine cups that crowns them with beauty disappears. 

The best place for these plants is a warm nook 
or corner in a cosy old-fashioned kitchen or other 



186 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENING. 



garden. The soil may be moderately rich, it must 
be dry and warm and rather light, to grow these 
pretty old - fashioned flowers to perfection. The 
A. vernalis is the best species, A. Pyrenaica grows 
rather taller, but is not so good. It, however, is 
useful for a successor, as it seldom blooms till June 
or even July. 

Several other species are found in botanical 
works, and may occasionally be met with in botanic 
gardens, such as A. Apennina, A. Davurica, and A. 
(Siberica. The latter is as big again as vernalis, but 
in no respect better, and the whole of the perennial 
varieties are almost 
the same shade of 
colour. 

These plants are 
not very rapidly in- 
creased, as they only 
ripen seeds tinder 
very favourable con- 
ditions, and the seed- 
lings are several 
seasons in growing 
into flowering size. 
The only other 
method of propaga- 
tion is by root divi- 
sion, and the plants 
are somewhat im- 
patient of disturb- 
ance. Generally, 
the finest patches of 
Adonis have been 
those that have been 
left undisturbed for 
many years, or re- 
ceived a top-dressing 
of light rich compost 
annually. The best time for applying this is in the 
autumn, as it has thus the whole winter before it, to 
strengthen the roots, and add to the number and 
augment the size of the flower, which not seldom ex- 
ceeds from two and a half to three inches in diameter. 
This plant, like most of the Crowfoots, enjoys deep 
root-runs, provided they are fairly dry, and hence 
crevices in rock- work, with nests of promising soil, 
suit the Adonis well. The hght sessile foliage also 
harmonises with Ferns well, while the brilliant 
golden flowers form an admirable contrast to tufts 
of Forget-me-nots and Aubrietias. 

In addition to these perennial varieties there are 
several annual ones. Amongst these the autiimnaUs, 
cBstivalis, and Jlava are the best. The first is a 
brilliant hardy annual, a native of Britain, often 
found in corn-fields, but worthy of a place in the 
flower-bed or border. It is of a bright crimson 



colour, and may be had in flower throughout the 
summer and autumn, and is popularly known as the 
Pheasant-eye Adonis. The second, one of the 
tallest of all the Adonises, of a bright scarlet colour, 
is a native of the South of Europe, and flowers in 
June or July. The last is more dwarf, and is of a 
yellow colour, and is more like the perennial species 
Seeds of these annual species may be sown at 
different seasons, from February to May, and thus a 
supply of these pretty old-fashioned flowers be kept 
up from April to November. The name Adonis is 
said to be derived from the classical mj-th, that 

this plant sprang 
forth from the blood 
of Adonis when 
wounded by the 
boar, the allusion 
being obviously to 
the brilliant- 
coloured annuals 
and not to the yel- 
low perennial 
species. However, 
the Anemone is the 
rival of the Adonis, 
in claiming its origin 
from the same 
source ; and with 
all due respect for 
the brilliance and 
beauty of some of the 
latter, they are no 
match for the ex- 
treme brilliancy of 
the scarlet and other 
Wind-flowers. Pos- 
sibly the name was 
derived from the 
early flowering of the Adonis vernalis, as a spring 
festival was held in honour of Adonis, when an- 
image was buried with imposing rites and cere- 
monies, perfumes were burned, and Violets and other 
early flowers, probably Adonis vernalis, were strewn 
over the grave. 

Iberis, or Candytuft. — Both the botanical and 
common names of these plants are derived from the 
countries whence they were introduced — Iberis, 
from Iberia, the ancient name of Spain, and Candy- 
tuft from Candia, from which I. timbellata was intro- 
duced in 1596; and the last and most useful of all 
the evergreen, shrubby Candytufts, /. sempervirens, 
was brought in 1731. Though thus hailing from the 
southern parts of Europe, most of the Candytufts are 
sufiiciently hardy to withstand our ordinary ^\anters, 
and they have long been among the most popular and 




Adonis vekkalis. 



COmOX GAEDEX FLOT^-EES. 



187 



universally- gro"^ plants in our gardens. Even the 
annual species are very frequently sown in th.e open 
in the autumn, pass safely through the winter, and 
thus treated hloom very early in spring. They are 
not, however, all alike hardy. Among those of dwarf 
shrubby evergreen character, perhaps Gibraltarica 
and semperjlorens, the latter a native of Sicily, are 
the most tender. Even these, however, do well in 
the South and West of England. 

But, without doubt, Iberh sernpervirens, or the 
Common Evergreen Cand^-tuft, is by far the best and 
most popular of all the species. It is found in almost 
every garden, and 
in very many is the 
only one seen or 
known. Xeither do 
those who adhere to 
this species lose 
much by doing so. 
It is seldom or 
never injured or 
destroyed by the 
weather, and grows 
with great rapidity, 
forming a dense 
evergreen mass 
from six to nine 
inches high, and 
from twelve to 
eighteen, or even 
twenty-four inches 
across. In farm 
and cottage gardens 
even larger patches 
may be met with, 
and hardly any 
plant can be more 
effective in its 
snowy whiteness from April to June. Single plants 
on sloping banks, or posted here and there on root- 
eries, rock- work, or ferneries, are the most effective. 
This fine Candytuft looks well by itself, or contrasted 
with the early Forget-me-not or Aubrietias, From 
the density of its habit, and the neat evergreen 
character of its leaves, this Cand^-tuft is admirably 
adapted for edgings for small beds, either on gravel 
or as a secondary edging within a few inches of the 
turf. It grows T\-ith almost equal freedom in any 
soil, provided it is neither too wet nor too strong. 
The free, open, airy places suit all the Cand^-tuft3 
best, and the more freely they are exposed to sun- 
shine the more profusely they bloom. Wherever 
beauty or purity is needed to light up dulness, coun- 
teract the sombre effects of excessive verdure, or 
soften and mellow down quaint or grotesque outlines, 
the Evergreen Candj-tuft may be freely planted. 




CaXDTTUFT (IbEPvIS SEilPERVIREXS). 



Among other species or varieties well worthy of 
cultivation, the following are the best : — 

I. correcefolia, or Correa-leaved Cand^-tuft. This 
is one of the largest-flowering and most distinct of 
the whole family, and is often confounded with two 
other species, neither of which is equal to it. 

The first of these is /. corifolia, a much smaller 
sort, and probably only a smaller variety of the Ever- 
green Cand}-tuft already described. The other is 
/. Gibraltarica, which considerably resembles the 
Correa-leaved Cand}i;uft, but has smaller flowers, 
and is less hardy than this species. I. correcefolia 

has large leaves and 
large corj-mbs of 
fine white flowers 
standing boldly up 
close to the leaves. 
It is also among the 
later - floweiing of 
aU the Cand^-tuits, 
seldom blooming 
until most of the 
others are going off, 
that is, about the 
first week in June. 
This forms a fine 
companion plant to 
the Evergxeen Can- 
dj-tuft. 

I. sazatilis, or 
Eock Candytuft, is 
one of the most 
hardy and useful, 
and grows to a 
height of from six 
to nine inches. 

I. pubescens is 
comparatively rare, 
and differs considerably in habit and foliage, but 
more in the colour of the flowers, from any of the 
foregoing. These are of a pale violet colour, a 
colour more fully developed in the next species. 

I. Tenoreana, or Tenore's Candytuft, is a pretty 
and distinct evergreen herbaceous plant, about six 
inches high, flowering in June and July, the colour 
of the flowers being a sort of French white deepen- 
ing into pink or puce. This species, however, lacks 
the vigour and robustness of constitution of those 
already described, and seldom thrives well unless in 
a light soil, and on a warm site. 

I. linifolia, or Flax-leaved Cand}i:uft, is another 
puce-coloured herbaceous Candytuft, about eighteen 
inches high. 

I. Taurica, or Taurean Cand}-tuft, is another dwarf 
white herbaceous sort worth growina:. 

In addition to these shrubby and herbaceous Candy- 



18S 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXING. 



tufts, there are several annual species and varieties 
very generally grown in gardens. These annual 
Candytufts have also been greatly improved of late 
years. The sweet - scented, however, or Iberis 
odorata, still holds the most prominent place. The 
old purpurea is also extensively grown, though the 
crimson and carmine strains have largely superseded 
the older purple Candytuft. The white Rocket and 
white Spiral are marvellous improvements on the 
older varieties, while the white and rose dwarf, or 
Tom Thumb, form dense masses of rich and rare 
beauty, far exceeding any of the older Candytufts, 
annual or otherwise. 

These fine annual Candytufts possess the merit of 
being almost as hardy as the shrubby or j)erennial 
herbaceous ones. They may also be had in flower 
throughout the greater pafft of the season by simply 
sowing them in succession from September to June. 
The seeds should be sown thinly on rather poor soil, 
in a sheltered spot, in the autumn, and again in 
February and May, when annual Candji;ufts are 
■wanted to keep up a succession of their beautiful 
and useful flowers throughout the season. 

The shrubby and evergreen herbaceous Candy- 
tufts, such as sempervirens and Tenoremia, may also 
be propagated by seeds sowm in the open, either so 
soon as ripe or in February or March. But these 
are more generally increased by cutting or division. 

The best time for rooting the cuttings is about a 
fortnight or three weeks after blooming. Remove 
the young shoots with a heel, and dibble them in 
thickly imder a cloche or hand-light, in sandy soil, 
and slightly shade from bright sunshine till rooted. 
Gradually expose to light and air, and plant out in 
flowering quarters, so as to have them fully estab- 
lished before winter. Those who have no glass may 
root Candytuft cuttings on a shady border without it. 
In that case the cuttings should be a little older and 
firmer before insertion, and the process of rooting 
will be slower. It will also be needful to frequently 
sprinkle the cuttings overhead, as well as shade them 
from direct sunshine. 

Root or stool di^TLsion is not so suitable for the pro- 
pagation of Candytufts as for Alyssums, Aubrietias, 
and many other plants. They are far more prone to 
run up with a single or a few stems than those 
similar plants ; and old plants of Candytufts flower 
more freely than younger ones. Hence it is not wise 
to disturb or divide them too often for purposes of 
propagation. Nor is it needful in situations where the 
shrubby Candytufts ripen seeds. Besides, plenty of 
cuttings may always be obtained, and when these are^ 
thinned out with knowledge and discretion, an 
abundance may be obtained for propagating pur- 
poses without greatly lessening the amount of bloom 
on the old plants. 



What with the more permanent species and varie- 
ties of shrubby and herbaceous, and the improved 
quality and greatly augmented numbers of annual 
Candytufts, a garden might be kept fairly well 
furnished with these alone throughout the year, at 
less cost and less trouble than with any other plant. 
Candytufts are also so tenacious of life, so easily 
suited wdth soil and other conditions, and seed so 
freely, that when once introduced into a garden, they 
mostly reproduce :hemselves without much fui'ther 
care or trouble, and hence, to a great extent, they are 
perhaps the most common of aU common flowers. 



GARDEN WALKS AND EOADS. 



GARDEN WALKS. 

IN a flower garden no walk should be narrower 
than three feet, as two cannot w^alk comfortably 
abreast on a narrower space. Beyond this, their 
breadth should be mainly determined by the w^ants 
and tastes of the proprietor, the size of the demesne, 
(fee. In the majority of gardens and pleasure- 
grounds the walks are too narrow ; in very few are 
they too wide. A distinction should also be drawn 
between walks for pleasure and those for ni.ere 
utility. Flower garden and pleasure - ground walks 
are of the fonner class, those in the kitchen garden 
of the latter ; and as long as these are of suflicient 
width to allow of two barrows passing, they serve 
every useful purpose. But very often the kitchen 
and fruit gardens are as much used as a promenade 
by the family as any other part of the demesne, and 
in such the width of the walks must be determined 
by similar considerations. 

Hence, in not a few gardens the walks are of a 
uniform width throughout. This imparts a noble, 
enjoyable, and easily accessible character to a place, 
which is seldom the least of its charms. 

No garden can appear neat and pleasurable where 
trim walks, clean and neatly kept, do not exist. 
Beyond doubt, gravel walks are most to be com- 
mended, though asphalt, cinder, grass, &c., often 
exist. The former is, however, liable to injury by 
frost and the use of the wheelbarrow; the second 
looks poor, and the third is not desirable during 
rainy weather, to say nothing of the labour it entails 
in mowing, and want of firmness generally. The 
base of a gravel walk should consist of rough 
brickbats or stones to half its depth, rough gravel 
for making it up to the needful level, with a coat 
of hoggin, or finely-sifted gravel, for the surface. 
From three to four feet are good widths for them, 
and they are mostly carried round the garden 
at distances of from six to nine feet from the walls ; 



GARDEN WALKS AND EOADS. 



189 



two or more walks of the same width, intersect- 
ing the garden in the middle, thus cutting it into 
four equal quarters. This is one of the most con- 
venient arrangements for cultural purposes, and 
with a fountain, Eose-arbour, covered seat, statue, 
v^ase, or other centre-piece in the middle of the 
garden, it also looks well and appropriate. 

Kitchen Garden Walks. — These being chiefly 
for utility, hardly any of the foregoing principles 
apply to them. As a rule they will follow the line 
of wall or other boundary fence, and they will also 
generally proceed from each ofher at right angles, as 
the ground is mostly some form of square in these. 
Kitchen garden ground being more valuable than 
that in either the flower garden or pleasure-grounds, 
the walks may, as a rule, be somewhat narrower. 
Any attempts that have been made to carry a wind- 
ing walk to any good purpose through a square or 
parallelogram devoted to vegetable culture have 
signally failed. 

Working Walks or Alleys. — More or less 
of these are generally associated with, and run 
parallel to, the main walks in kitchen gardens. 
These vary in width from six inches to eighteen, 
and are simply working paths for men and bar- 
rows. They are generally formed of earth only, 
or surfaced, for greater cleanliness, with ashes, 
sawdust, spent tan, or cocoa-fibre refuse. Some of 
them by the sides of fruit borders become semi- 
permanent paths ; others are dug in and re-made for 
convenience annually, or cftener, as the cropping 
proceeds. The space is simply set out, and two inches 
or so of the soil taken out with the spade and laid on 
either side. This is trodden down, raked, and beaten 
level with the back of the spade, and the sides cut 
down straight or at an angle. The bottom is then 
raked smooth, and the alley of the latter class is 
finished ; or the base may be surfaced with any of 
the materials already named, or sand, ballast, or burnt 
earth, where these abound near the spot. Others take 
even less trouble, merely lining out and trampling 
down the vacant space, and leaving it so. But good 
alleys are well worth the trouble they take in 
making, as affording ready and cleanly access to 
garden products in all weathers, and also for the 
neat and cared-for appearance they impart to the 
garden. 

These alleys and indeed, all the walks in the 
kitchen garden, were often foi-med of grass in the 
olden times. If well kept, these are most cleanly 
and enjoyable in dry weather; but they are very 
much the reverse during rain and snow, and dirty 
weather in general. They were also expensive to 
keep, and furnished harbours of refuge and the best 



of feeding - grounds for worms, slugs, and other 
garden pests. Hence the general abolition of grass 
walks or alleys in kitchen gardens. 

Abolition of Walks in Kitchen Gardens. 

— The labour of keeping, the risk of injury to the 
roots of important valuable crops, and the waste 
of space caused by walks, are so very considerable 
that some have proposed to dispense with them 
altogether in the vegetable and fruit gardens. 
In cases where the vegetable garden is large and at a 
considerable distance from the house, and thus is 
quite separated from the general pleasure-grounds, 
there seems little more urgent reason why it should 
be intersected with walks than fields devoted to root 
or even corn crops. Mere earth paths or roadways 
where the ground is dry may sufiice for the cartage of 
manure on to the ground or of produce off it. Where 
the ground is too heavy or tenacious for such path- 
ways to continue passable in wet weather, a layer, 
six inches or so in thickness, of burnt clay, marl, or 
other earth, cinder - ashes, slack, or other hard 
material, will make a fairly clean roadway or path 
in almost any weather. Even a few inches of saw- 
dust, spent tan, or cocoa-fibre refuse, have the merit 
of making a fairly clean pathway over the surface in 
the dirtiest weather. 

Commoner and Cheaper Walks. — Cinder- 
ashes, with a little unslaked lime; chalk, builders' 
rubbish, and grey lime ; gravel, with a dash of lime 
and cement ; and many sorts of burnt earth or 
ballast, either with or without any addition of 
cement, lime, or tar, carefully spread over the surface 
to the depth of a few inches, will make a temporary 
path that will answer in many places for years with- 
out much more trouble and expense. In all cases of 
making surface walks of this sort, the ground should 
be levelled and rammed hard at first, to insure the 
walk material, whatever it is, being of an uniform 
thickness throughout. Spread it evenly, roll it down 
firmly, and surface, if possible, with an inch or two 
of good gravel. On di-y ground, surface walks of 
this sort are not seldom good enough for kitchen 
gardens. Of course, the smaller the garden, the 
narrower the walks — as a rule; and though wide 
walks have been strongly advocated alike for com- 
fort and effect in these chapters, yet a walk a foot 
or eighteen inches wide, well made, and passable in 
all weathers, is really far more satisfactory than a 
six-feet walk that is transformed into bird-lime 
thi-ough very heaV}^ rain. 

A yet more simple path may be made on dry soil 
by simply raising it up well above the level with the 
earth on the spot and on either side of it, forming the 
crown of the path almost in the shape of a semi 



190 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



circle. Tread, ram, and roll the earth down solidly ; 
sprinkle with coal-ashes, gravel, burnt earth, or 
other non-adhesive, if available ; and such raised 
gangway will afford a cleanly passage to and 
fro for years. In any case, walks in kitchen or 
fruit gardens need not be made so deep as in the 
flower garden or pleasure-grounds. On most soils 
a depth of from four to six inches would prove 
sufficient, and if placed, as tney often are, within 
six feet or so of walls clothed with fruit-trees, the 
fruit border may be continued under the walk, and 
the walk made or laid carefully over *t. This may 
seem difficult on paper, but it is simple enough in 
practice, and answers well; the roots, as already 
stated, crowding under the walk more thickly than 
in the borders specially devoted to them. But this 
is treading on cultural grounds, though hardly out of 
place here, as in the garden structural and cultural 
matters are constantly running into or overlapping 
one another. 



MAINTENANCE OP ROADS AND WALKS. 
Never was the adage " A stitch in time saves nine " 
— or nine hundred for that matter — more literally 
true than in regard to the keeping of roads and walks 
in creditable condition. On roads especially, the first 
rut, if ever so small, should be at once filled up. If 
not, each rut helj)S every passing foot or wheel to dig 
it out deeper and yet deeper. This must be so ob- 
vious to all as to need no further insistance upon or 
illustration, and yet practically few responsible for 
the maintenance of roads act as if it were true. 
They are seldom repaired before they are virtually 
ruined, and hence road-repairs are perhaps the most 
unsatisfactory of all the many reckless investments 
that abound in this age of daring ventures and more 
haste than prudence. The proverbial folly of locking 
the stable after the horse is stolen is wisdom itself 
compared to the folly of deferring road-repairs till 
too late. In the one case only one horse is lost ; but 
here road, labour, horse-power, harness, time, and 
money are all thrown into a veritable bog or road 
without a bottom, and neither profit, pleasure, nor 
wisdom seems to follow in the wake of all these 
losses. 

Prompt repairs with the very best materials, is the 
secret of the maintenance of roads in good condition. 
Any compound of abominable rubbish is often ac- 
counted good enough for the repair of roads. They 
may or may not have been well made ; but here is a 
hole, and builders' rubbish, stone, flint, or half a brick, 
or a load of these, is hurled headlong into it. Such 
recklessness is not only foolish, it is almost criminal, 
inasmuch as it not only destroys property, but en- 
dangers life. It is hardly too much to affirm that 



nine-tenths of road accidents arise from the imper- 
fect construction and faulty repairs of roads. The 
majority of farm roads are in the most disgraceful 
state, in regard to both. But not a few gardens, and 
even carriage and public roads, are very far from 
what they ought to be, alike in construction and 
repair. 

A very little good granite or other hard stone or 
gravel, applied in the right time, place, and man- 
ner, proves far more effective than tons upon tons 
misapplied. Besides, very often little or no new 
material is needed. The traffic has caused a mis- 
placement only, and all that is needful is to place 
the road material back from whence it came, and 
ram or roU it down. 

"Weeds. — Weeds left to themselves are wellnigh 
as destructive to roads and walks as ruts or other 
destructive agents or causes. The roots loosen and 
disintegrate the hard materials, and the decomposi- 
tion of roots and tops alike gradually transforms 
these into mould, or covers them with a debris that 
is still more favourable to the development of jet 
more weeds. Besides, weeds mar the beauty of 
roads, and though they may not greatly hinder 
locomotion, they spoil the pleasure either of riding 
or of walking upon them. Prompt suppression or 
eradication, therefore, becomes a matter of the 
highest importance. 

Good making with cleanly and hard materials 
prevents the growth of weeds, while prevention is 
not only much better but infinitely cheaper than 
cure. Asphalt and concrete roads have this great 
advantage over those formed of stone and gravel — 
they are weedless. But on all other roads and walks 
the pest of weeds must be met and mastered as best 
it may. Frequent hoeings and scarifj'ings are the 
most frequent means employed to keep down weeds ; 
but they have several serious drawbacks. They des- 
troy the hardness and smoothness of the surface for 
the time being, and the loose granite forms a capital 
seed-bed for the seed of weeds, with which the air is 
fully stocked. Both these evils may be partially 
neutralised by heavy rollings. 

But on the best roads and walks these methods of 
eradicating weeds are rendered impracticable fi^om 
the hardness of their surface — hence, partially, 
and also on the ground of economy, the practices of 
pickling, poisoning, and scalding the weeds of the 
surface of roads and walks. All these processes have 
the immense advantage of not breaking up the 
surface ; they involve little labour, and act almost at 
once. 

Perhaps j)ickling the weeds to death with dry salt 
is really one of the simplest and most efficient of all 
these methods. The salt should first be run throu.gh 



GAEDEN WALKS AND EOADS. 



191 



a fine sieve, rubbing all the lumps through. Thus 
prepared, it not only goes almost as far again, but 
can be far more regularly distributed, two or three 
tons sufficing for the walks of a good-sized demesne. 
Applied in sunny weather if possible, and about the 
thickness of a mere shower of snow, that half covers, 
half reveals the surface, it proves very effective. 

To economise the salt and make its action more 
rapid and effectual, the late Mr. Fleming, of Trent- 
ham, invented a salting machine, consisting of a 
furnace, a copper, and a distributor, on wheels, which 
poured a fine shower of boiling brine on to the 
weeds, and made an end of them at once. The 
liquid was, however, apt at times to be blown on to 
the grass or edgings by the sides of walks or roads, 
and of course destroyed both. As a set-off against 
this, however, it must be stated that while dry salt 
lies on walks or roads, every wheel or foot leaving 
the gravel or stone for the turf carries disfigurement 
or death with it, until the adhering salt is all dis- 
solved and absorbed. 

The salting machines were so efficient and rapid in 
their action that some left out the salt, and converted 
them into mere scalding machines, from which boil- 
ing water was showered upon the weeds, with almost 
equally destructive effects ; and thus the chief objec- 
tion against salt — namely, that though at first de- 
structive it ultimately becomes a stimvilating manure 
— was got rid of. There is no doubt of its killing 
power, but it is equally evident that on certain soils, 
and in certain states of weather, fresh weeds spring- 
up rapidly on the heels of the salting process. Still, 
the plan is on the whole so cheap and efficient that 
the pickling of weeds off roads and walks is very 
generally practised. Our own plan for years has 
consisted in one light dressing of salt, and another 
of gravel, but little thicker than the salt, annually ; 
the former keeps down weeds, and the latter, com- 
bined with a secondary quality of the salt, imparts 
that brightness and semi-sparkling brilliancy of 
colouring which constitutes one of the chief charms 
of walks and roads. 

The pickling processes are almost as efficient 
against worms and slugs as for killing weeds, and, 
combined with frequent and heavy rollings, and an 
occasional sweeping when necessary, maintain stone 
or gravel surfaces in first-rate condition. 

For the poisoning of weeds ammoniacal gas-liquor, 
weak solutions of sulphuric acid, and paraffine or 
other mineral oils, have been used. None of these, 
however, are so simple, cheap, safe, or efficient as salt, 
and they can hardly be recommended for general use. 

One of the simplest aids to the good keeping of 
roads and walks is their constant use, and the using 
of the entire surface to the same extent. So much is 
this recognised in Scotland, where many of the finest 



roads are to be found, that lengths of trees, three or 
four feet long, mounted at one end on two legs a 
foot or so in length, are used in quantities to force 
the traffic into fresh chaimels every day. These are 
placed on at daylight, and removed before dark ; and 
no expenditure in keeping roads pays better. 

With a httle attention to this regular distribution 
of traffic over the entire area of walks, ifc would be 
found that few or no weeds would grow upon them. 
Finally, the more traffic and the oftener rolled the 
easier are they kept clean, as solidity is a powerful 
element in the good maintenance and preservation of 
a cleanly surface on either roads or walks. 



GRASS WALKS, ROADS, AND R1T)ES. 

Grass "Walks. — These are still among the 
most enjoyable features of many of our best gar- 
dens. In order to wear well, and prove really 
enjoyable, they should be thoroughly drained and 
well made, for similar reasons to those insisted 
upon in regard to ordinary walks and roads. Wet 
turf wears through with the slightest friction; 
comparatively dry, it will bear any amoimt of fric- 
tion from pedestrians, and even a great deal of 
light carriage traffic, without injury. Uniformity 
of depth and of quality of soil are also of vital im- 
portance to the development and maintenance of the 
highest qualities in grass walks and promenades. 
Where these have not been provided the grass wears 
into patches, and also grows in a similar waj to its 
utter disfigurement and ruin as a perfect and 
pleasant walk. Fat turf here, lean there, none 
yonder — these are the penalties exacted from 
scamping the work of due and careful preparation 
of base and soil for grass walks. 

Where these walks are bounded with trees, for 
the forming of avenues, even greater preparation is 
needful ; for the overshadowing of the trees as they 
grow up proves a powerful hindrance to the proper 
growth and maintenance of grass walks and rides. 
But, with a sufficient depth of soil of uniform quality 
throughout, this difficulty may be lessened very much, 
if not wholly overcome, and the grass promenade or 
walk maintained in that elastic condition and with 
that soft semi-velvety surface that indicate perfectien 
in a turf walk or avenue. 

On estates of any considerable extent, especially 
in the North of England and Scotland, these form 
one of the most delightful features of numerous 
domains. They vary in width from ten to twenty 
feet, and are swept through woods and plantations in 
bold sweeps and meandering curves. Straight rides, 
half a mile or a mile in length, are also sometimes 
formed, and have a rich and telling effect when 
carried through trees of large growth that, whether 



192 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXIXG. 



planted in regular lines or not, yet liave most of the 
noble effects of fine avenues. But most of the rides 
are so wound and curved through the woods as to 
bring out all the richest features of the woods, 
plantations, and near or distant scenery. Now the 
ride skirts the boundary of the wood, and anon it 
plunges into the dense shade or deep gloom of a 
Scotch Pine forest, fifty, a hundred, two hundred 
years old. Again, it passes through a forest of Oak, 
to be succeeded by one of Larch, Birch, or Beech. A 
commanding plateau is reached, which affords a broad 
view of grass and com fields, sandwiching each other 
with green and gold far as the eye can reach ; and 
soon after the ride plunges down a steep hill till the 
deafening roar of a broad river is heard, and its 
rapid-running waters are seen to foam and dash 
over its rough bed of boulders. On some estates 
known to us in Perthshire the grass-rides exceed an 
aggregate of twenty miles. 

For rides on horseback, drives in pony-phaetons 
and carriages, there are no walks or roads so charm- 
ing as grass-rides. Properly made and kept, they 
are always accessible and fit for use, imless in the 
very worst weather. 

On light dry soils— and such are the majority of 
those on which woods are planted — all that is need- 
ful is to stake out the ground, level it throughout, cut 
an open ditch on either side to the depth of a foot or 
eighteen inches, sow choice grass- seeds in April at 
the rate of 50lbs. per acre, roll heavily at times till 
the grass gets well established, and mow once or 
twice or more a year ever afterwards, with occasional 
rolling should the surface get loose, and top-dressing 
should the grass get poor. The lides will grow 
apace and remain in first-rate condition. Or the 
rides may be formed at once by laying them down 
with turves, a yard long, a foot wide, and an inch 
thick. Ham and roll these home, and the ride will 
be fit for use a few months after making. 

Through wet woods or plantations the ride should 
be raised six inches or a foot above the surrounding 
level ; brushwood, tile, or stone drains should be run 
into the ditches on either side ; the earth thoroughly 
consolidated; the ride sown with seeds or roughly 
laid with turf, such as may generally be found on 
the spot, and treated as the others on light soil. 

On most estates the crop of hay off the grass rides 
pays for their keeping. The making of rides costs 
but little, as the work is done in winter, when labour 
is plentiful ; and the pleasure derived from a gallop or 
drive over elastic turf, in select company, through 
the richest arboreal sylvan scenery, is simply in- 
expressible. The sanitary advantages of rides as 
exercismg-grounds for children and adults probably 
more than match their many feat-nx-s of interest and 
beauty. 



Good making, as in the matter of stone and 
gravel walks and roads, is the better half of perfect 
keeping, fetill, as grass grows, and dead road ma- 
terials do not (always excei^ting weeds, however), 
of course their modes of keeping are widely dif- 
ferent. The key to the perfect keeping of grass 
walks consists in their perpetual cutting or mowing 
and frequent rolling. iSolidity of base and substance 
and a short surface, are the surest means of making 
and keeping turf walks or lawns in perfect condi- 
tion. The closer and oftener, in reason, the grass is 
shorn, the faster it grows and the more the stems 
ramify in a horizontal direction. It is these under 
side-growths that impart durability and elasticity 
to grass walks and promenades. 

Now that we cut and roll simultaneously, and 
with a rapidity impossible and undi'eamt of by the 
best scythemen, there is no longer any excuse for 
that indifferent keepiag of grass walks which robs 
them of full half their charm. The w^ork is also 
much better as well as more quickly done, a weekly 
mowing being all that is needed to keep grass 
promenades in perfect order. 

It may also be needful occasionally to water them 
dm-ing parching droughts ; but watering is rather an 
exce]Dtional means of culture than a factor to be 
taken into serious account in the ordinary keeping of 
grass walks or avenues. 

Of course, too, in the autumn and ^-inter, when 
mowing may not be necessary, the broom, rake, or 
sweeping-machine vnll be used to remove all dirt, 
debris, worm-casts, and fallen leaves, as either of 
these, allowed to accumulate on the surface, not only 
destroy the beauty, but also injure or destroy the 
grass. 

Top-dressing of Grass Walks. — Of all the 

slovenly receipts for the pm-pose of renewing or 
maintaining the vigour and verdure of these, that 
of lea\ing the grass mown off on the sm^face is 
the worst. This modern method is as slovenly as 
it is inefficient. AMien well made and properly 
kept, grass walks will last for years without any 
dressing whatever. And when they show signs 
of exhaustion, a surface sprinkling of rich compost, 
half an inch or so thick, applied in November, and 
raked in, is the best possible stimulator of weakly- 
growing grass ; or the dressing may be applied in 
]March or April, and, if the grass seems thin, a fair 
sj)rinkling of the finer lawn , grass-seeds raked and 
rolled in -^nth the dressing. Where such dressings 
are objected to, a sprinkling of guano or carbonate 
of soda applied in showery weather re'^'ives the 
drooping grasses at once to their pristine ^-igour, 
verdure, and beauty. 

When such means of restoration have been 



GAEDEN WALKS AND ROADS. 



193 




neglected, and the grass walk lias fallen, meta- 
phorically, into ruts and muddiness, the simplest as 
well as the only radical cure is to lift the turf, in 
October or November, see to the repair and unblock- 
ing of the drains if need be, re-level the ground if 
it has subsided into irregularity of surface, add an 
inch or two of fresh compost, and re-lay the turf. 
The effect is almost magical ; even the simple pro- 
cesses of re-levelling the ground and fresh laying 
the turf being generally sufficient without the extra 
aid of top-dressings. In cases where the old turf 
will not suffice to cover the new surface, the defi- 
ciency may be made 
up from the nearest 
common or roadside ; 
or the existing turf 
may be torn, not cut, 
into pieces ten inches 
across, and laid down 
roughly, so as to regu- 
larly cover the space, 
leaving about equal in- 
terstices between. If 
evenly rammed or 
rolled in, so that the 
pieces of turf almost 
disappear, they will 
spread so rapidly hori- 
zontally as speedily to 
cover the entire surface 
and make a good grass walk 
for years. This process — 
technically called "inocula- 
tion" — will be again ad- 
verted to when we come to 
treat upon grass lawns, as, 
where these are made or im- 
proved on a wide scale, it 

proves an immense saving of turf, labour, and con- 
sequent expense. 

EDGINGS FOR GARDEN WALKS. 
In pleasure-grounds and flower gardens nothing 
equals turf. In kitchen gardens nothing can match 
ornamental tiles, stone, cement or compost, terra- 
cotta, cast-iron, slate, or glass ; all these can now be 
had, of chaste patterns and at a cheap rate, and they 
leave little to be desired in the way of cleanly, orna- 
mental, durable, and efficient walk edgings (Fig. 5), 
Flints from chalk' strata, pebbles from the sea- 
shore, shells, bricks, and clinkers are also often used 
for edgings. Common bricks, or white Suf- 
folk bricks (costing about £4 per thousand), 
laid end to end with one of the four square edges 
uppermost, have a neat appearance, and lie tightly 
when the edges are laid evenly against each other 
13 



Fig. 5.— Terra-cotta Edgings. 




from end to end. The white Suffolk are hard and 
cheerful. The common red become somewhat green 
with age, and as they show only an angular edge 
above ground, are not distasteful. Both their 
utility and appearance may be greatly aided, how- 
ever, by giving them one or two coats of liquid 
cement ; and to suit individual tastes this latter may 
be coloured somewhat if needful, though the stone 
tint of the cement is perhaps more desirable than any 
other. One other form of edging is commendable. 
It consists of the extremely hard and endurable kind 
of minor brick known as " clinker," generally used 
for stable floors, con- 
sisting of long narrow 
shape, roughly formed 
and burnt. They 
prove, when laid slop- 
ing one against the 
other, with only an 
angle of a corner of 
each above ground, 
very neat, and of a 
pleasing rustic appear- 
ance (Fig. 6). Fixed 
firmly together, these 
also are not easily dis- 
turbed. With the soil 
firmly attached upon 
the walk side, forking 
the border on the inner 
side can be fully performed 
without moving them. 

Living Edgings. — 

Among these. Box is still the 
most popular and most suit- 
able. It is also one of the 
oldest garden edgings in ex- 
istence. It has been so long in use for this purpose, 
and so vigorously suppressed, as to have attained to 
a lowness of stature that has become a second nature 
to this particular variety. Dwarf, dense, and green, 
it is the beau-ideal of a living walk edging. Well 
laid on a solid base of hard soil, and only per- 
mitted to grow to two or, at the most, three 
inches high, and from an inch to two through, 
it is at once neat and efficient. It becomes objec- 
tionable when allowed to grow out of form into 
excessive bulk. The roots then draw the goodness 
from other crops, and the tops afford shelter and 
breeding-places for slugs and other vermin. Clipped 
twice a year, in April and July, and cut into the form 
of a sharp-pointed wedge, few edgings look better 
than a neatly-cut line of li\-ing Box as a dividing 
line between the earth and the gravel. 

Box edgings are easily laid. Previous to finish- 



Brick Edging. 



191 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



ing gravelling, a ridge of soil is placed along both, 
sides of each walk to line and measurement, so as to 
form its exact site. Such soil, having a line stretched 
tightly over it from end to end, is heaten down 
firmly and evenly upon its surface to a level with 
the mean level of the borders. With the spade a 
trench is chopped out along the line, perfectly 
straight on the side next the walk. The Box, pulled 
into uniform sizes of about five inches each, with 
roots attached, is subsequently placed firmly in such 
trench, with about an inch of its apices only above 
the ground-level. It is then buried with the soil 
removed when forming the trench, being well 
trodden in and made firm, when gravel is placed 
against it, and the lajdng of the edging and the 
surfacing of the walks are thus completed. 

Box edgings will last indefinitely when annually 
clipped closely during the month of June. But 
although when well laid they may be almost looked 
upon as permanent, yet they generally thrive best 
when renewed at intervals of, say, from three to 
five years ; the constant cutting is apt to produce a 
stunted and thickened condition of root, which is 
best counteracted by division. When the Box is 
re-laid, as above described, all the inferior and 
surplus stock should be laid in up to within an inch 
of its top in good ground. The plants will root 
right up to the limits of their buried portion, and 
this reserve should be freely drawn upon at each 
fresh re-laying of the edgings. Where the edgings 
have become at all old or unhealthy, these also 
should be torn to pieces in small portions, and laid 
in the reserve ground for Box, and the fresh edgings 
entirely formed from the reserve ground. 

Box will not thrive upon wet or very heavy- 
ground, and on such either dead edgings should be 
used, or some lighter soil employed for the growth 
of the Box. The latter thrives well in the black, 
rather rich mould, mostly found in old kitchen 
gardens. Care must also be taken not to wheel nor 
walk over Box edgings, as, though the injury may 
not show or look serious at the time, all such 
wounds and bruises will reveal an absolute blank, 
or a yellow- jaundiced look, more disfiguring than 
a blank, soon after the injury has been inflicted. 
To prevent these and other injuries to Box edgings, a 
Box-bridge of some sort should always exist in gar- 
dens where living edgmgs are much used. This 
may consist of a straight piece of board a yard long 
and three or four inches wide, with a cross-piece four 
inches deep nailed on one end ; this is placed a foot 
or so inside the Box edging, and the other end on 
the walk, thus enabling barrows to be wheeled over 
without injury to the edging. Other bridges are 
curved or hollowed out in the middle so as to clear 
the Box, and afford an easy passage from either side. 



Though there is no doubt that the common garden 
Box — that is, Buxus sempervirens nana — is the best 
edging plant for the kitchen garden, the following 
succeed well in various localities : the four variegated 
Euonymuses — argentea, variegata, aurea variegata, 
and latif alius aurea marginata ; the silver and golden 
variegated Yew; the golden Japanese Honeysuckle; 
the silver-leaved, golden, and green Periwinkle ; 
Andromeda latifolia, Kalmia latifolia, the smaller 
Retinosporas, Veronica incana, Osmanthus varie- 
gatum nanum, Pernettya macronaia, and on light or 
peaty soils such hardy Heaths as Erica ciliaris, E. c. 
alba, E. tetralix, E. t. alba, E. Mediterraneas, E. M. 
alba, E. multiflora, E. m. rubra, E. calluna, E. vul- 
garis alba, E. v. aurea, E. v. coccinea, &c. Where 
such plants thrive, nothing can well look more 
charmingly beautiful than some of them either in 
kitchen or flower gardens. Then the variegated and 
other Ivies, especially such a strikingly beautiful 
one as the golden Japanese Ivy, are a whole host in 
themselves. The silver and other Maples, common 
and purple-leaved Beech, purple Filbert, and some 
of the finer Berberries, Butcher's Broom, and Gotone- 
asters, make striking walk edgings. 

Among herbaceous plants, the Thrift, or Sea-Pink, 
of which there are several varieties, the blue Gentian, 
and the Moss-leaved Saxifrage, the common House- 
Leek, and other Sedums, form good and permanent 
edgings. Primroses, Violets, Daisies, and many other 
dwarf compact-growing plants, have hardly sufficient 
bulk or permanency in winter for edgings. Thjine, 
especially the Golden Lemon, and other herbs, 
such as Chives, Burnet, Pennyroyal, and Parsley, 
are often used as an edging plant in kitchen 
gardens, and some of the many varieties of the extra- 
curled Moss-leaved Parsley, such as Beauty of the 
Boudoir, are among the most beautiful of all edgings. 
Unfortunately, however, unless the w^alks are speci- 
ally smooth, hard, and clean, the Parsley gets 
splashed and spoilt for use in such positions. 

While li\dng edgings are the most pleasant, they 
are seldom the most profitable. Most of them are 
rather troublesome to make and keep, and need re- 
newal every few years. Most of them exhaust the 
soil very much, especially along their inner or crop- 
growing side. Box especially has a w^onderful ten- 
dency to seek out, run into, and exhaust the good pro- 
perties of the earth in contact with it, and to grow to 
excess in consequence. Other li%ang edgings, especi- 
ally such as Ivy, grass, and Box, foi-m harbours for 
slugs, worms, and other garden pests, in which they 
breed with extraordinary rapidity, and defy des- 
truction. 

The use of living edgings also prevents the use 
of salt, poison, or hot water, in the keejnng of the 
walks free from weeds. All such walks must either 



THE LIFE -HISTORY OF PLANTS. 



195 



be kept clean by band-weeding, or by tbe old- 
fasbioned plan of boeing, raking, and rolling, several 
times a year. Tbougb tbe last involves a consider- 
able amount of labour, it is not labour lost in kitcben 
and fruit gardens, in wbicb comparatively loose and 
frequently scarified walks will prove most favourable 
to the roots of fruit-trees, busbes, and those of other 
crops, that often run further and increase and 
multiply faster under the walks than anywhere else. 



THE LIFE-HISTORY OF PLANTS. 

By Db. Maxwell T. Masteus, F.E.S, 

GROWTH OF BUDS. 

IN considering the seed, it was shown bow, in tbe 
first instance, before the seedling could in any 
way shift for itself, it was dependent for its food 
upon tbe stores laid up beforehand for its use in tbe 
perisperm or elsewhere. Tbe genial beat of spring 




Fig. 18.— Terminal Bud of Ash, enclosed in Bud-scales. 
Two side buds of later generation are seen beneath. 

might, indeed set tbe juices in motion, but of what 
avail would that be were there an empty larder? 
Provident Nature, however, takes care that this 
shall not be. Tbe life-work of tbe plant whose 
course we have to trace largely consists in tbe for- 
mation and accumulation of reserve supplies for 
future use. As it was with the seedling, so it is 
with tbe bud. Apart from the special peculiarities 
of its origin— a matter to be hereafter alluded to — a 
seedling has much in common with a bud, struc- 
turally and functionally. With the exception we 
have noted, its history is much tbe same. 

IsTature of Buds. — Speaking generally, and for 
the moment without reference to detail, a bud 
consists of a central growing point, surrounded by 
scales, as shown in Figs. 18 — 21, showing the buds of 
various plants still invested by scales, or in process 
of growth, during which the scales separate and 
ultimately become detached. The expression " grow- 
ing point " is applied more particularly to those 



parts of tbe plant by the increased development oi 
which tbe plant grows in length. Strictly speaking, 
it should not be confined exclusively to growth in 
length, but as no inconvenience arises from the 
limitation, we need not dispense with what is a con- 
venient and intelligible symbol. In the seedling 
plant, as has been already mentioned, two such grow- 
ing points were specially noticeable, tbe one with a 
general tendency to grow downwards, to form tbe root, 
tbe other with a propensity to grow in tbe opposite 
direction, and to form tbe stem and its subdivisions, 
the branches. In tbe bud there is, to begin with at 
least, only one such growing point, and its tendency 
is to grow upwards. It may be objected that in 
many cases it grows sideways rather than upwards, 
but that is an accident of its position not affecting 
the general truth of the statement. In Fig. 18, for 
instance, if any accident occurred to the end bud, 
tbe side ones would probably lengthen into shoots at 




Fig. 19.— TJnexpanded Bud of Horse-Chestnut, 

once, without waiting as they otherwise would do. 
Wherever the growing point has fair play, and is 
free to grow as it pleases, it grows more or less veiti- 
cally upwards. Tbe growing point of a bud, then, 
is tbe structural equivalent of tbe plumule or rudi- 
mentary stem of the seedling. 

How Buds are Nourished.— It has been 
shown whence the plumule derives its food, and we 
have now to inquire from what source tbe young bud 
gets its supplies. Obviously the bud-scales, dry and 
thin as they are, are not likely as a rule to contain 
much food. They cannot act as foster-mothers to 
the young bud. Moreover, there are plenty of buds 
destitute of any scales. Tbe only other available 
source is the branch from which the buds spring, 
and here, in fact, we shall find an abundance of 
food stored up in reserve, just as we did in the 
perisperm of the seed. Beneath the young rind or 
the dry scaly bark of a twig, between it and Ibe 
central woody or pithy matter, there is a store of 



196 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENINa. 



available nutriment. Just beneath, the skin of a 
human being, or of any animal, there is a thin layer 
of granules of fat, capable of being used in the nutri- 
tion of the body, and deposited for that purpose. 
So it is with ordinary trees or shrubs. Just be- 
neath the outer layers of the rind or bark, which 
are mostly dead, there is a layer filled with nutri- 
tive matter — abundantly so in late autumn and 
winter, less markedly so in spring and summer, 




Fig. 20. — Expanding Bud of Horse-Chestnut, showing the 
bud-scales which fall off as the leaves develop. 



while growth is going on actively, and there is a 
brisk call on the resources of the plant. 

It is found, moreover, by anatomists, that the buds 
originate in the vicinity of this food-layer ; they do 
not spring from the deeper central portions of the 
stem, but from the portions nearer to the surface. 
The operation of budding affords a familiar illustra- 
tion of this. In this process a bud from one plant is 
implanted beneath the bark of another, care being 
taken not to cut the stem too deeply, but only to the 
level of the food-layer, in the immediate vicinity of 
or actually in which the bud is implanted, (See Figs. 
22, 23, also page 233.) In this case, then, the transit 



of food and fuel to the machine requiring it is a short 
one. The bud, like the seedling plant, is thus at hrst 
dependent on the funded capital reserved for its use. 
That capital may roughly be compared to bullion ; 
before it can be realised and rendered available for 
use, it has to be coined, and this process of convert- 
ing bullion into coin is, as it was in the case of the 
seed, the conversion of the insoluble into the soluble 
— a conversion effected, it is to be presumed, in the 
same manner and by the same agency as already de- 




Fig 21.— Leaf-bud of the Poplar. 

scribed in the case of the seed. Before any part of 
the plant, seed, or bud can earn an income for itself, 
it is necessarily dependent on stored-up capital. It 
uses up that capital in the formation of new growths 
and in the development of force, as we shall here- 
after see. The relations and the due proportion that 
capital, income, and expenditure bear one to the 
other, require to be, and are, adjusted by the living 
plant with the utmost nicety. The business of the 
physiologist is to find out as much as he possibly can 
of these complicated but all-important relations, and 
of the circumstances, external or in the plant itself, 
which control or modify them. It is the business 
of the gardener to turn the information so acquired 
to practical use. 



THE LIFE -HISTORY OF PLANTS. 



197 



Periodicity of Life.— One thing of great im- 
portance to determine is the time at which these 
several operations take place, because the successful 
treatment of the plant under cultivation must of 
necessity be regulated by it. 

" There is a time for all things," we are told, and 
that is true, but its truth does not preclude the 
possibility of the concurrent action of diiierent 
things at the same time. A plant in full activity, like 
any other living thing, is certainly spending and 
gaining at one and the same time, but unless a proper 
ratio be observed, its activity declines or becomes 
deranged. In the spring of the year expendituie 
is in excess of income, 
and if there were no re- 
serve to draw upon, it is 
easy to imagine what the 
result would be. Gar- 
deners attribute the cha- 
racter of the following 
season's growth to the 
" well-ripened " or " ill- 
ripened wood" of the 
previous autumn, and 
though the expression is 
perhaps open to some 
technical exception, it 
nevertheless covers a sub- 
stantial truth. From this 
point of view, the ripening 
of the wood, the mere 
skeleton of the plant, is not 
of so much consequence, 
but rather the formation 
and storage of food in 
the inner bark and, to 

some extent, in the young unripened wood. Unless 
during the summer and autumn a sufficiency of 
suitable bullion-food — if we may be allowed such an 
expression — be laid up in the store-places of the plant, 
the growth will be poor in proportion, because there 
will be no coins to make it with. This constitutes one 
difference between annual and perennial plants. 
The energies of an annual plant are concentrated in 
the formation of seed ; this effected, there is no 
other store-house to be filled with bullion, and the 
individual plant dies, leaving the seed only to 
continue the race. In a perennial plant the energy 
and life-work is not solely concentrated on seed- 
production, but food is stored up in the bark, in the 
tuber, in the bulb-scale, or elsewhere ; and the indi- 
vidual plant does not wholly die, but bark or bud, 
tuber or root-stock, or what not, remains in a 
relatively quiescent state, to burst forth again into 
activity at the appointed season. This brings us 
back to the consideration of the bud as a growing- 



Fig. 22.— T-shaped Cut 
in the Bark of a 
Rose to allow of 
tbe insertion of a 
Bud. 



point formed in summer or autumn, quiescent 
through the winter, roused into activity in spring, 
drawing upon the reserves for its supply, and at first 
incapable of earning income for itself. 

Individuality of Buds. — An ordinary shrub 
or tree naturally bears hundreds of such buds, but 
though thus associated and growing from a common 
stem, yet each bud has an individuality of its own — 
an individuality in some cases so strong as to enable 
it to live and go on its way without the aid of its 
fellows. An instance of this has already been cited 
in the case of Eose-budding. If the detached bud 
were not in a measure 
self - contained, it could 
not be transplanted with 
the successful result that 
gladdens the Rose-grower. 
A " cutting " or a " slip," 
again, is nothing but a 
portion of the stem or 
branch bearing one or 
more buds, which, with 
the necessary care be- 
stowed by the gardener, 
in due time grow into 
shoots as if they had never 
been severed from the 
parent stem. So, too, 
there are some plants in 
which the buds become in 
course of growth naturally 
detached, and grow into 
distinct plants. This is the 
case with the Tiger Lily, 
whose deciduous buds are 
fleshy scales of which con- 
bud till it can 




Fig. 23.— Bud of Rose de- 
tached, and inserted 
within the Slit of 
the Bark, as in bud- 
ding. 



in fact small bulbs, the 
tain the food necessary for the youn, 
shift for itself. 

Another illustration of the independence of indi- 
vidual buds is shown by the growth of a Vine in a 
lean-to green-house ; the buds at the upper part of the 
cane in the warm corner next the top of the house 
burst into leaf before those at the lower part, because 
they are subjected to more light, and more especially 
to greater heat, than those at the bottom. 

So with a Wistaria growing outside, but in which 
one branch has been allowed to enter the green- 
house ; the buds outside may be still at rest, while 
those within are in full leaf and flower. 

In these cases the buds have, stimulated by tli3 
heat, availed themselves of the resources in the stem, 
long before other buds, less favourably situated, 
could do so, and before root-action is set up in the 
roots growing outside. 

The terminal bud — that one placed at the end of 



198 



CASSELL'S POPULAU GARDENING. 



each shoot — is usually larger and better developed 
than 1 he rest, and very generally it expands before the 
side buds in spring (as shown in the case of the Ash, 
Fig. 18). This earlier expansion is generally attri- 
buted to a fuller supply of " sap," which, as it 
is said, rushes more freely in a direct line to the 
terminal bud than it does to the side ones which 
it reaches obliquely. But, as has been shown, the 
buds begin to expand before there is any such rush 
of so-called sap as is here assumed, and the real ex- 
planation is probably to be sought in the earher pro- 
duction, larger size, and usually more favourable 
position of the terminal bud as regards exposure to 
solar influence. A curious 
illustration of this is 
afforded by various Coni- 
fers. Take for example 
Abies Nordmatmiana. Here 
the leader shoot consists of 
a cluster of buds, a central 
one surrounded by a ring 
of side buds. On the gar- 
dener's hypothesis the cen- 
tral one, from its erect 
position, ought to start first. 
But it is not so ; the side 
buds are in this case placed 
nearly horizontally, and 
start first into growth, 
stimulated thereto proba- 
bly by the greater amount 
of sun-heat impinging on 
them more directly than 
on the erect terminal bud. 
That light of itself is not 
the main agent in stimu- 
lating bud-growth is ob 
vious from a variety of 

considerations, some of which will receive atten- 
tion further on. At any rate, the universal expe- 
rience of those who have to "force" plants is that 
heat is the essential agent in starting bud-growth. 

Another reason for the earlier development of 
certain buds than others, and one also illustrating 
the comparative independence of indi^adual buds, is 
to be sought not in any supposed greater rush of sap 
in any particular direction, but in the presence of 
larger or more readily available supplies in one 
place than another. Some Pear-trees under observa- 
tion in early spring, had some of their branches as 
usual contracted and thick, others thin and long. The^ 
former are what gardeners call " spurs," and it is 
on them that the flowers, and ultimately the fruit, 
are specially developed. The other thinner branches 
are the result of the " extension shoots," which bear 
mostly leaves only, and whose office it is more parti- 




Fig. 24.— Bud of Eed Currant, showing leaves and in 
tloresceuce spiingiug from the same bud. 



cularly to form the framework of the tree. The 
"spurs "have relatively much less wood in them, 
but are laden with food to a much larger extent 
than the " extension shoots," as might naturally be 
expected from the work they have to do. In the 
case before us, however, the "spurs " did not all bear 
flowers, but some of them leaves only, and these 
leaves, at the time of writing, were fully expanded, 
while those on the "extension shoots," where the 
available nutriment was less abundant, were still at 
rest, or at most only slightly unfolded. The earlier 
expansion of some buds is then due partly to their 
age, position, and direction, insuring earlier and 
fuller exposure to favour- 
able conditions, and partly 
to superior advantages in 
the way of obtaining food. 

Varieties of Bud. — 

Having glanced at the 
general character and work 
of the buds, we may now 
enter a little more fully 
into detail as to their 
varieties. Full particulars 
must be sought in botanical 
text-books, and still better 
by a careful examination 
of the buds of all plants 
that come under observa- 
tion. In particular, the 
conformation and arrange- 
ment of the bud may 
be recommended to young 
gardeners as not only easy 
of observation, but of 
primary importance to 
them in such practical 
matters as pruning and training, the development of 
flowers, or the growth of wood. The disposition and 
structm-e of the bud of the plants they have to 
cultivate should form one of their first studies ; and 
as a guide to practice they will find it necessary 
to revert to it again and again. This may be under- 
stood from the circumstance that the arrangement of 
the flowers, the shape of the tree or plant, and the 
disposition of its branches, all depend upon the 
nature, arrangement, and mode of growth of the 
buds. In this place we can only deal with certain 
generalities, such as the distinction between leaf- 
buds, or wood-buds, as gardeners call them, and flower- 
buds. Usually, the leaf-buds are more elongated 
and sharply pointed than the flower-buds, which are 
rounded, or egg-shaped. Moreover, they frequently 
occupy a different position. It must, however, be 
remembered that in very many cases, as in the Pear, 



COmiON GAEDEN FLOWERS. 



199 



or Currant, leaves and flowers are comlDined in the 
same bud. The position of the bud at the ends of 
shoots, as shown in Figs. 18, 19, 20, or at the sides, as 
in the Poplar, Fig. 21 (terminal and side buds), has 
been already alluded to, but with regard to the side 
buds it may be pointed out that, although not exclu- 
sively confined to those situations, they very generally 
arise fi'om what is called the " axil " of a leaf, by 
which is meant the angle formed at the junction of 
the leaf with the branch that bears it. This little 
nook or corner is the " axil," and a bud occupying 
such a position is spoken of as " axillary." Generally 
only one bud is found in the axil of a leaf, but to this 
rule there are very many exceptions, as, for instance, 
in the Peach, wherein on the lower parts of the shoots 
the buds are placed singly, higher up they are 
ranged in pairs, or in thi-ees. In the latter case the 
side buds are usually 
flower-buds, the cen- 
tral, thinner and more 
pointed, being a leaf- 
bud. It is important 
also to note that the 
terminal bud of neces- 
sity belongs to a gene- 
lution anterior to the 
side bud. The abso- 
lute difference in point 
of time may be, and is 
generally, slight be- 
tween the formation and development of the end 
and of the side bud respectively; but occasionally, 
as after an injury from frost, insects, or other 
cause, the difference becomes one of practical im- 
portance. 

Buds may be formed in other situations besides 
those mentioned, wherever there is nourishment at 
hand, and wherever there is a growing point or 
tissues which, not being reduced to a quiescent state, 
as in the case of the so-called permanent tissues, are 
still capable of forming one. It very frequently 
happens that buds are formed, but which under 
ordinary circumstances never develop, remaining 
" dormant." In consequence of this buds are, as 
just alluded to, frequently developed as the result 
of auy injury which stimulates the formation either 
of " adventitious buds," or rouses into activity the 
dormant buds above spoken of. Illustrations of 
this are met with in the case of pollarded trees. 
Buds may also be formed without previous injury on 
the leaves, as va. Bryophyllum ; and some plants {e.g., 
Gloxinias and Begonias) are constantly propagated 
in this way, the leaves being fastened down to tbe 
surface of the soil, and kept in a warm moist 
atmosphere. Such cases do not invalidate the 
rule that buds are formed at the expense of reserve 



materials, seeing that they derive their nourish- 
ment in the first instance from the leaf on which 
they are borne. 

Bud-scales. — Many buds, but by no means all, 
are invested by scales — bud-scales, as shown in Figs. 
18—21. This is the case with " winter buds," which, 
formed in summer, have to remain dormant through 
the winter till the following spring. The scales are 
generally merely degenerate or abortive leaves — 
serving the purpose of protecting the young growing 
point, and the tiny delicate-structured leaves emana- 
ting from it, from the effects of radiation, or from the 
penetration of cold or moisture from without. They 
serve, in fact, the same purpose as the seed-coats 
do for the seedling plant. To these ends they are 
not unfrequently invested with hair, or covered with a 
resinous or waxy exu- 
dation which answers 
the same purpose. 
That the bud -scales 
are merely modified 
leaves is seen by the 
circumstance that 
they are arranged in 
the same manner, and 
that in many jplants 
all degrees between 
a scale and a perfect 
leaf may be met 
with — as, for instance, in the bud -scales of the 
Currant, as shown in Fig. 25. 



COMMOISr GAEDEN FLOWEES. 



STOCKS, WALLFLOWERS, SNOW-IN-SUMMEB, 
THRIFT. 

The Grillyflower Stock {Ma thio la). —Several 
flowers have borne the common name of Gillyflower, 
such as the Carnation, the Leucojum, and the 
Hesperis, or Pocket ; but now-a-days we associate 
with the term both the Stock and the Wallflower. 
Now the Stocks form a large group ; there are Ten- 
week Stocks, Queen Stocks, Brompton Stocks, 
Intermediate Stocks, and one or two others. The 
most common in our gardens are the Ten- week 
Stocks, but these are annuals ; the Intermediate 
Stocks are biennial and annual both, but they are 
generally made biennials by sowing the seeds in 
July and August and flowering the plants in spring; 
the Q,ueen and Brompton Stocks are true biennials, 
flowering in spring and early summer. 

The annual or Ten-week Stocks are a large 
group, and include a great variety of colours. They 




Fig. 25.— Bud scales of Eed Curraut, sliowing the transition from 
scales to perfect leaves. 



200 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENINa. 



are divided into types — that is to say, some are 
much finer than others ; the common Ten- weeks are 
inferior to the Pyramidal and the Perfection ; the 
two latter are of taller and stronger growth, and 
produce very fine spikes of large double flowers, and 
they are recommended to the attention of those who 
grow Stocks for exhibition purposes. Some are 
more branching than others, but all are very good ; 
and for general garden purposes the ordinary Ten- 
weeks will be found satisfactory. 

Annual Stocks are classed among the half-hardy 
annuals, and it is best and safest to sow the seed 
under glass about the end of March, in pans or 
shallow boxes, filled with sweet, light, sandy soil. 
By the middle of May the plants should be getting 
quite strong ; the pans can be placed in a sheltered 
spot in the open ground, and when the plants are a 
little hardened they may be transplanted into their 
permanent places, either in beds or borders, in a good 
lich loam. This is supposing there is no cold frame 
at the disposal of the cultivator, but if there is, and 
he can prick out his seedling Stocks into a well- 
prepared bed, he will find it of great advantage to do 
so, as when transplanted with nice balls of roots 
they will do so much better in consequence, grow 
stronger, and come into flower earlier. Some growers 
of Stocks sow their seeds in the oj)en ground in 
April, and when the plants have grown large enough, 
thin them out, and leave the strongest to flower. 
By doing this any check from transplanting is 
avoided; but the seed should be sown in the open 
ground only when the soil is rather light, sandy and 
rich. There is another thing to be said in favour of 
sowing seeds of Stocks in the open ground: there are 
no losses of plants from mildew, such as frequently 
happens when the seeds are raised in a frame. 

The Intermediate Stocks are most valuable for 
house and window decoration in the spring, and 
thousands of plants are grown and sent to market in 
spring in pots. There are tw-o colours generally 
grown — the scarlet and the white, and although the 
scarlet is the most common, the white is not less 
pleasing and effective, and both are very double, fine 
in colour, and richly fragrant. The best time to sow 
seed of Intermediate Stocks is in September, and 
it should be done in a house or cold frame early in 
the month, and when large enough the plants should 
be pricked singly into small pots ; or place three or 
four plants into a larger pot to stand the winter. The 
usual practice is to grow single plants in a four-inch 
pot, and when put in good soil they make fine bushy 
specimens, blooming freely and finely. One chief 
use of Intermediate Stocks is to put them into 
outside window-boxes in spring, where they ai-e very 
gay. Any small plants can be put out into the open 
border in spring; but in order to preserve Inter- 



mediate Stocks safely through the winter, a green- 
house or frame is absolutely necessary. 

There is a strain of Intermediate Stocks known 
as the East Lothian. This is identical with the 
autumnal Stocks of the German growers, and is 
represented by a dwarf, free-growing, bushy, hardy 
strain, that freely flowers in autumn if the seeds be 
sown early in the year, and the plants placed in the 
open air in good soil. There are no Stocks freer in 
flowering than these autumnal types ; and if the 
winter be mild they continue to bloom all through 
the spring. They are much used in Scotland, and 
that is how it is they have come to be known as East 
Lothian Stocks. They are well deserving the atten- 
tion of the flower gardener. 

Under the head of Brompton Stocks we get three 
or four types differing somewhat in character, but 
all are remarkable for the size of their spikes of 
bloom, and their striking appearance in our gardens 
during May and June. True Brompton Stocks are 
of tall, vigorous growth ; the scarlet and white 
giant varieties produce remarkable spikes of large 
double flowers. There is a giant purple variety also, 
but it is somewhat scarce. On the other hand, the 
Queen Stocks are dwarf and bushy, and very free in 
bloom ; and it is the purple, white, and scarlet flowers 
of these that can be seen in bunches in Covent 
Garden and other markets during the months of 
May and June. A good strain is very double in 
character, and no better or more useful biennial 
Stocks can be grown for cutting purposes. The 
Emperor Stocks are between these two, having the 
characteristics of both ; individual plants branch very 
much, and throw many and fine spikes of bloom. 
They represent, in aU probability, a giant form of 
the autumnal Stocks. Then there are the dwarf 
Cape Stocks, closely resembling the Emperor, rather 
freer in growth, but not quite so prolific of bloom as 
the autumnal varieties. The colours of aU these 
four types are limited; the best are purple, white, 
and scarlet. We have described their characters a 
little fully because they are found in seed catalogues, 
and we are desirous that our readers shotdd know as 
much about them as possible. 

Seeds of all the biennial Stocks should be sown in 
the open ground during May and J une ; the result 
will be good strong plants for transplanting during 
showery weather about August. These Stocks do 
well under the shade of trees and shrubs ; for if too 
much exposed on cold soil they are liable to damage 
from frost, especially if the plants be very robust and 
succulent. 

There are two or three points about Stocks that 
are a little puzziing. One is the existence of what are 
known as Wallflower-leaved varieties. The leaves 
of the ordinary Stocks are greyish-green, soft and 



COMIION GARDEN FLOWERS. 





202 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENINa. 



downy. The Wallflower-leaved Stocks have leaves 
of a bright shining green, smooth, and without a 
particle of down. How did the Wallflower-leaved 
varieties originate ? We cannot get any satisfactory 
reply. The foliage is in direct contrast to that of 
other Stocks. In keeping the various colours of 
Stocks true for seed purposes, there is one very 
difficult circumstance. Certain sorts invariably pro- 
duce a difference in colour between the double and 
single flowers. This is clearly illustrated in the 
sulphur-yellow varieties ; in these the single flowers 
always come white. Sometimes, as a consequence, a 
pure white Stock will come among the yellow 
varieties. Lastly, it is necessary to state that 
double Stocks never produce seeds. Only from single 
flowers can seed be saved. But the plants are so 
treated by artificial fertilisation under glass, and by 
the assistance of insects in the open-air, that the 
seed will produce a large percentage of double 
flowers. A good strain of Stocks will yield from 75 to 
80 per cent, of double flowers ; but very rarely indeed 
will all the plants raised from a packet of seeds pro- 
duce double flowers ; and surely this is a circumstance 
no one can regret, for should seed of Stocks produce 
all double and no single flowers, there would then be 
an end to this beautiful class of common plants, for 
there would be no seed to raise them from. 

Wallflowers.— The botanical name of the Wall- 
flower is Cheiranthus Cheri, and it is derived from cheir, 
the hand, and anthos, a flower ; in reference, it is sup- 
posed, to the custom of carrying the Wallflower in the 
hand for a nosegay. The common Wallflower is a 
native of the South of Europe, and was introduced to 
this country in 1573. It has now become quite 
naturalised on old walls and ruins in this country ; 
and we think it is very probable many readers will 
be surprised to learn that a common flower which 
has spread itself everywhere over the face of the 
country is not indigenous to it. 

In an old gardening book published 150 years ago, 
we read, " The common single Wallflower is very 
seldom cultivated in gardens, but the double of this 
kind is very common in most of the English 
gardens." Exactly the reverse is the case now ; for 
while the single types are very largely grown, the 
old double forms of the English Wallflowers are now 
seldom met with. Hundreds of acres of dark or 
blood Wallflowers are annually planted in the market 
gardens round London to supply Covent Garden and 
the other flower markets ; and instead of these bloom- 
ing in March, April, and May, so carefully has this^ 
variety been selected, that we have now an early- 
bloommg strain, appropriately named Harbinger, 
that is in flower in October, and when the winter is 
mild they flower all through that season. 



There are three distinct tj-pes of single "Wall- 
flowers, viz. : the Blood-red, from which Harbinger 
is a fine selection ; the Yellow Tom Thumb, which is 
something of a misnomer, because it is rather a tall- 
growing variety, bearing fine pure yellow flowers , 
and the Bel voir Castle Dwarf Yellow, a pure yellow, 
very dwarf, and extremely free-flowering variety. 
These originated by means of careful selection, and 
they are of great value in the flower garden in 
spring and early summer. Xow, the Blood-red Wall- 
flower has seeds of a red colour ; so has the Yellow 
Tom Thumb; but the Belvoir Castle has quite 
small seeds of a yellow colour, like the flowers ; so 
any one possessing this knowledge can soon tell 
whether they have seed of the true thing or not. 

There are German Wallflowers also, so named 
because they are gi^own by the German seed-growers : 
and they are both single and double. They are of 
several colours ; among the single German varieties 
will be found some having shades of purple ; attempts 
have been made in this countiy to fix these purple 
shades, but without avail, as seed from these will 
produce dark varieties. The German single Wall- 
flowers are of tall growth; unlike that of our 
market strains of dark Wallflowers, which are of a 
very dwarf and compact branching gi'owth ; so that 
an individual plant of the latter throws a large 
quantity of flowers. 

As a general rule, seeds of Wallflowers are sown 
much too late to have strong plants to flower in the 
spring following, for Wallflowers are true biennials. 
Those who grow for market sow their seeds in jMay 
and the early part of June ; and gardeners of aU 
degrees should follow their example. When the 
seeds are sown late, the plants do not properly 
mature their growth by winter, and are apt to make 
but a poor show of bloom. The plants should in their 
season be solid with bloom, not dotted with it merely; 
and well-developed plants form little mountains 
of fire and gold. And then the flowers are so richly 
fragrant, that scarcely any other common flower 
can compete with it in this respect. Therefore, sow 
Wallflower-seeds in May and June in the open air, 
in an open sunny spot, on rather poor but level and 
rather gritty soil, which is favourable to free-rooting. 
As soon as possible after the plants are two inches 
high, they should be transplanted into rows six 
inches asunder, and three inches apart in the row. 
In about three weeks or a month, the plants should 
be again transplanted, lifting every other row, and 
each alternate plant from the rows that remain ; thus 
leaving a certain number to grow into size. The 
plants that are removed should be planted six to 
nine inches apart every way, and have a little water 
if needed, to help them into a free growth. Wall- 
flowers treated in this way come in very useful 



co:mmox gaedex flot^-ees. 



203 



indeed to fill the flower-beds during the autumn and 
winter ; they furnish the beds with cheerful green 
during the dull season, and make charming masses 
of flower in spring. The Wallflower is very hardy, 
and it is only very severe frost that harms the 
plants, or sharp frost following upon excessive wet. 

A fine and distinct new yellow Wallflower was 
recently shown at one of the meetings of the Eoyal 
Horticultural Societ}-, and named Bedfont G-iant 
Yellow; a rich golden, dwarf, compact and robust 
variety, but with dark seeds. 

There are two old-fashioned double Wallflowers 
that have been occupants of English gardens for 
many years. One is dark, the other yellow-flowered. 
One, if not both, was, it is beheved, imported from 
the South of Europe. They do not seed, and can be 
propagated only by means of cuttings, which can be 
removed in spring and summer, and struck in pots 
of light sandy soil. One sometimes meets with these 
old double Wallflowers in cottage-gardens, growing 
in borders, and flourishing. The sort of border that 
suits the double Wallflowers best is one adjoining 
the wall of a green-house, and the soil should consist 
of equal parts of good sandy loam, and broken bricks 
and old mortar, two feet in depth, resting on a dry 
subsoil. In such a border the double Wallflowers 
will live for many years, and become as large as 
shrubs. Any aspect will suit them, but a border 
facing south or west is best. 

There are in addition the double German Wall- 
flowers. These are grown only by the German and 
other Continental florists ; they are of strong growth, 
throwing up a main stem bearing fine double flowers 
much varied in character. The seed of these should 
be sown in June, the plants pricked out to grow into 
size, and then planted out in a prepared bed. Or if 
there is any risk, they can be wintered in pots in a 
cold frame, and planted out to flower in spring and 
early summer. The double German Wallflowers 
seed very sparingly indeed in this country, and 
therefore we have to look for a supply from the 
Continental florists. 

The best strains of Wallflowers are : — 

Covent Garden Blood-red. 
Harbinger. 

Bedfont Giant Yellow. 
Belvoir Castle Dwarf Tellow, 
Carter's Yellow Tom Tiiumb. 

Snow- in- Summer. — The Snow-in- Summer, 
Mouse-eared Chickweed, or Cerastium, belongs to the 
natural order Caryophyllacefs, and several of th-m are 
common weeds in different parts of Britain and the 
more northern parts of Europe. Some are annuals ; 
but those most deserving of cultivation are ever- 
green perennials, varying in height from four inches 



to a foot or more, though the best and most popular 
variety, C. tomentosum, seldom reaches to six inches. 
The flowers of the whole family are pure white, and 
they bloom from April to August. There are a good 
many species or varieties of Snow-in-Summer, but 
only three are really deserA*ing of general cultiva- 
tion ; and possibly the other two are only larger 
varieties of the hoary-leaved species, towcnfosum. or 
common Woolly Cerastium. The leaves ca e so wiiite, 
fine, and small, and soft to the touch, as to well de- 
serve the descriptive appellation of woolly. The 
flowers are small and round, of the purest white, 
and are produced in such enormous quantities in 
May, June, and July, as to completely hide the 
spreading lea^-es and brancblets, and well merit its 
common name in some localities of Snow-in-Summer. 
The foliage, as already stated, is almost as white as 
the flowers, and thus the ground is whitened or 
snowed over twice. Those who have never seen, the 
Cerastiums in mass, either as huge tufts or edg- 
ings, can form no idea of their rich and striking 
effects in flower-beds or borders, or in larger rougher 
masses in the wild garden or shrubbery. So strik- 
ingly effective are they when in mass, and so early 
and profusely do they bloom, that it may often be said 
of many gardens, that all the borders are brides long 
before the other plants are ready to receive them. 
Fortvmately, however, their bride-like purity re- 
maros after the flowers fade, for, as already remarked, 
the foliage of those here commended is almost as 
white as their hosts of tiny cup-like bloom. So 
much is this the case, that those who use the Ceras- 
tiirm. most extensively for ground- works on which to 
pincushion other plants, as di^'idiIlg lines to form 
chaste patterns on beds or borders, or as pure white 
edgings to last throughout the year, seldom allow it 
to bloom, but clip all the flowers off in bud. By thus 
husbanding the strength of the plant, and pre- 
venting it alike from the exhaustion incident to 
flowering and seed -bearing, the fohage becomes 
more vigorous as well as whiter ; and no cheaper, 
hardier, or more effective permanent edging or line 
can be made and kept than that of the CeraMium 
tomentosum. 

But even these are hardly so effective as largo 
bold masses of the Snow-in-Summer by the side of 
masses of Aubrietias, Forget-me-nots, Vicla lutea, 
or other yellow and purple Pansies, red Daisies, 
pink or yellow Primroses, purple Clarkias, or blue 
Xemophilas. Cerastium Bieher-steinii has larger leaves 
and flowers than the iomentosum, and when first intro- 
duced from the Taurian mountains it was thought 
highly of, and largely propagated to supersede the 
older species. It was found, however, in practice to 
be less hardy and scarcely so white in the mass 
as the older and smaller species, and is now but 



204 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXING. 



tiie 



^^^^ ^ 



little grown or cultivated. It is, however, worthy 
of cultivation, and the flower being consider- 
ably larger, some prefer it on that account. 
C. grandiflorum is a stronger plant, with larger 
flowers and less silvery leaves than either of 
other two. Because of 

the latter, possibly, it is a ■ ^ 

stronger grower, and is a 
most useful and showy 
plant for the mixed border 
or Alpinery. Neither of 
these, however, is often 
seen in small gardens, 
and in this case the cot- 
tagers, artisans, and sub- 
urban gardeners who have 
the C. tomentosum have the 
best of the family. 

The Snow - in - Summer 
spreads so rapidly into 
tufts and masses, forming 
roots as it runs over the 
earth, that it can hardly 
be said to need any culti- 
vation. Nevertheless, if 
left too long in one place, 
its prodigality of flowering 
and of growth is apt to 
result in bald patches in 
the centre of large tufts, 
and ragged places in old 
edgings. To prevent this 
it is a good plan to keep 
up a young stock of these 
useful plants. A few 
patches can be torn 
asunder, or pieces cut or 
torn off wide edgings in 
October or November, and 
laid in an inch or two 
deep, in rows, on any 
spare bit of ground, tread- 
ing the pieces, it matters 
little whether they have 
any roots or not, firmly 
in. These will be nicely 
rooted and fit to form fresh 
patches or edgings in 
]\Iarch or April. 

Or the division may 
take place in February or March. But should a dry 
time follow, the Cerastiums will need frequent 
waterings to assist their rooting and re-establish- 
ment at that season. Where small lines are de- 
sired it is a common practice to take off single 
cuttings in March, dibble them in firmly, from one 





CoiiMOX Waxlflowxr. 



to three inches apart, placing two or three inches of 
the cutting in the ground, and merely the point left 
out. Should dry weather ensue, sprinkle overhead 
occasionally until the cuttings are established. 

If requii'ed in quantity for forming lines or 
patches in winter, the 
Cerastium should be di- 
^•ided as already explained, 
and lined out in a shady 
place in good soil in ^lay 
or June. These midsum- 
mer cuttings or pieces will 
soon root and be ready for 
forming white patches or 
lines of great purity and 
beauty in October or 
November. 

The Cerastiums seed 
freely , but as this ex- 
hausts the plant and also 
renders the leaves less 
white, and they are so 
readily and largely in- 
creased by the means 
already pointed out, it is 
not desirable to allow them 
to ripen seeds. 

Thrift, or Sea-Pink. 

— This plant, the Armerta 
vulgaris of botanists, be- 
longs to the natural order 
of Leadwcrts [Plumhagi- 
nacece). Being a native of 
our own sea -shores, of the 
Scotch mountains, and 
other cold and elevated 
parts of Europe, it is one 
of the hardiest as well as 
the showiest of common 
garden plants. The white 
and pale red - coloured 
varieties of the species are 
frequently found wild, the 
former, however, being far 
more common than the 
latter. But neither of these 
is much grown in gardens, 
the red-flowered variety, 
Anneria coccinea, being so 
The common wild Thrift, 
however, is met with at times in old-fashioned gar- 
dens, and the white variety of the species is worth 
growing, as it is rather scarce under cultivation. 
They all flower about the same time, through June 
and July, and if the old flowers are cut off closely 



much more effective. 



THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 



205 



down to the compact grass-like foliage so soon as 
they begin to fade, and to prevent their seeding, the 
Thrifts will generally, on good soil, flower a second 
time, though far less freely, through August and 
September. Treated thus there are few better 
edging plants than the brilliant-coloured varieties of 
the common Thrift. 

They soon spread out into a thick grassy-looking 
line six or more inches wide, and as the flower-stems 
rise above the leaves from six inches to a foot, and 
bend with their own weight over the sides, the result 
is a band of glowing colours and a mass of semi- 
round bloom a foot or more wide. The great 
Eound-headed Thrift, Armeria cephalotes, though not 
nearly so well adapted for edgings, forms a yet more 
effective plant for a bold mass, in either bed or 
border. The leaves are much wider and larger, the 
difference being almost as great as that between 
Leeks and Chives, though neither of the Armerias is 
a bit like either, but the contrast in size is almost 
equall)'' apparent. The flower-stems on good soils 
average eighteen inches, and may reach to two feet in 
height. The flowers are large and closely-packed 
masses, somewhat resembling some of the Statices, 
hence the name of Statice lusitanica is sometimes 
given to this giant Thrift. There are said to be 
deeper-coloured varieties of it, but the writer has not 
seen them. A pure white and a deep scailet variety 
of this monster Thrift would prove among the 
most welcome additions to all gardens, large and 
small. This species is sometimes confounded with 
formosa, but the coloTir is different, and also the 
habit to some extent, though the Thrift grown under 
the latter name is about as tall as cephalotes. The 
names, however, of latifolia, pseudo-armeria, and 
mauritanica have been applied indiscriminately to 
A, cephalotes. "While as regards size it is a great 
improvement on the common Thrift, it is in no 
respect a substitute for it. While more effective for 
forming striking tufts or masses of colour further 
back on the naxed herbaceous bed or border, it is of 
no use as an edging plant. Unfortunately too, being 
a native of Africa and of the lower altitudes of the 
South of Europe, this large Thrift is far less hardy 
than the dwarf er ones. It is, however, well worthy 
of a sheltered sunny spot in every garden. 

There are several other species and varieties of 
Thrift, one of the most common being maritima, 
very much like the common Eed Thrift, but mostly 
of a more vivid colour. This is the sort most com- 
monly found near the seaside in different parts of 
Great Britain, and very often met with in old- 
fashioned gardens. 

The common Thrift and its varieties, and all the 
other dwarf-growing species and varieties, are easily 
propagated by division. As clumps and borders 



when left too long in one spot are apt to become 
bare and bald in the middle, it is good practice to 
sever them every second or third year. 

The best time for this operation is soon after the 
bloom has faded, say in August. If the plants are 
lifted bodily at this season, divided into convenient 
pieces, and immediately re-planted, they will be 
nicely re-established next year, and flower as freely 
the following season as if nothing had happened. 
They should be planted firmly in fresh soil if on the 
same spot, for the Thrift, from its enormous flori- 
ferousness, speedily exhausts the soil. 

From the very nature of the plant, and the posi- 
tions in which it is found to thrive best in a state of 
nature, a rather deep sandy loam on a dry bottom 
suits it best. From the density of the mass formed 
by Thrifts, the frosts occasionally, in severe winters, 
almost raise them out of the ground ; and one 
of the best means of culture for the common sorts 
is to tread them firmly back 'with the foot, or 
when practicable, as it often is in the case of 
edgings, to run a roller over them. The giant 
Thrift does not multiply so rapidly as the more 
dwarf varieties, and hence cannot be so speedily 
propagated by division. But, on the other hand, it 
ripens seeds more freely in favom^able positions, and 
these may be either sown so soon as ripe on light 
sandy soil in a sheltered spot, or in the spring. Sow 
very thinly, for Thrifts, especially the larger ones, 
resent root-disturbance in a small state, and ought 
to remain undisturbed in their seed-beds till large 
enough to transfer to their blooming quarters. 



THE KITCHEN GAEDEN. 

Bt "William Eaeley. 



CULTURE OF VEGETABLES. 

Celery {Apium graveolens). French, Celeri ; 
German, Sellerie ; Spanish, .^^io. — Celery is a native 
British plant, flourishing in country ditches, com- 
monly known as " Smallage," and a biennial, of 
poisonous import in its native state. Cultivation and 
the system of blanching in vogue have changed it 
into one of the most valuable comestibles the vege- 
table garden lays claim to. Though a wild plant, and 
excessively hardy and durable, it requires, never- 
theless, the most studied and generous treatment 
under culture to insirre to it that state of perfection, 
or merit, which belongs to it. 

The soil most suited to it, under artificial culture, 
is one moderately moist, rather stiff, but thoroughly 
worked or broken up, and very liberally intermixed 
with good old, or thoroughly decomposed, manure. 

Seeds, to secure the needful crops, must be sown in 



206 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



accordance with the date fixed when each separate 
one is to be ready for use. Any departure from 
such a rule often entails disappointment. Accord- 
ingly, successional crops must be the result of 
successional sowings. 

When the first crop is required for use early in 
September, or somewhat before, a slight sowing 
should be made about the second week in February ; 
the successional one about mid- March ; and the third 
during April. Each will succeed best in a box of 
rich, fine soil, placed under glass in a moderate 
amount of heat. Though for the latter sowing, if it 
were possible, the best place is to sow upon a fine bed 
of soil, elevated up near to the glass, during the first 
few days of the month ; covering the seed over very 
slightly in this, as in all other cases, well watering 
them and shutting the frame up close until germina- 
tion takes place, when, by air-gi^dng, &c., a sturdy 
and full growth is assured. 

From the moment when the seeds germinate until 
such time as they are moulded up in the rows for 
blanching, no check of any kind must be permitted, 
or the result will be adverse to the whole future 
growth, with a probability of bolting," or the too 
early starting into seed-stalk, of some, which destroys 
all tenderness. 

To insure a regular and iminterrupted growth from 
the seed-bed onwards, the young seedling plants 
must be " pricked " out, or transplanted singly into 
other boxes or frames so soon as they are large 
enough to handle, and be again transplanted, as 
necessary, as they continue to grow and require 
space. The best place wherein to transplant early 
ones is a well-elevated bed of rich soil in a cold 
frame, over which a mat can be placed during severe 
frosty weather. For the permanent crop, a bed 
should be made up in a warm sheltered place, con- 
sisting of stable manure and tree-leaves. It need not 
be more than two feet in depth, to insure the shght 
fermentation giving the necessary amount of bottom 
heat. Upon this, two or three inches at least of 
good soil is placed, the plants pricked out in rows 
an inch or two apart, well watered, and covered 
over with bent sticks, upon which mats are firmly 
fixed, untn they begin to raise their leaves, after 
which the mats should be removed entirely, except 
during cold nights and keen cold winds. Ultimately 
they may be removed altogether, from which time 
until the young plants are required for finally plant- 
ing into the permanent trenches, copious supplies of 
root-water must be regularly given to them. 

Trenches should be prepared for the reception of 
such plants so soon as they have grown five or six 
inches in height, and before there is any possibility 
of their receiving a check owing to insufiiciency of 
soil or room. The too general plan is to consult in- 



dividual convenience, the usefulness of crops occupy- 
ing the ground whereon they are to be planted, or 
other circumstances. It is imperative that the 
trenches be ready for the plants as suggested. 

Choose a site whereon the soil is somewhat damp, 
and of a good, deep, loamy nature. Mark out the 
trenches, each a foot in width, with intervening 
spaces of three to three and a half feet between each 
trench. With a spade dig six or seven inches of the 
soil out of each trench, lay it upon the intervening 
spaces between the trenches, levelling it over neatly, 
and cutting both sides of each trench smoothly and 
evenly. Now place an inch or two of good manure, 
thoroughly decayed, upon the soil within the trench, 
and fork it over deeply, or otherwise, according to 
the depth of subsoil, breaking it up finely, and 
mixing the manure thoroughly up with it. The next 
operation is to dig up the seedhng plants carefully ; 
take each into the hands, retaining all the soil 
possible around the roots, and remove all decayed or 
injured leaves ; lay each on its side upon a hand- 
barrow% or within a convenient basket, &c. Carry it 
to the trench, and commence by planting one or two 
plants with a trowel at one end. Face the trench to 
be planted ; place one foot down firmly on either side 
of those planted, and proceed to plant others; bring 
the feet forward in such a way that each is trodden 
firmly on either side, and so on until the whole row is 
planted. The plants should be planted four to five 
inches apart iu the trench. Immediately planting is 
finished, water them in copiously in such manner as to 
well settle the soil over the roots and around the base 
of each plant. It is scarcely needful to remark that 
a rainy period is the best for this operation, or, failing 
such, the latter part of the day is best. Diiring very 
hot sunny weather, shading with a few tree-branches, 
or other mediums, will prove an advantage. 

For successional crops, a trench or two should be 
planted out thus once in three weeks, or at the most 
once a month. Regular waterings must be given 
during arid weather, and in such manner that the 
roots are never short of a proper supply of moisture. 

Towards the end of July, and following on in 
regular succession, the first rows and others will 
need hoeing carefully along on both sides, the banks 
having meantime been kept free from weeds. 
Immediately following, all the lesser useless leaves, 
and all small side sucker shoots, must be removed. 
To do this a sharp trowel will often be needed. 
Having removed such, without in any degree in- 
juring root or plant, hoe the sides along somewhat 
deeply, and in such manner that an inch or two of 
the soil will fall in'^o the trenches on both sides of 
the rows of plants. Then traverse each row, collect 
the leaves of each plant into one hand, and draw the 
loose soil up around it with a trowel held in the 



THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 



207 



other. A good root-watering given immediately 
afterwards will be very beneficial. At intervals of 
about three weeks loosen the soil on both sides of the 
trenches with a fork, break it up fine, and with a 
spade push it down to, against, and around the plants. 
Follow -with the trowel as before advised. At each 
earthing up, from this time onward, place about 
four inches in depth of soil against and around the 
plants, taking care to keep the leaves straight, and 
to give room for the growth of the young leaves 
at the hearts, else will the centres be doubled down, 
and the sticks forrr the crooked shape known as 
"seated." Some, luwever, prefer earthing up the 
plants all at once instead 
of progressively, and ex- 
cellent Celery is grown 
on this method. 

At the last earthing 
up, there will be needed 
about six inches or more 
depth of soil ; after this 
has been neatly placed 
around the apices of the 
plants, again go along 
each row, and draw the 
surface soil tightly up to 
and around the leaves, 
pressing it so firmly that 
air cannot enter down- 
wards to the hearts. 
Without this precaution, 
the blanching process 
■will be long and tedious. 
Each, successional batch 
must be treated similarly 
to above in regard to the 
earthing-up process ; the 
final earthing up to be 

done about one month before any are required for 
use. At the approach of winter place a little addi- 
tional soil against the sides of all late small trenches, 
and should severe frost follow, it is well to place a 
row of stable litter or straw along the tops of the 
mounds, so as to be a "irotection to the leaves, and to 
deter the frost from travelling downwards to the 
injury of the hearts. 

The Celery- fly {Tephritis onoporclinis) has been ex- 
tremely injurious to this crop of late years. As a 
preventive, it is well to sprinkle a little soot over 
the leaves occasionally when they are covered with 
dew in the months of June and July, that being the 
usual time when the fly deposits the eggs which give 
birth to the maggots within the leaves. Later, and 
when the maggot appears, little good can be done, 
though some have resort to picking off the injured 
parts. AH symptoms of it should, however, be 




Celeriac. 



removed and burned when the crop is taken up for 
use, as the progeny are known to hybernate around 
if not destroyed. 

The varieties usually cultivated consist of both 
red and white examples. The white is best adapted 
for the earliest cropping, being somewhat move 
amenable to summer culture and blanching. Bibby's 
Defiance and Pengelly White, Clarke's Defiance, 
Leicester Red, and Clayworth Prize Pink varieties, 
are all good. 

Celeriac (Turnip-rooted Celery). French, Celeri- 
rave ; German, Knollsellerie. — This variety of Celery, 
which forms an enlarged 
root-base on the surface 
of the ground, requires 
no earthing up. Sow 
and treat precisely as for 
Celejy until the final 
planting out. Then pre- 
pare a bed of soil deep 
and well enriched with 
manure, and plant the 
plants out therein at dis- 
tances of about fifteen 
inches apart. Hoe 
amongst them as neces- 
sary during the summer 
to keep them free from 
weeds, and water freely 
during all dry-weather 
periods. The crop is fit 
for use during September 
and October, and must 
be protected from frosts, 
when they occur, should 
a portion remain unused 
until then. 

Cucumber.— This favourite vegetable and salad 
is reserved for separate treatment. 

Egg-plant {Solanum Melongena). French, Auber- 
gine ; German, Eierpjlanze ; Spanish, Berengena. — As 
the Tomato is so gaining in popularity, the Egg- 
plant, similarly a fruiting plant, and somewhat 
identical in the matter of use, is not unlikely to have 
increased demand, being so generally grown across 
the Channel. A native of Africa, it is nevertheless 
moderately hardy. Seeds sown during March and 
April, and potted on as needful until about a sixteen- 
size pot has been reached, will insure their fruiting- 
pretty freely therein. In like manner, plants grown 
upon a hot-bed within a frame, which should be 
entirely removed during the months of June and 
July, prove successful. Young plants potted off 
singly into small pots, transplanted against a warm 



i 



208 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENINa. 



sunny wall, about June 1st, also fruit during favour- 
able summers. The fiuit consists of many colours, 
in separate varieties. 

Endive {Chkorium Endivia). French, Chicoree ; 
Gei-man, Unclivien ; Spanish, Endivia. — This 'is a 
hardy annual introduced long since from China and 
Japan. Owing to the more succulent leaves of im- 
proved forms, it has become less hardy than of yore ; 
hence only the very smallest plants withstand the 
severity of our ordinary winters. Used generally as 
a salad plant, it is nevertheless in demand for culi- 
nary purposes. It can only 
be grown well under very 
generous treatment. Good, 
deep, well-manured and well- 
worked soil is an essential 
therefore. The best crops 
are those of autumn, winter, 
and early spring. During 
the summer months heftt and 
aridity force the plants out 
of heart into the seeding 
state. The first sowing 
should be made upon a rich 
warm border early in April. 
Transplant the seedling- 
plants, leaving only a thin 
crop to remain upon the 
seed-bed to fully develop, at 
distances of about five inches 
apart. Hoe well amongst 
them, giving an occasional 
watering with liquid manure. 
Transplant the "drawn" 
seedlings on to a cool rich 
border in rows nine inches 
apart. Plant them deeply, 

by which means a better heart will be formed. 
Make a second sowing about the middle of May 
upon a cool rich site. Sow the seeds thinly, as at 
this time seedling plants should not be transplanted. 
Thin this crop out, permitting the plants to develop 
upon this extended seed-bed. For the autumn and 
winter supj)lies, sow about July 20th, and for succes- 
sional crops once a fortnight subsequently until the 
end of August. 

Immediately any seedlings are large enough, trans- 
plant them at once into deep rich soil, and a sunny 
aspect, leaving sufl&cient upon each seed-bed to con- 
tinue growing into the perfect plant. The produce of 
the two last sowings transplant in rows thickly across 
any warm border at the foot of a wall or fence having 
a sunny aspect. Here they will stand through the win- 
ter, and prove useful for the early spring supply. For 
autumn sowing a part of the seed sown may consist 




Black Pekin Egg plant 



of the Bata\'ian variety, having smooth leaves, which 
are more hardy than those of the curled varieties. 

To prepare any crop for use, judge when it has 
nearly attained to its prime ; then tie the leaves all 
up tightly together to enclose the centre, or place 
a black slate over each plant, so that it lies flatly 
on heart and leaves. Each process will blanch the 
centres of the plants, when they will be fit for use. 
Hence such quantities must be tied, or slated, in suc- 
cession, as will furnish the needful supply in a state 
fit for use. 

At the approach of frosts, late in autunrn, take up 
and place in pits or frames 
as many of the larger-sized 
plants as possible. Plant 
them in soil deeply, holding 
the leaves tightly around 
each plant whilst doing so. 
"\^^lere the convenience of 
frames or pits does not exist, 
such large plants may be 
bm'ied up to within an inch 
of the apices of the leaves, so 
drawn together around the 
hearts, in dry mould in a shed 
or similar outhouse. The 
best sorts are Green Curled, 
and the Bata^dan is as good 
a f o]Tn as procurable. 

Amongst curled varieties, 
Earlej-'s Digswell Prize, 
Large Rufitec, and^Miite Curl- 
ed are best, Eraser's Batavian 
being the best broad-leaved. 

The Chicory of commerce 
is often grown in gardens as 
an aid to winter salads. As 
this belongs to the same 
genus as Endivia, being the variety of Cichorium 
having th6 specific name Intybus, we refer to it in 
this place, but its culture has been already described 
at page 54. 

Leek [Allium Forriim). French, Poireau ; Ger- 
man, Z«wcA ; Spanish, Puerro ; Italian, Poro. — The 
Leek is a hardy biennial, and a native of Switzer- 
land. Its introduction dates back as far as any 
vegetable. Though grown very generally in gardens 
of some extent, it is not so generally grown in small 
English gardens as from its hardihood and merit it 
deserves to be. The gardens of Wales and Scotland, 
nevertheless, make up for this, as there it is all but 
invariably met with. Its culture is of the simplest. 
Sow seeds upon an open airy site, if possible with a 
dry subsoil, in soil heavily manured, anj^ time after 
the first week in March. The seedling plants when 



THE KITCHEX GAEDEX. 



large enough to handle well, having three or four 
leaves, should be transplanted on to another bed of 
equally rich soil, and in rows about ten inches apart ; 
the space of five or six inches being permitted be- 
tween the plants in the rows. 

Where it is desirable to grow very fine examples 
— and it is always best to make the attempt — a better 
way is to make a shallow trench precisely as for 
Celery, only do not take out more than four or five 
inches of the soil. Then dig in an inch or so of very 
rotten manure, level the sui-face over, press it down 
with the foot, and plant the seedlings therein in two 
rows, in such manner that each plant in oppo- 
site rows be at angles 
with the other. Kee^D 
free of weeds during 
the whole summer, and 
water freely during dry 
weather. 

Towards the end of 
the summer, and after a 
goodly growth has been 
made, place a mulching 
of fine manure between 
the plants, and hoe a 
little of the soil from the 
sides of the trench down 
on to and over it. Give 
another good watering, 
using manure-water if 
possible, and the crop 
will advance rapidly in 
size, becoming some- 
what blanched at the 
base preparatory to use. 
There are certain im- 
proved sorts, and the 
INIusseiburgh, A^-rton 
Castle, Henry's Prize, 



too often treated as a subs 
of vegetables, and are sc 
beds and grown too thickly 
possible set a portion of ti 
apart for them. Not only s 
deep, and highly enriched ^ 
possess also fall exposure t 
drainage. 

These secuj'ed, successior 
season, will be guaranteed 
seed-bed towards the end 
At the same time it is good 
wooden box with seeds, t 





Ever-White Curled Eijdive. 



and the Carentan are best. deterrent and great aid. 



Lettuce {Lactuca sativa). French, Laitue ; 
German, Lattich; Italian, Lattuga; Spanish, Z^cA?/^«. 
— The Lettuce is a hardy annual, the origin of which 
is buried in some mystery ; whether a sport from our 
other native species cannot therefore be determined. 
It is of free and easy culture, luxuriating in the 
richest of loamy soils, wherein its seeds freely ger- 
minate, from which seedlings the crisp hearts proceed. 
It is more especially an early summer and autumn 
plant. The heat and aridity of moderately dry sum- 
mers too generally hurry its growth into flowering 
and the seed form. Those who would secure fine pro- 
duce must, therefore, give their attention especially 
to crops produced during these seasons of the year. 

Two grave errors are far too generally perpe- 
trated in connection with Lettuces, i.e., they are 
14 



209 

idiary crop to other kinds 
)wn too thickly in seed- 
' together. Always where 
le garden, however small, 
should the soil be meUow, 
vith manure, but it should 

sun and air, with perfect 

lal crops, constant and in 
by sowing the first small 
of the month of March. 

1 practice to sow a large 
.0 encourage germination 

and early growth under 
glass ; a cold pit or 
frame being excellent 
for this purpose. So 
soon as the young plants 
have three or four 
leaves, and are fit to 
handle, draw the largest 
out carefully, and trans- 
plant thickly together 
in nursery-bed fashion, 
again planting them out 
in rows from twelve to 
fifteen inches apart, and 
about ten inches apart 
in the rows. To steady 
and aid the young 
plants, a shallow drill- 
row might be drawn 
along, in which to 
ti^ansplant them. 

Being very subject to 
slugs, a slight dusting 
of lime towards evening 
occasionally will be a 
Having well thinned out 
the plants in the seed-bed, leave a sufiicient number 
thereon to grow to maturity, hoeing well between 
them to give them free soil around and a start into 
growth. 

Make successional sowings regularly one month 
after the other until the early part of July, treating 
the seedlings in all but the Jime and July sowings 
as advised above. For those early sowings Black- 
seeded Brown Cos and Cabbage varieties may be 
sown, but for the latter any form of White 
Cos of the Brighton or Paris Cos types should be 
made. 

These last sowings must, however, be made so 
thinly as to allow of the plants growing and stand- 
ing till maturity where sown. To transplant them 
will be to cause the plants to go huri'iedly to seed. 
AVhen the seedling plants secui-ed from these last 



210 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GAEDENING. 



sowings are large enougli to grow alone, thin tlie 
rows of seedlings out to twelve inches apart, hoe 
freely amongst them, protect from insect attacks, and 
as growth progresses give one or two good waterings. 
By these means they will make a rapid growth, 
heart-in freely, and give every excellence in the form 
of superior produce. The Cabbage Lettuces need 
not be thinned out to more than eight or nine inches 
apart. 

To secure the autumn crop, make a sowing of 
Black-seeded Brown Cos during the second or thii'd 
week in July, choosing cloudy or rainy weather if 
possible. Should the weather prove continuously 
dry, the sowing must be made during the latter week, 
and the seed-bed kept constantly moist by watering 
and shading until germination takes place. Other 
small sowings for succession make once every three 
weeks until early in the month of September, when 
an additional sowing of Hammersmith Hardy Cab- 
bage Lettuce should be specially made. 

The seedling plants resulting fi'om these sowings 
— the two earlier ones especially — must, so soon as 
large enough, be transplanted and grown on precisely 
in the same way as recommended for those above ; 
the difference being that, as any successively become 
large enough for use, they must be tied up by twist- 
ing matting around to cause the hearts to blanch. 
Unlike the White Cos, they are not so readily self- 
hearting. Ultimately, as winter approaches, some 
of the seedling plants formed of the last sowing, 
though scarcely large enough for transplanting, must 
however be drawn and dibbled out in rows thickly 
upon a warm sunny border, with a south aspect, to 
stand through the winter for rapid growth in the 
early spring following ; and these, it will be found, 
will be conveniently associated with the late sowings 
of Endive before referred to. Some of the smaller 
seedlings remaining in the seed-beds after process 
of transplanting, allow to stand therein during the 
winter. These, along with every other or alternate 
plant of such as have been transplanted thickly to 
stand the winter, may be taken up carefully next 
spring following, and transplanted to come in succes- 
sion after the earliest ones from which they are 
taken, to give the latter more space to grow. 

All seedling plants intended thus to stand the 
winter in the open ground must be occasionally 
hoed, even during the winter months, should a dry 
fine period permit of it. 

For the mid -winter supply, all the largest and finest 
plants existing in the open ground must be taken 
carefully up, and planted thickly into pits or frames, 
where they can, pending use, be protected from 
severe frosts. A few of the most forward next in 
succession, still remaining in the open ground for 
want of room, place a little litter over, and so soon 



as room is made, by the use of such as are in the 
frame, for a further addition, take these up and refill 
the pit or frame wdth them. The Cabbage Lettuce 
recommended above will give an excellent first crop 
of white hearts out of doors, after winter and the 
colder months of spring are passed. 

The best varieties for winter use are Black-seeded 
Brown Cos, Bath Sugar-loaf, Nonpareil, Hicks' 
Hardy White, Fulham White, and Hardy Hammer- 
smith Cabbage. For summer use, Cooling's Levia- 
than Cos, Paris "V^Tiite Cos, and Yauxhall Defiance, 
All the Year Pound being a good form of the Cab- 
bage type. 



THE EOSE AND ITS CULTUEE. 

By D. T. Fish. 



PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 

THERE are several seasons and methods by 
which this may be accomplished, and the time 
of rooting Poses by cuttings has of late years been 
extended from March to November. The first and 
oldest method is by 

Dormant Shoots.— As soon as the leaf falls, 
or just before, cuttings of all sorts of Poses may- 
be put in with almost as little trouble 
or skill as those of Gooseberries or 
Currants ; and though they will not 
root with equal uniformity, yet a 
great many of them will strike, as 
the rooting of cuttings is technically 
called. The cuttings should be about 
a foot long; the wood of medium 
strength, and well ripened. Each 
should, when practicable, be taken 
off with a heel, that is, a small por- 
tion of older wood than itself at its 
base (Fig. 16, a). The best cuttings 
are those made of the wood of the 
current year. They mostly root best 
when simply dug into a quarter or 
border in the kitchen garden ; this 
consists in digging the ground as the 
work proceeds. A good plan is to 
insert a double row of cuttings at 
intervals of two feet between them. 
Some, however, put them in single 
rows, at distances of a foot or eighteen 
inches asunder. Ha\^ng dug over a few spits of 
ground, stretch the line across the dug portion, and 
cut out a trench four inches deep ; place the cuttings 
along the edge of the trench ; apply about half the 
soil ; tread the cuttings ' in firmly with the foot, 
pressing them also against the edge of the trench 



Fig. 16.— Dor= 
maut Eose- 
shoot, with 
Heel, cut 
back. 



THE KOSE AND ITS CULTURE. 



211 




Fig. 17. — Dormant Rope-f^iittings, 
by the heels at a, half covered 



in the process, to give them vertical and horizontal 
solidity. Then raise the ground up to the level 
of that already finished (Fig. 17). Then commence 
digging another spit, and digging the distance 
between the rows, proceed to cut another straight 
edge or trench ; insert, partially cover, and tread 
.in the cuttings as before, and so on till the whole 
are planted. Should very severe weather ensue, 
a few boughs or a little common bracken may 
be placed over the cuttings ; but, as a rule, nothing- 
whatever will be needed, as the majority of Roses 
will withstand the severities of our ordinary winters 
with impunity. Some insert the cuttings so deeply 
as to leave but one or two buds above ground ; 
others leave four or six. The first place two-thirds 
or more of the cut- 
tings under ground. 
This has some advan- 
tages, as if the sur- 
face buds are des- 
troyed others are 
almost sure to break 
from under the sur- 
face. Some are care- 
ful to disbud all the 
buried portion of the 

shoot. This is labour lost, if nothing worse, for as 
all the shoots that may come up will be Rose-shoots, 
the more of them the better, and the more roots 
will be formed. 

Striking Growing Shoots. — This may be 
done in three ways — by cool treatment in the open 
air; by warm, close treatment under 
glass ; and by a mixture of both. 
Rose-cuttings in leafage (see Fig. 
18, showing cutting with a heel 
at a) should be placed on a shady 
border to root them successfully in 
the open air in June, July, or 
August. The cuttings should have 
heels {a), and be in a condition of 
semi - ripeness. About half the 
length of the winter or dormant 
cuttings is also generally thought 
sufiicient, two leaves, or even one, 
being as many as the cutting is 
likely to keep fresh or green in 
the open air at that season. 

They are often covered with 
hand-glasses or cloches to pre- 
serve the leaves, which may prove of the greatest 
importance ; but if once these are applied they 
cannot well be dispensed with until the cuttings 
are rooted. On the whole, success is greater with- 
out them. A few overhead sprinklings per day 




for a time are useful, and if the leaves can be 
kept green for a week or so, the cuttings will have 
begun to callus, and are safe. A little sand placed 
at their base when inserted favours the rooting, and 
is a good practice. Such cuttings should be left 
where they are till the succeeding spring or autumn; 
or should 1-oy root early, and be of Tea or other 
tender varieties, they may be taken up and potted 
within thrte months of the time of their insertion. 

Striking Summer Cuttings in Heat, — 

The cuttings in this case need not be so ripe as in 
the other. They may also be shorter, from three 
to five inches being long enough. Hard and firm 
planting is equally or more important than with the 
other classes of cut- 
tings. Insert in pots 
or pans, or on a 
hot-bed, with a bot- 
tom heat of from 
60'' to 70°. Either 
cover the cutting-s 
with bell-glasses or 
keep the house or pit 
tolerably close. If 
the former, wipe and 
tilt up the glasses every day, seeing that no mildew 
or damp settles upon or injures the leaves. 

Keep these as well as the shoots growing until 
roots are formed. So soon as this takes place, 
gradually give more and more air, and reduce the 
temperature to the natural level ; or the plants may 
be potted ofO when rooted, and pushed on imder 
semi-tropical conditions, making the growth of 
almost two seasons in the remaining portion of one. 
When this plan succeeds, it is doubtless the quickest 
of all methods of rooting Rose-cuttings. But it not 
seldom illustrates the maxim — " The more haste, the 



showing mode of placing them- 
at h, and wholly filled in at c. 



Fig-. 18. — Same 
Eose-shoot as 
Fig. 16, started 
into Leaf. 



The Mixed Cold and Warm Method. — 

This consists in the making and inserting of the 
cuttings in the usual way in pots, pans, or boxes, as 
portability is essential to the success of this method. 
Insert the cuttings, and place them in close cold pits 
or frames, shading them from direct sunshine for a 
fortnight, three weeks, or a month — until, in fact, 
they begin to callus. 

So soon as this occurs, remove them into a brisk 
bottom heat of 65°. The roots will spring forth at 
once, and within a fortnight of their being subjected 
to a warm regimen the Rose-plants will be fit to pot 
off. Return for a week or ten days to their warm 
quarters, and gradually inure to. green-house or open 
air before the end of the spason. 

This mixed method and the first, that of inserting 



212 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXIXG. 



■dormant shoots in the open air in the late autumn 
or early winter, are the best for the sure rooting of 
Eose-cuttings. Some years since, a Eose-secret was 
written about rather fi-eely, that promised to con- 
vert every shoot and twig into a Eose-plant, as if 
by some magician's wand. It is needless to remark 
that that secret has not yet been revealed. It is 
probably, however, fully two-thii'ds opened to those 
who have carefully followed us thus far through the 
propagation of the Eose. Each eye, as we have 
already seen, may be converted into a plant, and 
some have affirmed that every leaf and even leaflet 
may be made to root. But as there is no record of 
the leaves growing into Eose-bushes, it is not needful 
to go further into the matter. One of the easiest 
of all seasons to root Eoses has, however, yet to be 
adverted to, and may be most conveniently discussed 
under the head of 

Spring Cuttings Since the forcing of Eoses 

has become general, it is obWous that quantities of 
Eoses will be found under glass in February, March, 
and other early spring or summer months, with their 
wood in similar condition to that of out-of-door Eoses 
in June, July, or August. The wood is found in 
practice to be in even better condition for rooting 
than that from the open air. Cuttings of forced 
Eoses, or from those grown under glass, seldom fail 
to root freely. They bear wann forcing treatment 
with less risk than any other Eoses. 

AVere this true of Teas only, it might be easily 
explained, but it applies to all sorts and conditions 
6i Eoses grown under glass, and the fact is of the 
utmost practical value to the rapid multiplication 
of Eose-plants by cuttings. 

So soon as the flowers fade is the best season to 
insert what are called here " spring cuttings." The 
name is about all they differ in from other cuttings, 
imless, indeed, the better climate in which they have 
been grown has endowed the plants with greater 
^ital energy, as well as inured them to the higher 
temperature favourable to the emission of roots. 
Be all that as it may, no cuttings root so freely, with 
such a small percentage of loss, as those of forced 
and other Eoses put into heat in the spring. One 
strong argument in favour of rooting Eoses at that 
season consists in the fact that they have all the 
summer before them to grow into plants. The 
cuttings also root sooner in the spring than at any 
other season. Hence, if inserted say in February, 
they may be rooted, shifted into single pots, ^rown 
into considerable size, hardened off, and planted out 
by the end of May to furnish a good crop of bloom 
before the end of the year. The roots of Eoses may 
also be converted into cuttings, and become good 
plants. But as they are more trouble, and in no 



respect better than those already described, it is not 
needful to advert to them fui-ther, 

Nothing has been said about compost for cuttings, 
as it is not material to their rooting. Cuttings need 
nothing, and can indeed absorb little else from the 
soil than water ; and this in plent}-, but not in excess, 
is all they requii'e until roots are formed. Very sandy 
soil, or pure sand, is consequently the best rooting 
medium for Eose-cuttings. So soon as rooted they 
become Eose-plants, and no soil can well be too 
good for them. 



PROPAGATION BT GRAFTING. 
This differs fi^om budding in the fact that it 
generally means the union of two different woods as 
well as of bark, and that the foreign scion inserted 
in the stock is much larger than a bud, and generally 
consists of a considerable section of wood with two 
or several buds. The art of grafting differs, however, 
but little in principle from that of budding. Larger 
masses are concemed in it, and hence the modes of 
manipulation vary, but the uniting forces are still 
the same. And these can hardly be said to be the 
wood, but the sap, the cambium or young growing 
tissue, the bud, and the bark. It is of importance to 
bear this in mind, or failure in grafting is almost 
sure to ensue. It matters less about the mere size of 
the scions, than the close fit of the inner barks of the 
scions and the stocks. T}tos in the art of grafting 
will please to note the word " inner.'' The outer bark 
is little more or better in regard to grafting than a 
mere covering. It has little more life than the paper 
wrap round a parcel. The inner bark is the soirrce 
of life, where the growing tissues are situated — the 
only active agents in effecting the union "between 
the scion and the stock. . 

Condition of Stock. — The stock should have 
started into root, and, less prominently, into top 
growth. The exact amount of leaf-development in 
the stock most favourable to the union of the scion 
varies in particular plants. The Eose, for example, ' 
need hardly have started; the Grape-vine must be 
in full leafage, otherwise it would bleed to death. In 
all cases the root should have started, and the sap 
be on the move, if not in full circulation. 

This is, however, not seldom set aside in practice. 
Stocks are dug tip, or received from the nursery, and 
grafted at once ^athout more ado. The manipula- || 
tion of a few stocks in this way is much easier than 
that of potted plants. This practice, however, 
though occasionally successful, is not to be com- 
mended or approved. Such stocks should be placed 
in heat for a fortnight or so before use, after which 
they may be worked in this free-and-easy manner 
with every pi'ospect of success. 



THE EOSE AXD ITS CTLTrEE. 



213 



The Potting up of Old Growing Stocks 
for a Year before Grafting. — Ttds is, no doubt, 
the safer practice ; and thus ha\'ing them under com- 
plete control, they may he placed in warmth and got 
into that exact state and condition most favourable 
to promoting a speedy union with the scion. 

Best Stocks. — Among the conflictiag claims of 
seedling briars, briar-cuttings, briar-roots, Maneiti, 
De la Griiteraie, Bouisault, Banksian, and others, 
it may seem presumptuous to decide. And yet there 
is little doubt that the lilanetti, briar-cuttings, 
seedling briars, and the standard briars, form the 
best of all stocks on which to graft Eoses. (See 
previous chapter on Stocks.) 

Of late years the seedling briar has had almost a 
monopoly for some classes of Eoses ; Teas especially 
have been held to bloom more freely on these than 
on any other. And no doubt they are most useful, 
especially for whip grafting, in which the scion and 
the stock should be of eq\ial diameters. The writer 
has also been very successful on the roots of the Dog- 
rose. These were dug up, cut into six-inch lengths, 
placed in bottom heat, and grafted about three 
weeks afterwards ; and ninety per cent, grew, and 
did well. 

Condition of Scion.— The scion should be 
dormant, and at least a fortnight behind the stock 
in regard to its vital condition. Nothing is more 
fruitful of failures in grafting Eoses than the use 
of scions already bursting into leafage. These 
leaves and embryo shoots are either withered 
up before the union takes place that would send 
forth supplies to preserve them, or they exhaust the 
scion of those fluids that could have united it to the 
stock. The dormant scion avoids both these dangers, 
its buds moving httle, or not at aU, till the union 
is partially completed, at which stage the action of 
the leafage becomes a powerful auxiliary in cement- 
ing the union of the scion with the stock. 

Ripe "Wood as Essential for Scion as 
Dormancy. — Eipeness, firmness, a certain degree 
of solidity, are needful to sustain the life of the 
scion during its interregnum of separation from all 
other sources of life but itself. Hence the bases of 
Eose and other shoots are best for scions as well as 
cuttings. The tops are soft, spongy, and fuU of 
watery sap, and should never be chosen for scions. 
The sun and air soon dry up the juices, and wither 
up the bud, rendering the growth or taking of the 
scion impossible. 

Length, of Scion. — This is of comparatively 
little moment, although, of course, within certain 



limits, the longer the scion, the greater the risk 
of failure. Neither is there any advantage in 
ha^•ing scions too long, from four to seven inches 
being mostly long enough. The actual length 
is, however, very much determined by the distance 
between the Eose-buds, and this varies greatly. 
Two buds on the head of the scion, and one 
somewhere in the length, or at the base of the 
uniting part of the scion with the stock, will mostly 
be foun.d sufficient ; the reason for cutting through 
a bud on the uniting parts is that a larger amoimt 
of nutriment, and a fuller development of growing 
tissues, are to be found in close proximity to 
the buds, and hence, when the bud is removed or 
suppressed in tying, this living, binding force finds 
expression in hastening the union between the 
scion and the stock. 

Time and Place to Graft. — January and 
February are the best indoors, March and April out- 
side. The latter, however, is scarcely ever practised, 
unless in the case of grafting standards, a practice 
almost wholly superseded by budding. Still, when 
and where the grafting of briars in the open succeeds 
well, almost a year's start is gained over budded 
Eoses. 

But grafting in the open air is rather precarious, 
and as grafted Eoses are seldom so long-lived as 
budded ones, the two woods often refusing to blend 
into one durable healthy plant, this method of graft- 
ing is but little practised. 

Different Modes of Grafting. — Almost 
any of the methods of grafting to be set forth 
in our articles on Pro].agation may be used for 
Eoses. Yet it is found that drfferent methods are 
best adapted for difi:'erent species of plants, and only 
three ot them are much used in the propagation 
of Eoses. These are whip or splice, cleft, and crown 
gi-aftiag. The first and the last are the best, though 
cleft graftmg with the modification of it called 
saddle grafting are also used. 

JFhip or Splice Grafting. — These terms almost 
explain themselves. In tpng the two fragments 
of a whip or cord together, the union is called 
a splice, and it is thus performed: — Each of the 
two fragments is reduced to one-half of its 
diameter along a distance of, say, three or four 
inches, the ends of each part terminating in a thin 
wedge ; the two are then firmly bound together, and 
the whip or cord • is made as strong as it was before. 
Of course, the splice is most perfect when the two 
pieces are of the same diameter. This is a mechanical 
splice. In grafting, our ultimate object is to force 
nature into making a A-ital splice between the parts. 

Our first steps, however, consist in the equal 



214 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



sloping and firmly binding together of the scion to 
the stock, exactly as in splicing a broken whip. 

To make the union the more perfect, sound, and 
durable, these two should be of equal diameters. 
Thus each part fits to the corresponding part, wood 
to wood, cambium to cambium, bark to bark, all 
roimd. The more perfect the fit, the more speedy 
and sound the union. 

Cut the stock across at the height desired, then 
place the graft against its side, an inch or an inch 
and a half from its crown, take the measure with the 
eye, and make a clean diagonal cut across the stock 
from the required spot, tapering almost to a point oh 
its top. It is most important that this cut should be 




Fi<r. 19.— Whip or Splice 
Grafting, a, stock ; h, 
scion ; c, the two 
united. 



Fig. 20.— Whip or Splice 
Graf ting, with Tongue 
ataonstocli; b, scion ; 
c, the two united. 



clean and smooth, tapering equally all the way. 
Having already taken the scion in hand, proceed to 
cut it in the same way, making the cut the exact 
counterpart of that on the stock. Then, without 
a moment's delay, place the two fresh-cut surfaces 
together, and bind them tight with bast, cotton- wick, 
or other ligature, and the mysterious art of grafting is 
completed. If the fit be good, and the inner bark 
of scion and stock impinge against each other along 
their lines of contact, success is almost certain, other- 
wise failure is even more sure. This is the simplest 
mode of whip grafting, and is as good as any other. 

JFhip Grafting with Tongue. -—This consists in 
forcing portions of the wood of the scion into the 
stock, and vice versa if desired, for there are modes 
of double as well as single 'tongue grafting. Our 
illustration will explain this better than any amount 
of description (Fig. 20). But as it increases the 
trouble, and does little or nothing to accelerate the 
union or make it more certain, it need not be further 
adverted to here. 

Crown Grafting. — In this method the scion is 
prepared in exactly the same manner as for whip 
grafting. The wedge may be longer or shorter as 
desired. The top of the stock is also squared in 
the same way, but the wood is all left intact. A 



slit is then made down one or, where the stock is 
larger, two or more sides of the stock, and the bark 
slightly raised as for budding ; the wedge portion of 
the scion is pushed into the slit, bound firmly into 
position, and the process is complete. There are, 
however, many modifications of this mode of grafting, 
though this, of which an illustration 
is given (Fig. 21), is the simplest and 
the best. 

Cleft Grafting. — In this also the 
preliminary preparation of the stock 
may be broadly afiirmed to be the 
same as in the others, that is, the 
head is cut oft". Beyond this the 
mode is considerably different. The 
simplest method of cleft grafting is 
that in which the stock and scion are 
of about equal diameters, A wedge- 
shaped piece of wood is then cut out of the 
stock, the scion is cut to fit this V-like caxity, 
placed in, and bound in position. This mode, how- 
ever, is often practised when the stock is much the 
larger ; in that case a piece of wood is cut out of 
the side of the stock, the scion is manipulated to fit 
in quite level with the bark, and the process is 
complete (Fig, 22). 

Saddle Grafting. — This chiefly diverges from the 
above in the following manner. Instead of the 
scion being cut into the form of .a wedge through- 



Fig. 21.— Crown 
Graftintr. a, 
the stock ; b, 
tue scions. 




Fig. 22.— Cleft GraftiTig. a, stock : b c, wedge of scion; 
d, the graft made. 

out, it terminates within a quarter or half an 
inch of its natural termination at the upper end. 
This is then cut up straight, leaving a projection 
from the inside of the cut to the outer bark. This 
projection enables the scion to rest upon the crow^n 
of the stock in a similar manner to a saddle on a 
horse's back, and hence the name. This form may 
be of some service in imparting greater stability to 
the scion, and, in so far as the projecting portion of 
the scion helps to clothe the crown of the stock with 
new bark, it is of great use. But as to hastening 
the union between scion and stock it is probably 
useless, or worse, as during the time spent in 
manipulating these rather complicated scions so as 



THE EOSE AND ITS CULTURE. 



215 



to make them fit perfectly, the most potent uniting 
force, the fresh, sweet sap of the Rose, is being dried 
up and wasted. Nothing can compensate for this 
loss, aaid hence smart manipulation, a good fit, and 
instantaneous tying are the surest roads to success in 
Rose-grafting. 

Cleft grafting is the mode most generally practised 
in the open air ; as the standard briar is almost the 
only stock used, it is perhaps, on the whole, the best 
for this purpose. Success would be indeed far more 
sure and uniform were the briars, of whatever 
height, potted up in November, and wintered under 
glass. Or borders could be made for them in cool 
houses in which they might be packed closely, in 
rows of from three to six or more abreast, with 
sufiicient space between to reach them from either 
side. A gentle warmth of from 50'' to 60° might 
be given in December, the stock could then be 
worked with scions from the open air in January, 
and the Roses be fit to plant out in the open quarters 
towards the end of May. By these expedients most 
of the risks and discomforts of grafting Roses in the 
open air in March would be avoided, and the chances 
of success greatly increased. 

Exclusion of Air and Water. — The old- 
fashioned mode of doing this was by plastering 
OA'-er with prepared clay that hardened into a 
waterproof mass. But this simple and preventive 
method has seldom or never been used for Roses, 
inasmuch as it had been superseded by various sorts 
of grafting- wax, before the grafting of these became 
fashionable. And now the horticultural sundries 
men, who undertake almost everything for culti- 
vators, advertise all sorts of grafting -waxes or 
ointments, most of which are tolerably efficient. 
The danger and fault of most of them consist in 
their being used too hot, and setting too hard. To 
prevent the former, thrust a finger in before use. If 
not too hot for that, it will not injure the Roses. A 
small percentage of tallow is one of the surest 
antidotes to a cement-like hardness. A cheap and 
excellent grafting-wax for Roses may be made by 
warming over a slow fire three-fourths of common 
pitch, with another fourth consisting of equal parts 
of resin, bees'-wax, and tallow. Apply, after test- 
ing and proving sufficiently cool, with a worn-out 
painter's brush, laying on the mixture thickly over 
the crown of the stock, and smearing the tie all 
over, and a little above and below the point of 
union. This when cool will prove quite air and 
water proof, and so keep the wound hermetically 
sealed, one of the greatest aids to its rapid healing, 
and consequently the union of scion and stock. 

Dwarf Roses grafted in-doors are seldom waxed 
or cemented over. By working these low down 



the stems, or even on the roots, the spliced por- 
tion may generally be more or less covered over 
with earth, and thereby be kept in good condition 
for forming a soimd and healthy union. There 
are also other advantages in thus grafting close 
to or on the roots. The scion, as a rule, under 
such conditions forms independent roots of its own, 
which very often finally supersede the roots of the 
stock. In such cases the latter serve more of a 
temporary than a permanent purpose. They support 
the scion to form a union with the stock, and help it 
to form roots of its own, and then disappear, or sink 
into a condition of secondary importance. 

But of course in the dwarf standards, or even 
dwarfs, worked a few inches above the ground, this 
mode of burying the point of union, and borrow- 
ing the roots of the stock for a temporary purpose, 
cannot be adopted, and all such grafts may be waxed 
over in the usual way. This, however, may be safely 
dispensed with when the plants are grafted in a 
moist atmosphere, and kept in heat and moistui-e 
till the scions have taken. 

Sometimes the wax sets so hard that it needs 
considerable force to remove it. Great care must be 
taken not to disturb or displace the scion in the 
process. Should the ligatures not have rotted, they 
must be removed. If the union is complete, all is 
well ; if not, give a second tie, and keep the scion 
firmly in position, and prevent the slit in the bark 
from opening. 

PROPAGATION BT LATHES. 
This process consists in forcing the branches to 
form roots while still fed by the parent plant. It 
is one of the oldest, simplest, surest means of 
propagation. It can only be practised on- dwarf, 
climbing, or weeping Roses, and the latter must 
droop so far as to touch the ground. But as all 
Roses do not root with equal freedom, there are 
different modes of procedure. Some merely thrust 
a spade into the ground at a convenient distance 
from a dwarf Rose, remove a large spadeful of earth, 
bend a Rose-shoot into the hole, place the earth on the 
top of the shoot, stamp it down firmly, and thus finish 
layering. (See Fig. 24.) Others make a deep slit, 
by thrusting in the spade, moving it backwards and 
forwards, place the shoot in the slit, and tread it firmly 
in. A stone is frequently placed on the centre of the 
shoot, to make all more secure. A third plan insures 
greater stability, and lessens the risk of disturbance 
until safely rooted, by the use of wooden or wire pegs 
thrust down over the shoots to keep them immovable 
until rooted. These are what may be called the more 
rough-and-ready modes of layering Roses, and they 
answer fairly well for most of the free-rooting 
varieties. But many of the more choice Roses root 



216 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



very slowly or not at all by such means. For 
these, and also to insure the more rapid rooting of 
all Roses, the following mode of layering is the bebt. 

Layering with a Tongue. — By this mode 
the cultivator combines most of the more solid advan- 
tages of propagation by cuttings, while retaining the 
safety and security of layers. The branch is cut 
half through at the base of a bud, and cut up its 
centre for an inch or more in length (Fig. 23). A 
small stone, or a little earth or sand, is then placed 
in the slit to keep it open, and the layer is thrust 
into the ground, the upper part of the branch being 
so placed that its half- diameter with base-bud is 




Fig. 23.— Layering with a Tongue. Tongue at h, and mode 
of forming it at a. 



placed in a semi-vertical position in the ground. To 
make all this more sure, and to insure perfect immo- 
bility to the rooting portion, the upper end of the 
layer is fastened to a stake (Fig. 24), the branch 
being also pegged firmly. With such manipulation 
of tissues, and presentation of the root-forming por- 
tions of the plant to the soil, it must and does root 
freely, and without risk, as during the whole process 
the branch is still supported with food through the 
unsevered portion of the stem. 

Size and Length of Layers. — This is not 
material to their final rooting. But to propagate 
Roses in quantities from layers, the young wood 
of the current season is the best. The choice of 
such will keep the layers small, leaving only a few 
inches above the ground. The wood must also be 
tolerably firm, or there will be much risk of rotting. 
Of course, where larger branches of two or more 
years old wood are used, there will be no such risk. 

Time for Layering.— Any time during the 
growing season will answer, but practically from 



the middle of June to the middle or end of Sep- 
tember will be found the best season to insure 
rapid rooting. 

The first layers may often be removed in the same 
autumn, others may remain till the spring, and any 
not rooted till the following season. They are 
mostly well rooted, and form among the most 
valuable of all the varieties of own-root Roses. 
Sometimes not only will the layer be found to have 
protruded roots from near the base of the buds, but 
the whole of the branch portion of the slit will also 
become callused, or even full of roots. In such 
cases this should be cut off intact, and either left as 
one rooted layer or divided into many. Planted out 




Fig. 24.— The Layer Staked and Pegged down. 



in nursery beds or, better still, placed in heat, these 
layers or partially-rooted sections will produce one or 
many Roses apiece. 

PROPAGATION BT SUCKIIRS. 
The suckers of Roses are underground stems, 
running almost as far as those of wilding briars, and 
being at times nearly as troublesome as Spear- 
grass. They can hardlv be called roots, and many of 
them, while attached to the parent plant, seldom or 
never form roots. If left, however, to form more or 
less top, and then removed from the plant, placed 
in light sandy soil, partially shaded, and carefully 
nursed for a time, most of them will produce roots. 
September and October are the best months for this 
mode of propagation. The suckers should be care- 
fully traced back from their growing stems till their 
exact positions on the root-stocks are found. Then 
remove them with a strong knife or sharp trowel, 
taking a small portion of the root-stock with them. 
Of course, if found to have roots this precaution is 
not necessary. Very few really good Roses, however, 
are at ali fruitful of suckers, consequently this mode 



THE HARDENING OFF OF PLANTS. 



217 



of propagation must not be much relied upon. It is 
also found that Roses raised from suckers are apt to 
run to suckers more freely than is consistent with 
symmetrical growth or floriferous habits, the suckers 
being also apt to produce " gourmands," that is, 
abnormally strong and spongy shoots, which not 
seldom starve off the better or freer-flowering portions 
of the Rose. No Roses, unless it be some varieties 
of the Scotch, approach the Dog-rose or briar in the 
X^rodigahty and persistency of their suckers. 

PROPAGATION BY BOOT-DIVISION. 

This is only practicable in the case of compara- 
tively few Roses, such as Chinese, Scotch, Austrian 
Briars, and a few others. These spread out into 
bushes rather than retain the character of individual 
plants, and each branch division of the bush has 
its own independent roots, similar to a herbaceous 
Phlox, Pa^onia, or other herbaceous plant. Such 
Roses when lifted may be divided into as many 
plants as there are rooted stems. Examining a very 
old plant of Coupe d'Hebe, as this is being written, 
it has as many as half a dozen independently rooted 
divisions, and, of course, could be readily divided 
into so many plants. But this mode of propagation 
is but little used, and mostly confined to the China 
or Fairy Roses, the old red and pink Monthly 
Eoses, and Hosa spinosissima, or Scotch. 

The early autumn is the best time to propagate 
hardy Roses, and about April the more tender ones, 
by root-division. Fairy Roses in pots may be divided 
at any time, the plants being quickly re-established 
in a close pit or frame. 

Occasionally a good many other dwarf Roses will 
manifest this property of root-spreading, and any 
such may be divided as opportunities of removal or 
transplantation occur. However, as root-division is 
the last mode of Rose-propagation mentioned here, 
so it is also the least useful, and it has been but little 
practised since the budding, grafting, and free root- 
ing of Roses from cuttings have been so generally 
and successfully adopted. 



THE HAEDEOTNG OFF OF 
PLANTS. 



IN the earlier part of the summer this goes on in 
a wholesale way. Not a few gardeners who have 
only one or two glass-houses, partially or wholly 
empty them during the summer months. The 
plants with which they have been crowded during 
the winter or early spring months, are now placed 
out of doors, either to add to the beauty of flower- 
■beds or borders, to make or finish their summer 



growth in the open air, or for the express purpose of 
being hardened. As all sudden changes are dan- 
gerous, and the transition from under glass to the 
open air must needs be a change more or less 
sudden, however mild and warm the weather may 
be, a few words of warning and of guidance in this 
matter may prove alike seasonable and useful. 

Every transference of plants from under glass into 
the open air is really 'a hardening process, and needs 
some judgment and care. The simplest and safest 
mode of leading all plants from one to the other with- 
out their receiving any cheek by it, is to begin by 
making the inside as like the open air as may be, 
some days or weeks before the transference is made. 
We cannot make nor greatly modify the weather out 
of doors, but we can under glass; and if the green- 
house sashes and doors are opened night and day, 
or the glass-frame is drawn off, for a week before 
plants are moved wholly into the open, they will 
hardly feel the change, to use the common phrase 
used by gardeners. This tentative method of 
bringing the outside weather to bear upon the 
plants while under glass, enables them to be moved 
from the one condition to the other without check 
or hindrance of any kind. To insure this, however, 
another common mistake must be avoided, and that 
is the placing of the plants in a too exposed posi- 
tion. Plants under glass have more or less of 
shelter and shade; yet not a few, in placing them out 
to harden, set them in the full blaze of the sun, and in 
the teeth of the wind ; consequently, their leaves and 
stems are either baked by the sun or torn and riven 
by the wind. Even should they escape such serious 
injury, they are frequently so violently and severely 
hardened off, that it is weeks before they again start 
into growth, if, indeed, they grow any more for the 
season. The hardening process must be gradual, if 
it is to be either safe or beneficial. Begun in-doors, 
carried on a step at a time in the open, it ends by 
fitting and strengthening the plants for their summer 
work, or next year's flowering. A sheltered place, 
shaded from the sun for two hours on either side of 
noon, is the best possible situation for plants 
that have just been removed from under glass 
into the open air. After a fortnight or so the 
plants will be so hardened as to be able to stand 
almost anywhere. The time, place, and treatment, 
however, should be varied with different plants. 
Some are so drawn up — that is, so weakened and at- 
tenuated — under glass, that they need a month's or 
more gradual hardening before they can stand the 
noonday sim's broad glare with impunity. Others 
are of such a character — as Camellias, for example — 
that the shady side of a wall or fence suits them 
best throughout the season. Others, again, such as 
Azaleas, can hardly have too much direct svmlight to 



218 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENINa. 



mature the wood and form the flowering buds for 
next year. Of all plants it may be said that the 
roots need protection from direct sunshine even more 
than the tops. More plants perish, of those put out 
to harden, through the sun beating on the pots or 
surface soil than, perhaps, from any other cause. 
Various means are adopted to prevent this, such as 
a surface mulch of moss or cocoa-fibre refuse, and 
the plunging of the pots to the rims in coal-ashes, 
sand, or other substances. The simplest, newest, and 
for some classes of plants — such as Indian Azaleas — 
decidedly the best method, consists in planting them 
out in beds of peat for the summer, placing them so 
closely together that the whole ground is covered, 
without the plants being overcrowded. This saves 
an immense amount of labour in watering, and the 
plants ripen and form flower-buds with a regularity 
and profusion scarcely reached by any other system. 
A good soaking once a week or so in dry weather is 
almost all the attention they require, and no scale, 
thrip, red spider, nor other pests, get a foot-hold on 
the plants under this semi-natural mode of treat- 
ment. 

As the balls of these plants (see article on Potting) 
are hard, it is needful, in planting them out, to take 
the same securities against dry balls as recom- 
mended for potting, and the peat or other compost 
must be rammed as firmly round and among the 
balls as possible. This system may be called the 
perfection of hardening off plants throughout the 
summer months. Early in October, at latest, 
Azaleas and other plants summered in the open thus 
must be potted up, a size larger pot being used as a 
rule than that which they were planted out in. 

But for small growers this plan of planting out 
choice plants for the summer is never likely to be 
popular, and the best and cheapest imitation of it is 
the plunging of the pots to the rim in coal-ashes on a 
worm-proof base, and the mulching over the surface 
soil of the pots with layers of cocoa-fibre refuse or 
clean moss. 



THE FLOWEE GAEDEK 

By William Wildsmith. 



CARPET BEDDING. 

BY this term is meant regular and formal arrange- 
ments of dwarf foliage plants, both tender and 
hardy, either alone or in combination with flowering 
plants. The popularity of this style of bedding has 
excited a corresponding amount of adverse criticism 
from parties who can see nothing to admire in any- 
thing that does not coincide with their own notions 
of beauty. It would be uncharitable to accuse such 
people of want of taste, but their taste is certainly of 



a curious order, where no "keepmg" of lawns, and 
the just allowing of all flowers to grow at random, or 
as they themselves prefer to put it, " at their own 
sweet will," is the professed model of their garden- 
ing. This we call at least as great an extreme in 
the opposite direction, and of the two prefer carpet 
bedding, which it is possible to carry out with far 
less of formality than is generally done. 

The term of carpet bedding is not a good one, but 
doubtless originated from the table-like flatness 
which the arrangements were made to assume when 
the style was first introduced, a mode still practised 
by some. But a more graceful style is gradually 
springing up, the stiffness or formality being broken 
at regular intervals with standard gracef ul-foliaged 
plants, so that the term ''carpet" is no longer 
appropriate, and a far better term coming into use is 
panel gardening. 

In our uncertain climate the advantages of this 
method of gardening are immense, particularly 
during the summer, when it is desirable to have 
brightness and gaiety, which neither ordinary bed- 
ding plants nor hardy perennials insure in stormy 
weather. Such weather dashes the flowers to pieces, 
and then it is that foliage arrangements show to the 
greatest advantage, and maintain their effectiveness 
long after autumn fogs have destroyed the flowers of 
Pelargoniums and other bedding plants. But even 
apart from this advantage, a few such beds are 
desirable in every bedded-out garden, and more 
especially in such as are required to be kept fur- 
nished all the year round, there being numbers of 
hardy carpeting plants which look just as well for 
summer if a few of the brighter kinds (Alternan- 
theras, for instance) be intermixed with them ; these 
giving place in the autumn to other hardy kinds. 

Position and Extent. — As regards the posi- 
tion there cannot be two opinions in the matter. 
The fo7-mal terrace garden, with its vases, fountains, 
statuary, and other stone-work, is the rightful place ; 
but all these should be supplemented with good 
breadths of turf, and a goodly array of shrubs on it, 
wherewith to break or prevent all excess of stiffness 
or formality. This might also be accomplished — 
more particularly in the summer time — by planting, 
at certain distances, beds of the more graceful and 
more dwarf " sub-tf opicals," which latter plants 
could be replaced with shrubs for the winter. 

Then there is the opposite of this, \dz., that a few 
carpet beds may with excellent effect be associated 
with other bedding and foliage plants in a less 
formal garden. Of course the arrangements of the 
plants in this connection should be of the least 
formal type. Another good position for such beds 
and borders is on each side of a straight walk, the 



THE FLOWER GARDEN. 



arrangement of plants being varied in each, bed, and 
the unavoidable stiffness of this kind of bedding 
being relieved by planting between each bed shrubs 
which harmonise with the formal character of the 
arrangements. 

For adoption on a small scale, even the garden of 
the typical London villa, with its straight walks, 
railings, or walls, and grass plot, is exceedingly 
appropriate ; and a bed, or a couple of beds, planted 
in the carpet style would often, be a desirable 
change from the monotony of Geraniums, Lobelias, 
and Gold Feather Pyrethrum, which constitute the 
bulk of the plants used in such gardens. 

As to what exte7it carpet or coloured-foliage bedding 
may be practised in the positions indicated, that 
must be left to the surroundings, individual taste, 
and climate. If the latter be cold and wet, one-half 
of the garden would be none too much for the formal 
terrace ; but good judgment would be essential that 
the differing , styles be evenly dispersed over the 
entire garden. As remarked, individual taste must 
have a hand in this decision ; and those with a weak- 
ness for gaudiness will not think of going so far, 
whilst others may be disposed to go further. But it 
may be well to warn both that the surroundings 
should have the strongest voice in the matter. If 
these be excessively formal, then the beds may be 
pi'oportionately the same, and vice versa; only the 
formality here meant should not be understood to 
be an unbroken fiat surface, but foliage-colouring, 
arranged in simple patterns, with graceful standard 
plants in central positions. Extent as regards the 
other positions named must be purely a personal 
matter. The straight walk position, pro\'ided the 
recommendation as to shrubs is respected, may have 
all carpet patterns, whilst as to the small villa 
garden, it must be either all or none. 

Preparing the Beds. — It is impossible to 
prepare carpet beds on the same principle as is 
usually followed with other bedding plants ; that is, 
to give much or little manure according to the wants 
of the plants that are to occupy the beds. The 
patterns are so complicated, that it is obviously 
impracticable thus to suit the soil to each; and 
therefore all must share alike in the best soil at 
command. Light deep loam, manured with vegetable 
or well- decayed farm-yard manure, does well for 
every kind, of course too well for some plants. But 
for all that it is best to err on the side of liberality 
rather than niggardliness in the matter of manure, 
and the soil should be broken very finely, and dis- 
tributed evenly, else it is difficult to mark out the 
design with precision; and the plants being small, the 
slightest unevenness is observable and objectionable 
in patterns of such nicety. 



The beds being raised above the turf -line is 
another point deserving of special attention. Any 
one who has observed the difference between those 
so raised, and those having their edgings level with 
the turf, cannot but have been favourably impressed 
with the superior effect of those with raised edgings. 
But then they must be real live edgings, not the 
hideous baked " mud walls " that one sometimes 
sees, with here and there an Echeveria stuck in, 
cockle-shell-like, as if courting contempt on the 
style generally. The manner of making up such 
edgings was detailed at page 105, and the best plant 
for furnishing them is Herniaria glabra ; Sedums of 
various kinds do almost equally well ; Echeverias 
and Sempervivums also do well, but they should 
always be in a setting of Sedum or other moss-like 
plant, that the whole of the soil may be covered. 

Edgings being planted, and the surface being 
made smooth and even, and the designs decided on, 
and drawn out on paper, the marking out preparatory 
to planting comes next, and is a work of great nicety, 
requiring skill, and still more particularly perception 
as to proportion ; because, though the designs may 
have been drawn out on paper, exact measurements 
on the ground as have been allowed in the scale of 
design may come awkwardly, and therefore there 
must be a certain latitude or licence to alter 
measurements, if the eye does not approve when 
drawn out on the groimd. Hence, keenness of per- 
ception, and above all, for the operator to be in 
sympathy with his work, is necessary to success. Of 
course there must be no treading on the bed, either 
when marking, planting, or dressing ; and to prevent 
this'being necessary, what may be called a temporary 
platform should be constructed — a stout plank, long 
enough to go right across the bed, and elevated 
above it, supported at each end with large flower- 
pots, or better still, stout blocks of wood that have 
been cut for the purpose. Fine soil, and exact 
marking out, render the putting out of the plants 
a comparatively easy matter ; and an unskilled work- 
man may be trusted with that, if the places have 
been duly labelled, and the charge given not to 
hurry, but plant carefully, neither leaving a cavity 
next the roots, nor pressing them in too hardly, 
which practice either breaks the roots or makes the 
soil so pasty that when dry it cracks, and the 
growth of the plants is seriously checked. 

Arrangements. — As remarked in a preceding 
paragraph, by this style of bedding winter bright- 
ness may, in part at any rate, be made a certainty ; 
and in the arrangements here given, this point has 
been kept in view; all the hardy plants possible 
that look well in summer being used, that there may 
be a minimum of additional planting needed to make 



220 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENmG. 



them into good winter arrangements as soon as 
fiost destroys the tender kinds. The arrangements 
are designed on the principle of avoiding undue 
excess of formality, by introducing what, for lack 
of a better term, we still call "dot" plants; thus 
rendering the woi-d "carpet " as applied to the style 
inappropriate. This, however, is a matter of little 
consequence so long as the change is an improve- 
ment, which it undoubtedly is. 



bedding, being quite hardy, very little trouble to 
keep in form, and almost pure white ; this, placed as 
it is between Nos. 2 and 4, the one creamy-yellow 
and the other a glaucous blue, forms a combination 
of colour that no arrangement of flowering plants 
can excel. 

This arrangement is the most formal that under 
any circumstances should ever be attempted. It 
would be a telling bed for the middle portion of two 




SCALE OF FEET 



Fig. 5.— Carpet BEDDiNii. 

1, Eaised edging of Sempervivum calcareum (commonly called S. calif ornicum in gardens) ; 2, Sedum 
acre eleguns variegata ; 3, Auiennaria tomentosa; 4, Kleiuia repens, or Echeveria Peacockii ; 
5. Spergiila prolitera aurea, centre Chamsepeuce Ca abonaB ; 6, Alternanthera spectabilis, centre 
Lady Plymouth Geranium ; 7, Pyretbrum, Gold Feather ; ^, dark Alternanthera, or Ajuga rep- 
tans purpurea ; 9, Iresine Liudeni ; 10, ChamaBpeuce diacantha. 



Plan Fig. 5 will, perhaps, best convey our 
meaning as to what are to be considered " Hot " 
plants, by indicating the positions for them, these 
being Nos. 5, 6, and 10 on the plan ; and to further 
break the flatness of the arrangement, the ground- 
work in No. 7 should be allowed to grow higher than 
that plant (Gold Feather Pyrethrum) usually is, and 
thus the height of the central portion will be con- 
siderably greater than that of the outer part. 
Though marked separately, the edging and enclos- 
ing band, Nos. 1 and 2, may really only be one line-; 
or rather, the Sempervivum should be confined to 
the upright edging, and the Sedum planted in it 
as well as on the flat margin. No. 3, Antennaria 
tomentosa, is the perfection of a plant for carpet 



sots of beds of a less formal pattern, or as a hloeh led 
to divide a given set of beds in one aspect — 
say south — from a similar set looking east, this 
bed being placed in the south-east angle. Of course 
it may be of any size required, only the larger it is, 
just to that extent should be the turf surrounding 
it. The drawing of the design on the ground is 
solely a question of exact measurements. Being 
straight lines throughout, a line and ireasuring-rod 
with pegs and string for describing the small circles 
are all that is needed. 

Plan Pig. 6 is one of the best carpet patterns, 
which, though it looks intricate, is not really so, 
there being no difiiculty at all in filling out every 



THE FLOWER GARDEN". 



221 



angle, which it is needless to say must be the case for 
the design to be effective. The planting arrange- 
ment here given is an exact copy of one actually 
done very recently ; but a greater number of hardy 
plants would be used had we to do it again, and the 
Lobelia would be left out entirely, because of its 
failure before the end of the summer. This design 
is also an excellent one to fill wholly with hardy 
plants for the winter ; and if we were called upon to 



thus are formed the six flat-iron-like points, and 
also the sides of the six triangular beds. The outer 
sides of the triangles are formed by running the 
string round the central stake, and so is the broad 
line of the six pointed beds. Again we repeat that 
exact measurement should be the first consideration. 

Plan I'ig. 7 may suit some tastes better, and 
it is certainly much easier to plant, and the greater 




SCALE OF FEET 
8 12 



Fig. 6.— Carpet Bedding. 

Eaised edging of Herniaria glabra ; 1, gronnd-work of 
Sedum glaucnm ; 2, Alternanthera amabilis latifolia ; 
3, Mesembryanthemum cordifolium variegatum, ard 
a central plant of Ecbeveria metallica ; 4, Lobelia 
pumila, dark blue ; 5, Pyrethrum, Gold Featber ; 
6, Coleus or Iresine; 7, central plant, Dracaena aus- 
tralis, surrounded with Centaurea candidissima. 



s-o furnish it, the edging would be as now, also No. 1 ; 
then No. 2 might be the hardy British plant, Ajnga 
reptans purpurea ; No. 3, the golden-tipped Stone- 
crop, Sedum acre elegans, with a small plant in the 
middle of it, of Emnymus variegata aurea ; No. 4, 
Erica herbacea purpurea ; No. 5, as now. Gold 
Feather Pyrethrum ; No. 6, small plants of Retino- 
spora plumosa ; and No. 7, golden variegated Holl}'. 
We have practically tested this winter arrangement, 
and consider it a gem of the first water. 

The marking out here is done by first getting the 
exact centre of the bed, into which a stout stake is 
put for the purpose of describing the outer circle by 
running a string round it : this line is then di\dded 
into six parts, and a good peg is put at each divi- 
sion, from which point another string measur- 
ing to the next point is run round the peg, and 



Fig. 7.— Carpet Beddi^ij. 

1, Sedum glaucum, and Ecbeveria secimda glauca ; 2, Alter- 
nantbera magnifica, and dot plant of Sempervivum 
arboreum variegata ; 3, Alternantbera paronycboides 
aurea, and dot plant of Ecbeveria metallica ; 4, Sedum 
Lydium, green, and Pachypbytum bracteosum ; 5, Her- 
niaria glabra, green, and Kleinia repens ; 6, ground- 
work of Mesembryanthemum cordifolium variegatum, 
filled out with various kinds of tree succulents. 

width for colour makes it more suitable than Fig. 6 
for distant positions. If the star part be made a 
step higher than the circle, in the same way as 
advised for raised edgings, and the star- edge 
planted with Sedum glaucum, as well as the margin, 
the effect would be greatly enhanced. This plan is 
an excellent one for the small grass-plot of a villa, 
the planting in such a position to be as follows : — 
No. 1, Sedum glaucum; No. 2, edging of Gold 
Feather Pyrethrum, with blue Lobelia in centre ; 
No. 3, also Gold Feather edging with Ageratum in 
centre ; Nos. 4 and 5, the green Herniaria glabra, 
with small Echeverias planted in it; No. 6, a line of 
smaU plants— pegged — of golden variegated Euony- 
mus, and the middle, any bright-coloured Geranium, 
which in winter time might be replaced with small 
shrubs or a good plant of Yucca recurva. The only 



222 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENINa 



other plants that would need replacing for the winter 
are Lobelia, Ageratum, and the Echeverias ; the latter, 
however, need not he replaced, as the green ground- 
work of Herniaria will be sufficiently bright, and in 
place of Lobelia and Ageratum, six dwarf evergreen 
shrubs of any kind will look well, and be in charac- 
ter with the season. 

Arrangements and combinations of greater bril- 
liancy than these might be given, but their season 
would be short-lived. The first cold night of 
autumn settles Alternanthera, Coleus, and similar 
tender kinds, and therefore it is better to con- 
fine the arrangements to such plants as last 
longest, though it may be at some loss of summer 
brilliancy. 

It is necessary to observe in reference to the fore- 
going plans that, the patterns being of such a 
distinctive character, as they ever should be in this 
style of gardening, perfection of keep is of the utmost 
importance. The lines of colour should at all times 
be kept well defined by stopping, pegging, or pinch- 
ing ; and the standard plants be set off to the best 
advantage by always being maintained in an upright 
position by supports to the stems. This matter of 
" keep " is repeatedly quoted as derogatorj- to foliage 
or carpet bedding ; but it is a charge which, if 
brought to the test, and compared with other modes 
of planting, cannot be sustained ; it simply looks 
formidable, there being just as much labour to keep 
all other descriptions of planting (except the perfectly 
wild) in anything like the same degree of neatness, 
which in all kinds of gardening is a quality that 
should always be at the head of the list. 

List of Plants. — The following are hardy kinds 
that may ba used either in summer or winter : — 

Antennaria tomentosa. 
Ajrga reptans purpurea. 
A. reptans varie^ata. 
Artemisia, judaica. 
Cerastium tomentosum. 

C. arvense. 

Dactylis glomerata varie- 
gata. 

D. glomerata elegantissima. 
Euouymus radicaus Tarie- 

gatus, 

E. flavescens. 
Heruiaria glabra. 
Leptinella scariosa. 
Mentha Pulegium gibral- 

taricum. 
Pyrethnim, Gold Feather. 



List of Tender Plants for Summer Planting 
ONLY [contmued). 

I Mesemhrvanthemum cordi- 



Pyrethrum TchihatcheAvh. 

Stellaria graminea aurea. 

Saxifraga hirta. 

S. rosularis. 

S. aizoides. 

S. hypnoides. 

S. densa. 

Sedum Lydium. 

S. corsicum. 

S. glaueum. 

S. acre elegans variegatiim. 

S. anghcum. 

S. carueum variegatum. 

Thymiis citriodorus aureus. 

Veronica incana. 

V. repens. 



List of Tender Plants for Summer Planting 

ONLY. 



Alternanthera magnifica. 
A. amabilis. 
A. paronychioides. 
A. paronychioides aurea. 
A. versicolor grandis. 
Amaranthus melanci.olicns. 
Coprosma Baueriana var.e- 
gata. 



I Coleus Verschaflfeltii. 
I Cotyledon pulveruleuta. 

Echevf ria glauca. 

E. secunda glauca. 

E. Peacockii. 

E. glauca metallica. 

E. pumila. 

Gnaphalium lanatum. 



Iresine Lindeni. 
I. accummata. 
I. Herbstii. 
Kleinia repens. 
K. tomentosa. 
Leucophyta Brownii. 
Lobehas (pumila section) 



folium variegatum. 
Pachypbytum bracteosum 
P. roseum. 
Eochea perfoliata. 
E. falcata. 

Tradescantia zebrina. 



SUB-TBOPICAL BEDDING. 

As a rule, every one who is really fond of a 
garden has some special affection, or what is called 
*' hobby," for some branch of gardening. Perhaps, 
if there is an exception to the general rule, " sub- 
tropical bedding " may be credited with that excep- 
tion, and why ? Simply by reason of the mistaken 
notion that the term sub-tropical must mean tender 
stove plants. This, it is true, is the most general 
interpretation ; but, there being numbers of plants 
quite hardy, and others nearly so, which produce 
effects as striking and graceful as even the most 
tender, such a view is, to say the least, a very 
restricted one. Hindering — as such a "view must — 
the carrjdng out of this style of ornamental garden- 
ing, either on a large or small scale, w^e shall en- 
deavour here to show that sub-tropical bedding is 
formidable in name only ; and that whilst the 
amatem-, if so disposed, may have his one bed or 
single specimens of " sub-tropicals," the style is 
capable of extension to any desirable length at a 
very moderate cost of labour, and convenience for 
raising plants; certainly as cheaply as any other 
branch of summer bedding, and therefore worthy of 
adoption on the ground of variety alone, though not, 
be it understood, to the neglect of other departments. 
As much variation in style as possible, but each part 
well done, constitutes the great chann of a garden. 

There is, of course, no valid reason why those so 
disposed, and who do not study cost or short dura- 
tion of effectiveness, should not still continue their 
practice of putting out tender stove plants — gi^and 
Palms, Tree Ferns, and the like — except it be that 
such a practice fosters in some other minds a yearn- 
ing after the unattainable, which would be consider- 
ably modified did they but know at what an enormous 
cost such fleeting beauty had been obtained. Writing 
more particularly for the general reader, and for the 
owners of small as well as large gardens, the tender 
exotic phase of sub-tropical bedding will not be 
treated on here, except with reference to fast-gi'ow- 
ing seedlings which can be raised in an ordinary pit 
or green-house, and which continue in good form 
until cut down by severe frost in October or Novem- 
ber. Amongst such plants are Giant Hemp [Cannabis 
gigantea) ; all the Castor -oils [Ricinus) ; some few 
Solanums, Eucalyptus, Chilian Beet, and others to be 
named jjresentty. 



THE FLOW-EE GAEEEX. 



223 



Character of Plants, — TEe first condition 
essential to selection is that the plants shall be dis- 
tinctively Jine-foliaged plants (not necessarily flower- 
less) ; another is that they shall he of easy cultui-e ; 
and a third, that they he of rapid growth. The last 
condition is of great importance, when the shortness 
of our most favourable summers is taken into account, 
and rapiditA- of effectiveness is necessary to get any- 
thing Eke satisfaction for the labour spent. Good 
culture will do something in this direction, such as 
taking pains with the raising of the plants, letting 
them have no check either from staging too long 
in the seed-pans, or getting root-bound before re- 
potting, or exposing them to the atmosphere before 
they have been duly prepared by partial and gradual 
hardening off' ; and, lastly, by sparing no pains in the 
preparation of the beds. "Warmth of soil is insured 
in the coldest districts by well draining, trenching 
deeply, and throwing' up the soE above the ground- 
level of the turf, that the sun may have fuE power, 
not only on the flat portion of the bed, hut through 
the upraised earth. As to manure, plants of this 
character wiE take any quantity in reason, and need 
it quite as much to develop theE fuE beauty as for 
rapidity of growth. 

Site for Sub-tropical Beds.— The plants, for 
the most part, being taE, and some of them tender, 
naturally suggest shelter. A deep deE, and an open 
slope sheltered from north-east winds, are both ex- 
ceEent sites, and if close to a lake or stream the 
value of such sites wiE be increased, as some of the 
plants only look their best in association with water, 
notably so the Anmdos. Bamboos, and Phormiums. 
Another desirable condition in the choice of si:-? is. 
that the sun-oundings be sufiiciently massiv-i : :r in 
other words, that there be a good background either 
of shrubs, banks of turf, ixx, or other greeners* ; 
such sohd surroundings are quite inEspensable to 
bring out the fuE beauty of such finely-cut foliage 
as that of the Sumachs, or the flowery panicles of 
Bocconia cordata, or of Sumea eleaans. 

These of course are named as best sites, but the 
owner of a small ^Ela garden, E he only has shelter, 
may if so inclined have a first-rate sub-tropical bed. 
Say for instance he has a large cEcular bed, and 
wishes it planted effectively after the sub-tropical 
fashion : here is the arrangement. In the middle 
plant a large clump of the hardy Bamboo {Arundi- 
naria japonica, generaEy grown under name of Ba,n- 
busa Metake) ; or else of Xew Zealand Flax [Fhonniian 
tenax) ; then three plants, equal in size, of seedling^/- 
bizzia lophantha, generaEy known a.^ Acacia lophantha; 
and next six plants of GreviUea rohusta; the outer row 
of aE being twelve plants of variegated Abutilon ; 
the edging to be the haidy variegated Plantain lily 



[Funkia ovata variegata). All these plants can be 
bought at the price usuaEy paid for common 
Geianiums, and are therefore within the reach of aE. 
The bed can be fiEed out either with flowering or 
foliage plants ; considering the position, we should 
ad-vise the former, the kinds to be either Geraniums 
or Fuchsias, or both in mixture ; should foEage 
plants be preferred, variegated Thyme, Gold Feather 
P^Tethrum, or any of the mossy SricCti on of SeduniSj 
would be appropriate. 

Arrangement and Form of Beds. — Though 
there are numbers of plants that do weE singly ia 
isolated positions on the tm-f , and some should thus 
be planted, care and good judgment are needed in 
theE Espersion, otherwise the garden wiE present a 
too ■• dotty •■' appearance. Good breadths of turf be- 
tween each bed are of infinitely greater importance 
than even the arrangement of plants in the beds, 
hence the necessity for being speciaEy particular as 
to the planting of single specimens on the turf. An 
angulai- nook, or a ;;i. : :- :c i iri of that form, or as a 
E-visional line to a s.-t oi I els — these are the only 
rightfE places for single specimen plants in the 
sub-tropical garden ; whilst as to shape or form of 
beds, none are so telling as ovals and rounds, and 
the size of each shoiEd be determined by the size of 
the garden, not forgetting that wide spaces of tm-f 
between each are of the greatest importance. Long 
borders, not formal in design, but the front part 
running in irregular semi-cEcular shape, are also 
suitable forms for sides of banks which are weE 
hacked up with shrubs. The free and stately habit 
of growth of aE kinds of sub-tropicals, is sufficient 
of itseE to show how inappropriate fantasricaEy 
formed beds would be in a sub-tropical garden, and 
therefore theE adoption should never be thought of. 

Arrangement of Plants. — Tf due regard be 
had to avoidance of tiae ■■dotting'' mentioned in the 
preceding paragraph, and the beds are of a good size 
with wide sweeps of lawn between them, the general 
arrangement of the whole wiE be of the easiest 
description : for even E the variety of plants at 
command be limited, it wiE then be possible to so 
intei-mix and place them apart, that want of variet\- 
wiE only be observable after strict scrutiny, ^liat 
we shaE caE the mixed plan of arrangement is that 
we practise, and recommend ; for though it is most 
usual to have a bed of a kind, there is about such 
an arrangement, however elegant the plant may be, 
a lack of variety and a '-lumpy" appearance most 
objectionable from any, but particularly from a true 
garden artist's point of view. 

Strictly adhering to this mixed plan, the follow- 
ing is an arrangement for the long border above 



224 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



mentioned :— Standard or " dot " plants of Sumach, 
variegated Maples, and Albizzia lophantlta, with in- 
termediate 'plants oi Arundinaria japoiica, then filled 
in with dark-leaved Cannas ; the outer margin, or front 
of bed, to be Grevillea robusta and Yucca reciirva, 
on a ground- work of Salvia argentea ; edging with 
Solanum pyracanthum. An oval arrangement is as 
follows : three large plants, equidistant through 
centre, of variegated Abutilon ; then five plants of 



arrangement of dwarfer plants for a circular bed 
consists of a central plant of Braccena australis ; next 
three plants of variegated Yucca ; next six of Solanum 
pyracanthum ; the outer line being six other Sola- 
nums, alternated by six white Thistles [Chamcepeuce 
diacantha) ; the edging to be a complete line of the 
Fish-bone Thistle [Chamcepeuce Casabonce) ; and the 
undergroAvth common Stone-crop [Sedmn acre). 

These arrangements will sufficiently indicate what 




Sicinus Gibsonii, also through centre ; then a line each 
side of Fatsia japonica, commonly known as Aralia 
Sieboldii ; the outer margin Centaurea candidissima, 
filled in on each side of bed mth Solanum robustum, 
in the centre of Solanum being one good plant of 
Ferida communis. A circular arrangement is a central 
plant of Eucalyptus globulus ; next three plants, of 
variegated Phormium, with intermediate plants of 
Melianthus major ; then a circle of Cannas; next a 
circle of Solanum marginatum : and the bed filled out 
with white and grey Thistles (Chamrepeuce diacantha 
and ChamcBpeuce Casabonce). Another most elegant 



we mean by mixed planting, and will suggest other 
arrangements. Moreover, it is not imperative that 
a sub-tropical garden should be wholly composed of 
foliage. This once was our view, but practice has 
shown that it was a mistaken one — at least, so far as 
our taste is concerned. We now use Sunflowers, in- 
termixed with the Giant Hemp {Cannabis gigantea), 
for greenery, the graceful and finely-cut foliage of 
which makes a most perfect setting for the now 
fashionable flowers. As a setting for single Dahlias 
we use Ferida communis, the Fern-like foliage con- 
trasting most beautifully with the broad foliage of 



SUBUKBAN GAEDENINa. 



225 



the Dahlias, whilst the flowers of the latter, resting 
on the Ferula, present somewhat the appearance 
they do when cut and arranged in vases with Fern- 
fronds. A bed of tall and standard Fuchsias, inter- 
mixed with dwarf plants of Grevillea robusta, or with 
seedling Acacia lophantha, is also another very tell- 
ing arrangement to place between surrounding beds 
of foliage plants. The flowery panicles of Hictnea 
elegans look appropriate in almost any position, or in 
association with all varieties of sub-tropicals ; and the 
plant is one of the best, if not the very best, of all 
the kinds for isolation on the turf. 

The hardy herbaceous Bocconia cordata, which in 
good soil attains a height of eight feet, and flowers 
profusely, also does grandly in association with the 
more massive sub-tropicals, such as Cannas and 
Wigandias, but should always be used as a central 
plant. It also makes a fine permanent lawn plant ; 
a large group of it, either on the open lawn amongst 
the beds, or in a nook of the lawn, having a dark 
background of shrubs, has a most charming eifect. 

List of Plants. — Further particulars as to ar- 
rangement are unnecessary, but the following list of 
plants will show how greatly at the will of the 
operator they may be varied : — 

Hardy Kinds. 



Acanthus latifoliiis. 
A. spinosissimus. 
Aralia canescens. 
Arundinaria falcata. 
A. japonica. 
Arundo conspicua. 
A. donax. 

Ailantus gladulosa. 
Bambusa Fortuniivariegata 
Bocconia cordata. 
Crambe cordifoLa. 
C. juncea. 

CliamseroiJS humilis. 
C. Fortuuii. 
Fatsia japonica. 
Funkia Sieboldii. 



Funkia Sieboldii variegata. 

F. ovata aurea. 

Ferula gigautea. 

F. communis. 

Gynerium argenteum. 

M e lianthus m aj > r. 

Phormium tenax. 

P. tenax variegata. 

P. sanguinea. 

Rlins Cotinus. 

E. glabra laciniata. 

Sambucus nigra aurea. 

Tamarix germanica. 

Tussilago Farf ara variegata. 

Yucca iilamentosa. 

Y. recurva. 



Kinds Easily Kaised from Seeds. 



Albizzia lophantha. 
Amaranthus nielancholicus 

ruber. 
A. cauda*^us. 
Beta chilensis. 
Cannas. 

Cannabis gigantea. 
Chamsepeuce Casabonse. 
C. diacantha. 
Eucalyptus globulus. 
Ferdinandia eminens. 
Grevillea robusta. 



Humea elegans. 

Nicotiana macrophylla gi- 

gantea. 
N. wigandioides variegata. 
Per ilia nankin ensis. 
Eicinus (all the varieties). 
Salvia argentea. 
Solanum (all the varieties). 
Wigandia caracasana. 
W. Vigieri. 

Zea japonica variegata. 



Kinds Suitable for Undergrowths to Larger 
Plants. 



Abutilon vexillarium varie- 
gatum. 

Centaurea candidissima. 

Cineraria maritima, 

Cerastium arvense. 

C. tomentosum. 

Dactylis glomerata varie- 
gata. 

15 



Euonymus radicans varie- 
gata. 

Pyrethrum , G oldenFeather . 
Gnaphalium lanatum. 
Herniaria glabra. 
And all tbe mossy sections 
of Saxifragas and Sedums. 



This is a long Hst, and necessarily so, as it is in- 
tended to embrace plants in sufficient variety for the 
largest garden. Those having but a small space to 
furnish, and restricted in their conveniences for 
raising the plants, should confine themselves to the 
hardy kinds, and such of the annual seedling kinds 
as can be raised in a frame or small green-house. 
Hemp, Castor-oils, Chilian Beet, variegated Maize, 
and Perilla are amongst those most readily raised. 
Particulars as to raising and propagating these and 
other bedding plants have already been given. 

General Culture. — The principal requirement 
under this head consists in keeping the plants in a 
growing state by copious supplies of water and 
mulchings of manure, fine soil, or cocoa-fibre (this 
last is the neatest), till the plants have filled out the 
bed, when, as it were, they form their own mulch- 
ings. The ground-work plants and edgings should 
be gone over about once each week, for the purpose 
of pinching out the points of straggling shoots and 
pegging them down, and the tall plants should be 
tied to stakes, care being needed that the ties are 
not made so tightly that the plants get crippled. 
Many of the plants swell out their stems so rapidly 
that tying demands particular attention. Generally 
it is best to let all tall plants grow after their own 
natural habit, but sometimes a strong shoot or lead 
will grow out of all proportion with the others ; in 
such a case the points should be pinched out, with a 
view of obtaining greater uniformity of growth ; for 
though a formal appearance is undesirable, there 
should be no perceptible want of balance of growth 
in the same bed. 

It is not generally known that all the rapid- 
growing annual sub-tropicals are amenable to stop- 
ping or pinching, particularly of the side growths, 
so that, if need be, this operation may be performed 
on them. One of the most beautiful arrangements 
we have ever seen was so treated ; the plants were 
Eicinus Gibsonii, which were so repeatedly stopped 
back that they developed quite a bushy, not to 
say flat habit of growth. The rich bronze-brown 
of this liicinus was set off to perfection by having 
for a cushion the creamy-yellow Abutilon vexillarium 
variegata. 



SUBUEBAN GAEDEOTNa. 



By James Hudson. 



THE SUPPLY AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT 
OF SMALL GARDENS. 
Propagation. — The hints given with respect to 
the propagation of the Aucuba may be followed in 
the case of other plants and shrubs that do not readily 



226 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



strike root when taken as cuttings. It is a pleasure 
to be able to raise some at least of the many plants 
that are cultivated in our gardens. Their growth 
and progress are oftentimes more closely watched 
over when such is the case. The Virginian Creeper, 
the Ivies, the Wistaria and Jasminum nudifiorum 
among climbers, may aU be increased by the method 
just detailed. The process would be too slow in the 
case of the Rhododendrons ; these will be more satis- 
factory if purchased. The common Berberis, or 
Mahonia [B. aquifolia), is very easily increased by 
the small suckers that are put forth from time to 
time around the parent stem. These make very 
pretty and most useful plants for small borders, with 
a little nursing. The Yuccas (Adam's Needle) can 
also be increased from suckers, which, when of good 
size, can be severed from the parent plant. The 
Enonymus latifoUus is readily propagated from 
cuttings of the half -ripened wood, which should 
have a spot chosen for insertion w^here partially 
shaded. Nearly all the shoots of shrubs, in fact, 
that are attempted to be struck from cuttings should 
be inserted when the young growth is fairly made, 
with both leaves and shoots becoming solidified. 
This applies also to Roses of good constitution, 
which will thrive as well, or better, on their own 
roots than when either budded or grafted. If a 
sheltered nook could be spared, only a few square 
yards even, it would afford much enjoyment to 
endeavour by propagation to increase the stock of 
garden favoui'ites that are most preferred, or are 
found to be the best suited to the locality. Such a 
piece of ground should have a little fresh soil added 
to it occasionally, with some road grit or sand, to 
encourage the young and tender rootlets to make 
better progress. 

Several garden favourites can be conveniently in- 
creased by seed, with the protection of a cold frame ; 
even a small one would during the season be 
capable of nourishing a goodly number of plants. 
Among these may be named the Carnations, 
Picotees, and Pinks ; a packet of seed of either, pur- 
chased from a reliable source, would furnish a 
considerable number of plants. Personally we much 
prefer this method of raising our stock, in the first 
instance, of these beautiful fl.owers. After pro\'ing 
them at flowering time, the worst can be discarded, 
whilst the best and most promising ones should be 
increased by layers, which is an easy operation to 
perform, merely having to sever the best shoots 
about half through the growth and in an upward 
direction, leaving a tongue-like point, around w-hich 
the future roots will be emitted when placed in 
contact with some good loamy soil, into which they 
will soon push forth their roots. Whilst this is in 
progress, attention will be requisite, in the way of 



watering, to encourage more rapid root -action. In 
six or seven weeks these will be mainly depending 
on their own roots, and may then be cut oflf from the 
= parent plant, and removed to their future quarters ; 
or potted up into small pots, to be kept through the 
winter in the cold frame, and planted out in the 
following February. This is a better plan to follow 
than reljdng on annual purchases from those who 
hawk these plants about in the spring. These may 
look promising, being robust and healthy, but fre- 
quently lead to disappointment in the inferior 
quality of the flowers. Other border plants that do 
not readily push forth young roots, as they spread 
along the groimd, can be treated in a like manner. 

Those plants which are disposed to take root as 
they spread, and thus form many plants, as it 
were, may be easily increased by division. It is 
ad^isable, in fact, to take up the entire clump of any 
given plant at times, and choose some of the most 
promising pieces for re-planting, selecting at the 
same time a fresh spot for them, or to renew the 
old soil if planted in the same place again. Violets, 
for instance, should be re-planted every spring to 
insure a vigorous stock of blooming plants, choosing 
the strongest and best pieces. About the end of 
March is a good time to do this work, in order to 
secure as long a season for the growth as possible. 
The improved varieties of Violets that are now 
grown, as has already been stated, will in favourable 
positions and in good seasons give a good supply of 
flower during the autumn months. We find in the 
neighbourhood of London that the fogs of the 
autumn are most injurious to their foliage, perishing 
it in fact, in conjunction ^dth frost. A successful 
cultivator has infonned me that he goes over his 
stock and cuts off the leaves when they are over- 
abundant before the flowering time. On a piece 
thus treated he obtained a good quantity of flowers, 
whilst on another that was left with the foliage 
intact, hardly any flower was obtained, the foliage 
in the latter case rotting down, and thus perishing 
the early flowers. 

The near allies of the Violets, belonging in fact to 
the same genus, are the Pansies or Heartsease, which 
are beautiful flowers for the early spring months. 
These can be purchased cheaply enough early in the 
season, when the first flowers are beginning to unfold 
themselves ; one cannot then be far wrong in pur- 
chasing such in the cheapest market. Ha^dng got a 
stock, the same can be increased by division as may 
be necessary; they can also be propagated from 
cuttings, but this is a more imcertain process to 
those who have not had pre^ious experience. T^Tien 
the flowering season is over, the straggling growi;hs 
should be cut off ; this will induce the plant to break 
afresh from the crown. After these young growths 



SUBURBAN GARDEXIXG. 



227 



are well started, tlie plant can be taken up and 
divided. They can also be very easily raised from 
seed, whicli, if sown in May or June, will give nice 
plants by tbe autumn for flowering the next spring. 
This is a most interesting method of raising a stock, 
by reason of the great variety of colours and mark- 
ings that will be obtained from a packet of mixed 
seed. T^Tien signs are seen of the seedlings coming 
up, damage from slugs must be prevented, or the 
young and tender growths will soon disappear. One 
section of this class of plants is generally called by 
the generic name (Viola) among cultivators ; those thus 
designated will flower the greater part of the season, 
with proper attention in respect to watering, and the 
removal of seed-pods. This latter oxDcration is an 
essential point not to be overlooked by those who 
value the greatest possible extension of the flowering 
season. All plants that seed freely are considerably 
overtaxed when developing their seed-pods and pro- 
ducing flowers at the same time. The Tropaeolums, 
or Xasturtiums, are an instance of this ; so are the 
Sweet Peas. These all seed so freely that if their pods 
are allowed to remain it is not possible for them to 
produce either the quantity or quality desired in 
their flowers. 

The double perennial Daisies, already described, 
are another favourite class of plants for smaU gar- 
dens ; and they are excellent for edgings to the 
borders and beds, being both neat and compact. These 
are to be seen offered for sale in quantities during 
the early spring, as in the case of the Pansies. We 
would not advise the purchasing of them at that 
period of the year imless urgently needed, for the 
following reasons. In the first place, when exposed 
for sale at that time of the year, they are opening 
their first flowers ; those that should succeed these 
for several weeks will not be nearly so fine as they 
should be, by reason of the removal of the plants, 
and the consequent loss of roots and check to the 
\ital functions of the plants. If not looked closely 
after for watering after being newly planted, they 
will soon perish ; the leaves will turn yellow, and the 
plants get less day by day. This will cause their 
OTvmers to give up in despair, perhaps, but such need 
not be the case ; for by transferring the planting 
operations to the autumn, when the bedding plants 
and other tender subjects are past their best, and 
only fit for removal, then the Daisies, and many 
other kindred plants on w^hich reliance can be placed 
for quality, may be planted in their place. All 
plants thus treated in the autumn have every oppor- 
tunity of becoming well established ere the flowering 
season comes roimd. The floral beauties of many 
plants will thus be greatly enhanced, giving far 
more satisfaction to the pur'chasers. 

"We consider it is a mistake on the part of the 



growers of such plants for town sale not to push 
them into prominent notice in the autumn instead 
of the spring. Of course there is this difiiculty, 
the plants are less attractive, and consequently 
not so likely to draw customers, when out of 
bloom. On the other hand, however, the purchasers 
would have the pleasure of seeing their gardens 
filled to a certain extent in the dullest season of the 
year, which would be far better than having the 
beds and borders looking bare and barren, especially 
where an undue proportion of summer bedding 
plants have been employed, and which have to be 
removed in the autumn. 

In another way this latter defect may also be 
remedied, and that, too, by a very economical process. 
By reserving two or three square yards where best 
to be spared, some seed of Myosotis (Forget-me-nots), 
which are always favourites in the spring months, 
might be sown during June. . These seedling plants, 
when of sufficient size to handle, should be taken up 
carefully and pricked off a few inches apart wherever 
room can be found, as long as they are not too much 
shaded. These would make good plants for re- 
moval when the bedding plants of the summer were 
taken up, and thus more room being made for them. 
Silene pendida compacta, pink and white varieties, 
would be excellent things to use in association with 
the blue Forget-me-nots, being raised from seed, and 
treated in the same way as just recoramended. 

Primroses and Polyanthus can be raised in the 
open border, but success is more certain with the pro- 
tection of a hand-glass or cold frame. Seed should 
be sown of this garden favourite in March or April, 
to flower in the following spring. Wallflowers, 
again, are another easily-managed class of plants. 
If the seed is sown in May or June, and then treated 
hke the Forget-me-nots, they will come into flower 
about the same time. A list of some of the most 
popular annuals to flower the same season as sown 
will be given in another article. 

Sowing Seeds. — In the sowing of seeds, some 
extra care is advisable in preparing the soil. The 
operation should not be done w^hen the ground is 
very wet, neither when it is at the other extreme. 
When it (the soil) works well and crumbles to 
pieces in the hand will be the best time. The 
smaller the seed, the finer should be the soil that 
covers them. Be cautious with watering till the 
seed is germinated : what is given previous to that 
time must be applied with a fine rose on a water-pot ; 
but much will not be required till the young plants 
are fairly advanced in growth. The state of the 
weather must be taken into consideration. If seed 
is sown in hot weather, it is a good plan to cover 
the ground dm-ing the heat of the day till it shows 



228 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENINO. 



signs of coming up. If any seedling plants are 
intended to remain where sown, see that they are 
thinned out should the seed have come up thickly. 
This should be done as soon as the strongest plants 
are discernible. If this is overlooked (and it very 
frequently is), the young plants wiU draw one 
another up in a weakly manner, shortening the 
flowering season by many weeks. 

Buying Plants.— In the event of the requisite 
quantity of young plants having to be bought, some 
little advice in the selection is necessary to pur- 
chasers, and that is to closely examine the plants ere 
they buy them when offered for sale by other than 
the growers. The plants may have been out of the 
ground for some few days, and thus have lost many 
of their fine fibi-ous roots by exposure, and have 
probably suffered from drought ; the latter, com- 
bined with a keen cutting easterly wind, will very 
soon make their ill effects apparent, and which are 
not always easily remedied after being re-planted. 
These little minor details should be looked into and 
practised to insure the greatest possible amount of 
success in the future. After a few failures (from 
unexplained causes to those who are not well 
acquainted with the requirements of plants), the 
lover of a few garden flowers becomes discouraged, 
and is inclined to give up in despair. The why and 
wherefore of failures should, therefore, be investi- 
gated as far as is possible, and the few hints 
just given may explain the origin of many such 
cases 

Constant attention to the wants of plants is 
essential; but when a study is made of this, one 
piece of knowledge gained by experience will lead on 
to further enlightenment Some, we fear — and those 
not a few — having planted their flowers, think that 
no further attention is needed but to wait for their 
floral beauties to develop. Now, this is a great 
mistake. It is not in accord with the dictates of 
nature to expect this trusting to chance to succeed,' 
Now and again there may be a case in which, by 
mere good fortune, one has succeeded, but it is only 
one record of success against many failures. When 
plants are obtained and inserted into the soil in the 
position they are to occupy, see first that the latter 
is in good condition, as far as it can so be made, to 
meet one essential point to future success — viz., the 
encouragement of a fresh root-action as quickly as 
possible. Do not plant after a heavy rain if the soil 
is at all b3avy and tenacious. In sandy soils this is 
not so important, but even then planting should be 
deferred if the ground be excessively wet, as it 
cannot be worked around the roots of the plants 
at such times in a proper manner, for ob\'ious 
reasons. 



Watering. — When planting is finished a sufficient 
quantity of water should be given to settle the soU 
around the newly-inserted plant. After-waterings 
must be regulated according to the time of year and 
the state of the weather. Dui-ing the eaily spring — 
in fact, up to about the time of planting "bedding" 
plants — the greater part of this work is best 
performed in the morning, thus allowing the jDlants 
and soil to absorb the moisture before the chilly and 
perhaps frosty air of the evening and early morning 
sets in. From the middle of May onwards through 
the summer the watering may be more advantageously 
performed during the latter part of the afternoon 
and evening. After a warm sunny day it will 
greatly refresh the plants to have a gentle bedewing 
either from a syringe or through the fine rose 
attached to a watering-pot. Thorough watering is 
not essential every evening ; a goodly quantity 
should be given, however, when it is done, so that 
the soil is well penetrated therewith. Should the 
latter have become somewhat hardened on the 
surface, and thus cause the water to run off instead 
of percolating downwards to the roots, a digging- 
fork should be taken in hand and used cautiously to 
break up the surface soil, but hot deeply, for fear of 
injury. This operation will also act beneficially by 
opening up the soil to the action of the air, and in 
other ways. Water should then be apj^lied gently, 
not flooded on to the soil in such a way as to cause 
it to run to -waste. When a fork is not taken in 
hand to break up the surface of the gi'ound, a small 
hoe — termed a " Dutch hoe " — will be the next best 
thing to use. 

This is also an excellent tool for almost daily use 
— in fact, it should be used as frequently as the broom 
is for sweeping purposes. Careful use of the hoe 
will aid materially in keeping down the weeds that 
would otherwise grow up but too quickly if left 
imdisturbed. It is far easier to destroy the weeds 
in the earliest stages of their growth than to leave 
them until they become an eyesore by their promi- 
nence, impoveiishing the soil, and giving more 
trouble in their extermination and removal. Hand- 
pulling of weeds will, of course, have to be resorted 
to when the plants have become grown together in 
such a way as to endanger their safety in the use of 
that implement. This operation should be performed 
as soon as the weeds can be handled. It is an 
excellent plan to surface or top-dress the flower-beds 
and borders with cocoa-fibre refuse. This is an 
extremely valuable medium, both for conserving the 
moisture in the soil and also for keeping the 
roots cooler and less susceptible to sudden changes 
from atmospheric causes. In two ways, also, this 
"refuse" T\dll be a sa\dng of labour: it will be the 
means of keeping in check the growth of weeds, as 



THE VINE AND ITS FRUIT. 



229 



weU as dispensing with the otherwise more constant 
attention in the use o£ the water-pot. It has also a 
clean and neat appearance to t>^e eye, being, in fact, 
a finish, we think, to small arrangements in every 
way. It will also act as a manurial agent when 
applied to heavy, retentive, or adhesive soil. 

The Soil. — Flower-beds and borders will in the 
course of time require re-invigorating, either by the 
application of some fresh soil or the addition of 
manure. The former plan will permanently raise 
the beds, &c.; this, to a certain extent, would in 
many cases be a benefit, but should not be carried 
too far. By adding manure no perceptible variation 
in this way will be seen for several years. In either 
case, when some soil can be dispensed with, manure 
woidd be an assistance to the permanent trees and 
shrubs, aiding them in rooting nearer the surface 
rather than compelling them to seek their nutrition 
by penetrating the subsoil when overlooked. Arti- 
ficial manures of good lasting properties are also to 
be recommended, but must be used with caution. If 
applied too liberally, they will be productive of leaf- 
growth with the certainty of fewer flowers. The printed 
directions of reliable firms should not be exceeded, 
and these are generally to be had when purchasing 
these manures. Large quantities should not be pur- 
chased at one time, for by keeping some kinds do- 
generate in their fertilising powers. Such manures 
must not be exposed to the action of the air after 
they are opened for use, as this will greatly dete- 
riorate them. 

On heavy clay, or any stiff- working soil, the ad- 
dition of some road scrapings will be a great help 
to the better working of the ground, when the same 
can be had in a dry or medium dry condition. Well- 
decomposed manure is better for light, sandy, or 
porous soils ; to such also a few additions may be 
made of good loam when about to be got in readi- 
ness to receive a fjesh instalment of plants. Do not 
let the manure lie about, but see that it is dug in at 
once, to preserve its good qualities for absorption by 
and the enrichment of the soil. 

Opportunity should be taken of giving the ground 
an extra deep digging when cleared of plants that 
have been on it for any length of time. This is 
not an easy matter at all times in small gardens, but 
will be found a benefit whenever the opportunity 
occurs. The best time to do this would be in the 
annual autumn clear up — not the following spring, as 
many have done it to the loss of its full benefit. 

The Lawn.— The lawn will also at times need 
attention to impart fresh vigour to the growth of 
the grass. The sowing of a small quantity of grass- 
seed, mixed with a good amount of soil that has been 
freed from lumps and hard substances, is a great aid 



on any bare or thin patches. This would soon 
germinate and produce a fresh green sward in the 
growing weather of April and May. This by seeds- 
men would be termed a " renovating " mixture. 
The lajdng down of lawns in a permanent manner 
with grass- seed instead of turf was advised in the 
previous article, and if this advice be followed the 
lawn will eventually look far nicer ; being a grass 
lawn, and not a mixture of grass and many weeds, 
perhaps more of the latter after the lapse of a few yean 
than of the former. This will give additional labour 
to the lover of his garden plot, which to a very great 
extent might have been prevented. It is well known 
that many useless plants, at least from a garden point 
of view, that we designate as weeds, are to be found 
among the herbage of grass -land from which the 
turf is taken for garden lawns. All such are easily 
avoided when grass -seed is sown instead, besides 
being very considerably cheaper in the first instance. 

The lawn-mowers for small gardens should be pro- 
portionately small. Those with cutting capabilities of 
ten inches in width would be ample in every case 
where one sees to his own garden, and even six 
inches will do good work. It is far easier worked 
around the edges of beds and borders than those of 
larger size, and will be found to work quite heavily 
enough by those who are not accustomed to their 
use. Keep them well oiled and cleaned, with pro- 
tection from wet if possible when not in use. Do 
not work them when the lawn is very wet, or a 
smeary surface will be left in places. The best time 
to use lawn-mowers is when the lawn is quite dry ; 
the work will then be done in a far cleaner manner, 
and much more easily. We prefer those patterns that 
are arranged with a collecting box, which is gener- 
ally allowed for by the majority of the manufac- 
turers. Some writers have, however, advised the use 
of the machine without the box, lea^dng the grass to 
dry up on the lawn, which must at the best look 
very untidy ; and in a small garden such defects are 
always readily discernible, even more than in those 
of larger dimensions. The box can be taken off, and 
the machine used without it, when the grass cannot 
otherwise be conveniently cut around the stems of 
trees, or in confined spaces. 



THE YINE AND ITS FRUIT. 

By William Coleman. 



PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 

OF all the fruit-bearing trees under artificial treat- 
ment, the propagation of the vine is perhaps 
the most simple and varied. It can be propagated to 
an endless extent by means of seeds, cuttings; layers, 



230 



CASSELL'S POPULAK GARDENING. 



and buds, or single eyes. The first method is not 
often brought into requisition, and it is to be regretted 
that it has been almost entirely given over to the 
hybridist, who works by cross-fertilisation for raising 
new kinds, when freaks of an extraordinary nature^ 
frequently follow. If seeds of many of our old kinds 
that have not been cross -fertilised are sown, they 
invariably reproduce themselves ; when, like the 
offspring of any other family, they differ in strength 
and robustness of constitution, but they are not 
hybrids. Bowood INIuscat and Venn's Seedling 
are said to be seedlings from the old Muscat 
of Alexandria and the Black Muscat, and they 
differ from their parents to an extent that leads 
many to consider them distinct varieties : the 
first, in being earlier and requiring less heat, 
and the second in having a better constitution} 
in setting better, and having a thicker skin and 
shorter foot-stalks ; the grapes also keep much 
longer after they are ripe. 

Assuming that seeds have been saved, they 
should be sown in pots or pans, in February, 
plunged m bottom heat in a propaga ting-pit, 
and the young seedlings should be potted off 
singly when they are large enough to handle. 
If re-plunged at once into bottom heat and 
treated as vine -eyes, they will make rapid 
growth and soon be large enough for inarching 
on established vines for trial. If stocks are not 
available, they can be grown on, and fruited in 
pots. Mrs. Pince and Madresfield Cornet INIus- 
cats, Alnwick Seedling, Duke of Buccleuch, 
and a host oi others, are English hybrids. 



to the cultivators for whose guidance these papers 
are written. 

Layering is the primitive method employed for 
increasing the stock of established varieties, either 
out of doors or in vineries. The layers may be 
pegged down into pots, or directly into the borders, 
where, without notching or twisting, the moist soil 
soon induces the formation of an abundance of roots. 
The young vines, when ripe and dormant, can be 
severed and taken away for planting, or they 
may remain attached without detriment to the 
parent vine. 

By adopting this method it is no unusual 
practice, where vines are planted inside, to 
make one particular variety fill a whole house, 
by constant layering and cutting away other 
kinds as the space is required for extension. 

In this way the late house at Eastnor, which 
originally contained one vine of Lady Downes, 
was filled with that best of all late-keeping 
gi-apes. 

In this way also Mr. "VVildsmith, the intelli- 
^ gent gardener at Heckfield Place, after carr^-ing 
his Lady Downes vines over the two sides of a 
span-roofed house, layered all the leaders into 
the border opposite to that from which they 
II ! started, and, strange as it may appear, severed 
them at the base. By a single stroke of the 
knife the vines were made to stand on their 
heads, without suffering any apparent diminu- 
tion in the quantity or quality of their produce. 



Cuttings. — As every bit of weU-ripened 
wood, containing one or more eyes, will throw 
out an abundance of roots when placed under 
the influence of warmth and moisture, no 
difficulty is experienced in getting cuttings j,.^ 5— Cut 
to grow very freely. In vine-growing coun- tiiig. 
tries, where the vines are propagated by 
tens of thousands, the cuttings are made from 
pieces of wood some four to six eyes in length. 
Hardy kinds are sometimes propagated in this way 
in England, and they do very well for walls ; but 
plants so raised do not make the best vines for hot- 
houses, as the cuttings harden and form an obstruc- 
tion to the descending sap when the vines get into 
free growth. Where convenience for striking them 
in heat does not offer, short- jointed pieces, prepared 
like Currant cuttings — i.e., with all the lower buds re- 
moved — may be put in against a warm wall or fence 
at pruning time. The following season they should 
be encouraged to make two shoots, which will get 
properly ripened by the autumn ; but as this rarely 
happens in this country, the method is of little use 



Eyes. — The fact that an enormous number 
of young vines are now raised annually from 
single eyes, stamps the system as being the best 
yet introduced by the British grape -grower. 
In all cases, the wood from which eyes are 
taken should be firm and well ripened, as 
success greatly depends upon having a per- 
fectly matured bud to commence with. There 
are two ways of making the eyes ready for potting ; 
some cut them half an inch above and below the bud 
(Fig. 6), while others slice a piece off the lower 
side to induce the rapid formation of roots ; but 
this is a matter of little consequence, provided a 
steady bottom heat of about 80° is constantly main- 
tained in a propagating-pit, which can have full ex- 
posure to light. The eyes should be planted early in 
January in small pots, rather fii-mly filled with rich 
loam and sharp sand, dry enough to bear pressure 
without becoming adhesive. The pots and buds 
being ready, the usual method is to scoop out a little 
of the soil, replace it with sand, and press the bud 
firmly down until it is level with the surface, when 
a light sprinlding will be necessary to consolidate the 



THE VINE AND ITS FRUIT. 



231 



sand at the base of tbe bud. If a close, temperate 
frame is at command, it is a safe practice to 
place all choice kinds in it for a fortnight before they 
are taken into strong bottom heat, as an excess of 
this element forces the bud in advance of the roots. 

When the j^oung plants have exhausted the 
sap contained in the eye, in the formation of the 
first one or two leaves, very steady top and bottom 
heat will be needed to aid in the formation of the 
first set of roots ; and when they touch the sides of 
the pots, as will be indicated by the young shoots 
making a fresh push into growth, a shift into five-inch 
pots will be necessary. A bottom heat of 8 5 will not, 
now, be too much; and more light and air, while 
securing a quick growth, will also tend to its being 
short- jointed and stocky. As days increase in length 
and solar heat becomes more powerful, the growth of 
the young canes, as well as the roots, will be very 





Fig. 6. — Dormant Eye. 



Fig. 7.— Dormant Eye. 



rapid ; more head-room will be required, and unless 
the vines are intended for summer planting, they 
will also be benefited by the final shift into eight-inch 
pots, which is quite large enough for store vines. 

In order to secure firm, short- jointed canes, either 
for planting or growing into fruiting vines, great 
care should be observed in the preparation of the 
pots and the soil for the final shift. The compost 
should consist of sound, rather light loam, with a 
liberal admixture of bone-dust, burnt earth, or char- 
coal. Pot firmly, and re-plunge for a short period to 
give the roots a fresh start. When they have re- 
covered from the check, gradually raise the pots out 
of the bottom heat, but allow them to stand on the 
surface of the bed until they require more room. 
Keep them regularly supplied with warm, diluted 
liquid manure, and syringe overhead when the pit is 
closed in the afternoon. As soon as there is danger 
of the foliage obstructing the light, remove all the 
strongest to a light house, where they can have the 
benefit of a temperature ranging from 65^ at night to 
80^ by day. Pinch all laterals at the first joint, and 
finally stop the points when they have made canes six 
feet in length. If any of the top buds break, let 
them grow a little and stop again. Keep them fully 
exposed to every ray of sunshine, give air early on 
bright mornings, and close with moisture in modera- 



tion, as too much produces warts on the under sides 
of the leaves, which in time check the progress of 
the vines. When the young canes begin to show 
signs of changing to a bright cinnamon colour, 
gradually withdraw atmospheric moisture, but on no 
account neglect the roots. Remove the laterals from 
the base up to within a foot of the top bud, care- 
fully preserving the main leaves, as they will have 
to feed the buds, now plumping up in the rapidly- 
thickening canes. Increase the circulation of warm 
air as the ripening process goes on, lower the night 
temperature, and dis- 
continue syriT ging 
altogether, if tb ; foli- 
age can be ke jt free 
from spider without 
it. When the leaves 
faU, place the vines in 
a cold house or against 
a wall, where they can 
be protected from 
heavy rain and severe 
trost, but never allow 
the roots to become 
dry. If fruiting vines 
in pots are wanted, 
ten or eleven-inch pots 
should be used instead 
of eight-inch. In all 
other respects, the 
treatment of the two 
sets will be identical. 

Eyes in Turf.— 

We are indebted to Fig. 8.— Eve starting into 
Mr. W. Thomson, the Growth, 
intelligent proprietor 

of the Galashiels Graperies, for this excellent way 
of propagating vines specially intended for spring 
planting. The eyes are prepared in the usual man- 
ner, but instead of placing them in pots, small 
squares of thin turf are laid close together, grass 
side downwards, on the top of a hot-bed. One eye 
is inserted in the centre of each square, which it soon 
fills with roots ; and young canes in the rudest 
health, with roots radiating in every direction, be- 
come fit for permanent planting or potting by the 
end of May. 

Q-raftlng. — This is an operation in which many 
are not so successful as they could wish, and yet it 
is extremely simple, provided that it is done at the 
proper time. The most successful grafters of the 
vine are those who can have patience to wait until 
the sap is in free motion, and all the cells are full, as, 
owing to the porous nature of the wood, every cut 




232 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEKmO. 



made, when the sap is comparatively motionless, 
speedily cicatrises, and no after-flush can force it 
into the scion. 

Whip Grafting is the method usually resorted 
to, and the mode of procedure is as follows : — 
Head down the stocks early in the autumn to prevent 
bleeding, then ha^dng selected the scions from well- 
ripened vines, insert them in moist soil in flower- 
pots, and place them out of doors behind a north 




Fig. 9.— Whip Graft. 



Wall until after the house containing the stocks is 
closed for starting. A\nien the buds on the stocks 
begin to break freely, introduce the pots containing 
the grafts into a warm house in order to get them 
also into a state of excitement. When the terminal 
bud on the headed stock has made a growth con- 
taining three or four leaves, prepare the graft, and 
fit it on immediately opposite the shoot, which must 
be carefully protected from injury during and after 
the operation, as the loss of this shoot would end in 
failuie. Bind well with good matting, clay up in 
the usual manner, and add a little moss to prevent it 
from cracking, as well as to retain moisture through- 
out the day after syringing. When all is complete, 



pinch the point out of the young shoot on the stock 
to throw a flush of sap into the scion, and gradually 
cut away the remainder when the graft has started 
into vigorous growth. To those who have never 
practised this kind of grafting, the annexed sketch 
will convey all that is needed for their guidance. 
The late IMr. Cramb, gardener to Earl Ducie 
at Tortworth Court, invariably grafted ail his 
vines upon the Hambro' in the following manner : — 
Having decided upon making a new border, say for 




Fig. lU.— Bottle Gi-aft. 



a house of mixed grapes, young Hambro's were 
planted for stocks, and allowed to grow one year. 
These were headed down early in the winter and 
grafted. 

Bottle G-rafting. — Another excellent and still 
more certain method is what is termed " bottle 
grafting." The preparations are in every way 
similar to those recommended for whip grafting; 
but instead of putting on a short scion, a piece of 
ripe wood, a foot or more in length, is placed in a 
bottle of water, and the union is made as follows : — 
With a sharp knife take a good slice, four inches in 
length, off the side of the gxaft, commencing at two 



THE VINE AND ITS FKUIT. 



233 



buds below the top. Then take a corresponding 
piece off the stock, notch the two together as in 
whip grafting, bind tightly, and apply a little clay 
or grafting- wax, which some prefer, as being less 
likely to hold moisture, and so retard the union by 
inducing the formation of stem-roots. When the 
vines intended for grafting are very strong, they 
should be allowed to get into full growth before the 
grafts are put on, and the latter should be placed in 
the house to swell the buds at least a fortnight before 
the operation is performed. By this means grafts 
can be attached to any part of a bearing vine, as the 
bottles, which should be kept constantly full of soft 
water, can be suspended from the trellis ; but the 
most satisfactory result always follows grafting on 
one of the principal canes through which the sap 
flows freely. It is no unusual occurrence for a well- 
selected graft to burst the bottle with its roots, and 
to carry a bunch of good grapes from the "second bud 
the first season, while the first or terminal bud is 
throwing up a leader capable of overtopping twenty 
to thirty feet of rafter. 

Inarching, or Grafting by Approach. — 

This method of transferring a m-w variety to an 
estiblished vine is very often resorted to by private 
growers, when it is inconvenient or impracticable to 
plant in established borders already well filled with 
roots. 

The operation is so simple and easily understood that 
it is only necessary to say the stock and scion should 
be started at the same time and brought on together. 
When strong enough, the latter, which is in a pot, is 
placed in a convenient position for uniting with the 
stock. This is done by taking a thin slice of the 
green bark off each shoot and binding them together 
with soft bast. A few days will be sufficient to form 
the union, when the ligature may be loosened, but 
not entirely removed, lest by accident or strong 
growth the tender union may be disturbed. When 
thoroughly established, the stock may be cut back to 
within one or two buds of the union, but not nearer, 
as protecting ties should be kept above and below 
until the end of the season. As soon as the union is 
complete, and the young growth shows by its 
strength that it is deriving nourishment from the 
stock, it may be partially cut through below the 
working, and eventually detached from the pot vine. 

Budding. — The bpst time to bud the vine is 
when the young wood of the current year has at- 
tained its full size, and is beginning to change colour 
for ripening. The variety from which the buds are 
to be taken should be equally advanced, as the latter 
must be full, plump, and well formed, with a good 
fresh leaf at the base. Unlike the Peach or the Eose, 



it is not necessary to remove the wood from the 
shield, provided the latter is taken off rather thin, 
and the union with the stock is very neatly and ac- 
curately made, by taking as much bark and wood off 
the stock as will admit of the cambium of the two 
coming into close contact with each other. In order 
to secure success, the operation should be expedi- 
tiously performed on a dull day or evening, otherwise 
the bai'k of the bud will get dry and the latter will 
perish. When properly placed, the buds must be 
firmly tied with soft bast or yarn (Fig. 11), and a 
little damp moss placed above 
and below, but not covering 
the bud, will keep the leaf- 
stalk fresh until the union is 
complete. 

When the vines show 
signs of ripening off their 
foliage, and there is no 
longer any danger of the 
bud, which is to remain 
dormant all the winter, 
breaking into growth, the 
shoots beyond must be 
shortened back to within 
one or two eyes and dressed 
with styptic at pruning 
time. 

When the vines break in 
the spring, the one or two 
eyes beyond the bud will 
require stopping at the 
second leaf, and as soon as 
the inserted bud gets into 
free growth, their entire re- 
moval will be advantageous. 

If it is thought desirable 
to insert a number of buds on the whole length of 
a young cane, they can be introduced alternately 
about twelve inches apart, great care being observed 
in the preservation of the buds and foliage of the 
vine so operated upon, as well as of the leaves of 
each bud. When all is finished, a little light shade 
and gentle syringing for a few days, to keep the 
moss and fohage damp, will facilitate the union. 

G-r een-budding. — E xperiments have pro v ed th at 
buds in a state of semi-ripeness may be successfully 
inserted on shoots of the current year which have 
attained tbeir full size, but are not so ripe as to be 
past "running"— a term well understood by the 
craft, but which may require some explanation for 
the benefit of the amateur. In other words, the sap 
must be sufficiently active to admit of the bark 
parting from the wood after an incision has been 
made with a sharp knife. It is important that the 



Fig. 11.— Budding. 



234 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



eyes be perfectly formed and firm, as it is not 
necessary to remove the wood from the interior 
of the shield, as is the case when budding- the 
Rose. 

Having procured the buds, make a longitudinal 
cut, an inch or more down the stem, then make a 
transverse cut across the stem at the top of the 
first incision, raise the bark on each side with great 
care, then take off the bud with a thin slice of wood 
adhering, force it into position, make a clean cut 
at the cross-incision, and bind 
tightly with bast or yarn (Fig. 
12). Keep the buds slightly 
shaded and moist by frequent 
damping with the syringe ; 
but do not remove the liga- 
tures until after the leaves 
fall from the vines. 

Planting (Yearlings) 

If one operation in vine cul- 
ture has undergone more 
changes than another, it is 
unquestionably that of plant- 
ing. Years ago, it was the 
j raotice to incur great expense 
in the preparation of broad, 
deep borders for the external 
planting of one-year or per- 
haps two-year-old vines. These 
were allowed to make a year's 
growth, which was cut down 
to within a few inches of the 
starting bud, a second year's 
growth was treated in like 
manner, and the third year's 
rods were considered strong 
enough to carry a few bunches 
of grapes. 

Modern growers, who pro- 
pagate, plant, and fruit their 
vines within two j^ears from the eye, pooh-pooh 
the slow process, by which our forefathers built 
up the fine old vines still existing in many parts 
of the country, and from which, notwithstanding 
the fact that their ages range from forty to four- 
score years, heavy crops of the finest grapes are still 
being cut. They plant and re-plant; but still the 
Leviathans exist; a fair proof that the premature 
fruiting of vines means a short life and a hard one, 
which may and does suit the grower for market who 
works for quick returns, but it is not quite the 
system that can be recommended to the proprietors 
of private places, who look upon their vines as heir- 
looms, and object to the frequent disturbance and re- 
planting of their borders. 




While admitting, however, that the old system is 
slow and the new one fast, it is by no means difficult 
to draw a line between the two, which will enable 
the modem grape-grower to frame the outlines of 
old vines, and at the same time to vie with the 
express grower, who is straining every point to keep 
pace with the times. Assuming, then, that the front 
of a vinery or range of vineries has been built upon 
arches or piers, to admit of internal planting, that it 
is the intention to use vines which have been grown 
from eyes and ripened off into 
what are termed "planters," 
by the end of August, there are 
two courses open to the culti- 
vator. He may either plant at 
once, before the vines go to rest, 
or defer it until the spring. 
The best months in which to 
plant ripe canes are September 
and October, February and 
March ; the most unfavourable 
months are November and 
December. 

If the vines must be ob- 
tained from a nursery, they 
should be secured early, and 
placed where they can be safe 
from drenching rain, wind, and 
worms. If intended for autumn 
planting, and the new inside 
borders are ready, they may be 
shaken out at once, say in 
September or October, and 
after carefully examining the 
roots, to ascertain that they are 
fresh, healthy, and free from 
Phylloxera, they may be planted 
a foot or a little more from the 
front sashes ; very shallow and 
well elevated, to allow for the 
subsidence of the new compost. 
Rich, light compost, consisting of turf, bones , and 
charcoal, or charred refuse, without manure, answers 
best. Give a little water to settle the soil about the 
roots, and mulch with half-rotted manure, to keep in 
the warmth and moisture. 

Some grape -growers think a season is saved by 
autumn planting, while others aver the vines make 
better growth the following year by being cut back 
in October, and kept in the pots until February, the 
most natural time for the mutilated roots to estab- 
lish themselves in newly introduced fermenting soil. 
The latter course having been decided upon, each 
vine should be cut down to within eighteen inches of 
the pot (Fig. 13) early in the autumn, to prevent 
bleeding when the sap begins to rise again. When 



Green-budcling. 



THE VINE AND ITS FRUIT. 



535 




the borders are ready in February, and the buds 
show signs of swelling, turn out the vine, soak the 
ball in tepid water, wash away all the soil, and 
place it in position on the surface ; secure it at the 
base witb a strong peg, and after cutting away all 
damaged roots, co\'er lightly and give a little water 
^t a temperatui-e of 90«?. Place a neat stick to each 
vine for future use, as the young canes will have to 
be trained up to the trellis from the very lowest 
buds at the base, provided they are 
fully exposed to the influence of light ; 
but if they are likely to be shaded, 
then buds higher up the stem must be 
selected for making the new canes. 

After the vines are planted, the 
house should be kept at temperate, to 
give the buds time to swell and break 
strongly, and when those nearest the 
top are ready to come into leaf, rub 
them oif, one or two at a time, gradu- 
ally working downwards until the 

ttwo selected buds are reached. These 
must be carefully guarded and pro- 
tected from accident, as, under good 
management, they will make two 
vigorous canes during the following 
season, quite capable of bearing fruit ; 
but as they are intended to make per- 
manent vines, they will be 
cut down at next pruning 
time. 

Planting Eyes 
of Current Year. 

— When planting 
young grow- 
ing vines 
fi'om eyes of the 
current year, it 
is not necessary 
to break the 

balls, provided they can be carefully turned out of 
the pots and placed in the warm compost before the 
roots begin to coil round the insides. This, it is 
hardly necessary to say, can only be practised by 
those who have convenience for propagating their 
own vines, and where the fronts of the houses are 
placed upon piers or arches to admit of internal 
planting. 

Neither is it advisable to plant until the sun has 
gained sufficient power to produce a genial day tem- 
perature, without having recourse to much fire-heat. 
If propagated in February, nice young vines will be 
ready for planting out in May or June, with every 
prospect of their filling the house with stout, short- 
jointed canes by September, when fire-heat will be 




Fig. 13.— Young Vine from an Eye cut 
, back leady for Planting. 



necessary to ripen up the buds. Some plant as late 
as July, but May is perhaps the best month. 

It is much to be regretted that all private grape- 
growers have not the convenience to propagate and 
gTow on their young vines from proved varieties. 
The introduction of that most terrible pest, the Phyl- 
loxera, would then be avoided. Xone but the best 
eyes would be used in the manufacture of their stock, 
which could be kept steadily progressing until the 
new borders, in a state of fermentation, were ready 
for them. Planting, either from pots, or better still 
from the square sods of turf, could be accomplished 
at pleasure. There would be no looking back, and 
the feat in which only the favoured few now succeed 
would soon become more common. It is quite true 
the trade growers would supx^ly spring-struck plants 
in a growing state ; but where long distances sepa- 
rate the raiser from the planter, their removal would 
be attended with great risk, and very often the sudden 
check would end in failure. 

Distance at which to Plant. — Assuming that 

the house presents eighteen feet of rafter, and grapes 
are wanted as speedily as may be consistent with the 
future well-being of the Aines, those intended to re- 
main for a number of years should be planted five 
feet apart in positions favourable to leading the rods 
under the centre of each light, in preference to train- 
ing them under the hea^y rafters of old, sash-roofed 
houses, as the pruning-buds on every spur then get 
the benefit of light and heat, so essential to theii- 
perfect matirration. Supernumerary \-ines may then 
be introduced, one in each opening, to give a few 
grapes the following year. If planted inside and 
well managed, every rod will fill its allotted space, 
the permanent Tines will be cut down to the lowest 
wire in the trellis in December, and the supernu- 
meraries will be left six to eight feet in length to 
carry a crop of fruit, when they will be destroyed to 
give full scope to the permanent "vines. 

If rigidly carried out, this theory answers very 
well in practice ; but, unfortunately, experience 
justifies the asF'^rtion that many good grape-growers 
have broken away from their good resolutions, and 
have become faint-hearted when the time has arrived 
for taking every alternate vine away. To all such 
cultivators and planters, as a strong adherent to the 
extension principle, my advice is, enter not into 
temptation by planting surplus \'ines, as overcrowd- 
ing leads to disappointment and premature ex- 
haustion. 

Varieties of G-rapes.— The varieties of grapes 
now under cultivation being so numerous, a descrip- 
tion of all of them would extend these pages far 
beyond the limits placed at our disposal ; and not- 



236 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENING. 



withstanding tlie fact tliat each, variety possesses 
some good quality, it is not practicable, neither is it 
desirahle, to attempt the cultivation of more than a 
tithe of them in any private garden. In order to 
keep up a constant supply of fiist-class grapes aU 
the year round, not less than four houses should he 
employed : and if six are at command, varieties re- 
quiring special treatment can be much better grown 
than when they are mixed up together. These 
houses would include: — 

No. 1. — For early forcing, in which the fruit would 
be ripe in April and May. 

No. 2. — An early summer vinery, for carrying on 
the supply thi-ough June and July. 

No. 3. — A large mid-season house, in which several 
varieties are generally grown. 

No. 4. — A Muscat house, for gi^'ing a supply of 
this delicious gi^ape from August onwards. 

No. 5. — A late or autumn Hambro' house, for 
keeping up the supply until Chi'istmas. 

No. 6. — A large late house, in which such kinds as 
Lad}^ Do^-nes and Alicante are gi-own for bottling at 
Chiistmas, to carry on the supply until new giapes 
come round again in April. 

If properly arranged, no great number of kinds 
are required to maintain this constant supply ; and, 
as every grower wishes to have the best, a selection 
from the following will be found adequate to his 
requirements. It is hardly necessary to say the 
quantity must be regulated by the demand ; as, for 
instance, where very early and late Muscats are 
required, two houses should be devoted to tbeii" 
cidture, and double that number to the universal 
Hambro', which all grape-growers look upon as their 
ne\^er-failing sheet-anchor. 



No. 5. 



Grapes fob No. 1 

1. Black Hamhurgh. 

2. Madresfield" Court 

Muscat. 

3. Foster's WMte Seedling. 



4. Buckland Sweetwater. 

5. White or Grizzly Fron 
tignan. 



1. Black Hamburgh." 

2. Madresfield Court 

Muscat. 



No. 2. 

3. Foster's White Seedling. 

4. Buck land Sweetwater. 

5. oros Colmar. 



No. 3. 

1. B^ack Hamburgh. ' 5, Grns Colmar. 

2. Madresfield Court I 6. Foster's Soedh'ng. ' 

Muscat. 1 7. Buctland Sweetwater 

3. AMcRute. I 8. Black Morocco. 

4. Gros Maroc. | 9. Duke of Buccleuch. 

Nos. 4 and 9 being somewhat capricious and in some 
p'aces diiBcult to manage, one vine of each should be 
planted first to ascertain if the soil suits them. Although 
not f-o rich as some, they are very fine, handsome, and 
worthy of careful trial. 



No. 4. 



1. INIu'spat of Alexandria. 

2. Bowood Muscat. 



3. Mrs. Pincp. 

4. Mrs. Pearson. 



1. Bbck Hamburgh. 

2. Alicante. 



1. Lady Downes. 
'2. Mrs. Pince. 
3. Black Morocco. 
4 Alicante. 

5. Gros Colmar. 

6. Alnwick Seedling. 



No. 



3. G) OS Colmar. 



7. Gros Guillaume. 

8. West's St. Peter's. 

9. Mrs. Pearsnn. 

10. White Tokay. 

11. Trebbiauo. 

12. Eaisin de Calabria. 



Grapes for Fruiting in Pots. 



1. Black Hamburs^h. 

2. madresfield Com-t. 

3. Foster's Seedling. 



I 4. Buckland Sweetwater. 
I 5. White Froatiguan. 
I 6. Eoyal Muscadine. 



Grapes for Green-house. 



1. Black Hamburgh. 
•J. Madresfield Cuurt. 
3. lioyal iUuscadiue. 



4. Foster's Seedling. 
6. Ahcaute. 



Grapes fob Market. 



1. Black Hamburgh, 
k!. Madresfield Court. 

3. Lady Downes. 

4. AJicante. 

5. Gros Colmar. 



6. Muscat of Alexandria. 

7. Alnwick Setdling. 

8. Trebbiano 

9. Foster's Seedling. 
10. Gros Maroc. 



1. Muscat of Alexandria 

2. Madresfield Court, 
o. Chasselas Musque. 

4. k rontioUans of sorts. 



Grapes f.ir Quality 

5, 



Dr. Ho?g. 
Venn's Se'^dling. 
Muscat Hamburgh. 



Gbapes fob Exhibition. 



{Black.) 



1. Black Hamburgh. 
'Z. JViadrestield Court. 

3. AUcante. 

4. Lady Downes. 



5. Gros Guillaume. 

6. Gros Colmar. 

7. Gros Maroc. 

8. Alnwick Seedling. 



{White.) 



1. Muscat of Alexandria. 

2. Bowood Muscat. 

3. Trebbiauo. 

4. Foster's Seedling. 



Buckland Sweetwater. 
White Tokay. 
Airs. Pearson. 



F OS. 1, 2, 4. and 5 are the be't. When more than four 
white varieties are wanted, one each of 3 and 6 may be 
grown. No. 6 is an excellent old grape, but requiring as 
much fire-heat as the Muscat, to which it is inferior, it is 
not generally grown. 



Evertbodt'.s Grapes. 



1. Black Hamburgh. 

2. Madresfield Court. 

3. Alicante. 

4. Black Frontignan. 

5. J5lack Prince. 



fi. Muscat of Alpxandria. 
7, Foster's Seedling. 
P. Boy 1 Muscadine. 
9. Whiite Frontignan. 
10. Buckland Sweetwater. 



Grapes which Produce the Largest Bunches. 



1. Gros Guillaume. 

2. B'ack Hamburgh. 

3. Trebbiano. 



I 4. Syrian. 

I 5. Wiiite Nice. 



Grapes of Remarkable Character. 



1. Aleppo. The striped 

arrape. 

2. Black Corinth. The Cur- 

rant of commerce. 

3. Bla k Monukka. The 

seedless grape. 



4. Ciotat. The Parsley- 

leaved vine. 

5. Ferdinand de Lessens. 

The perfumed grapp. 

6. The Stra-'beny grap°, 

so called from its scent. 



GROUND OPEEATIONS. 



237 



GEOUND OPERATIONS. 



DRAINAGE IN PRACTICE. 

HAVING- considered the main principles on which 
drainage rests and should be conducted, this 
chapter will be devoted to the explanation and illus- 
tration of its practice. The chief points are the 
direction, distance apart, depth, fall, sizes, materials, 
outlets, tools for making, 
actual cutting, and laying 
of the drains. 

Direction or Line 
of Drains. — This is a 
point that, above all others 
in draining, needs the as- 
sistance and advice of civil 
engineers or experienced 
drainers. Perhaps the 
most common method is 
that of running the drains 
parallel with the line of 
level or even fall of the 
ground. This mostly an- 
swers well where the soil 
and subsoil are of equal 
depths and uniform quality 
throughout ; but in many 
cases this mode of draining 
is almost useless on ac- 
count of the difficulty of 
securing a fall. And be- 
sides, as already observed, 
a single or few drains so 
placed as to intercept the 
overflow water from higher 
levels, will cut off lower 
springs, and so dry at 
times without more trouble 
the ' whole of a field or 
garden. 

There are other advan- 
tages at times in draining 
obliquely across the incUne of the land, such as the 
more equal distribution and slower removal of the 
water from the surface tilth. Bearing in mind what 
has been said on the chemical, cultural, and mechani- 
cal importance of water in motion through the land, 
it will be obvious that it might prove far from ad- 
vantageous to remove it too rapidly ; provided it 
moves, most of the advantages of drainage will be 
secured, and the slow motion may prove far better 
than a rapid run. The popular idea, that the faster 
water is discharged from the mouths of the drains 
after a shower the better, may not by any means 
prove correct. Drains that discharge muddy water 






Fig. 12.— A, witli the slope ; b, obliqviely across 
drains at right angles witu fall. 



in their haste, may impoverish almost as much as 
enrich the land. In the three illustrations here given, 
that of draining with the slope, at right angles with it, 
and obliquely across it, the latter will mostly be found 
the best. ISome, however, prefer the line of the 
slope as being at once the more simple and easy, and 
there can be no question that the major portion of 
common tile-draining in fields follows the line of 
the surface soil or subsoU. 

Distance Apart of 
Drains. — This is con- 
siderably influenced by 
their depth, as, unless in 
the most tenacious clays, 
the deeper the drains the 
more land will they lay 
dry on either side of them. 
Hence the advocates of 
very deep drains, such, for 
example, as from four to 
five feet, mostly couple 
the extra depth with extra 
distances apart. A yet 
safer and more sure crite- 
rion of proper distance 
may generalLv be found in 
the character of the soil; 
the more tenacious the 
latter, the closer in reason 
the drains should be to 
each other; the more 
porous, the farther apart. 
There are, however, ex- 
ceptions to the latter rule, 
for not unfrequently the 
excessive moisture in por- 
ous soils rises up from 
below, and may need in- 
terception and removal by 
a system of closely- placed 
drains. The extremes of 
distances may generally 
be found between twelve and thirty feet. The 
latter may not prove too far apart on good porous 
soil ; the former is seldom too close on stiff tenacious 
clays. Fifteen, eighteen, twenty, and twenty-four 
feet are popular distances. 

Of course these distances refer to the collecting 
or feeding, and not the main drains. One or more of 
the latter will generally be found sufficient for a 
garden. They should be placed at the lowest point, 
be larger and have a sharper fall than the others. 
All the secondary drains should enter the mains at 
easy angles or curves, as shown in Fig. 13. This 
simple expedient is one of the surest means of pre- 



238 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



venting the mains from being silted up, as too often 
happens when the collecting di-ains enter the dis- 
charging mains at right angles. In cases where the 
main may be carried along almost in the middle of 
the area to be drained, no two tributaries should 
meet opposite to each other, as shown at Fig. 14, as 
then the two currents might about neutralise each 
other, and a deposit of silt be left in the main, the 
natural legacy of two currents, of almost equal 
strength, meeting at right angles. 

The Depth, of Drains.— Much, as has already 
been hinted, depends on the local soil and subsoil; 
and where the system of cutting off the subterra- 
nean excess of water is adopted, very deep drains 




Fig. 13.— Angle of Secondary Drain. 



may sometimes prove the most efficient. All garden 
drainage should also be deeper than that of fields. 
The tilth, the cultivation, the roots of the plants, 
are all far deeper in the garden, and hence the 
absolute necessity of deeper drains. In addition to 
this, fruit gardens should be more deeply drained 
than vegetable, though the roots of the latter will 
occasionally find theii- way into and block up drains 




Proper Arrangement. Improper Arrangement. 



Fig.l4 .—Meeting op Tributaries. 

a yard or more deep. In aU gardens in which 
fruit or ornamental trees and shrubs are grown, the 
drains should be at least four feet deep. Allow- 
ing a foot or so for the drainage material of stone 
or rubble drains, this would allow a clear three 
feet from the surface of the soil to the top of the 
drainage material. In the case of tile drains, three 
feet six or three feet nine inches clear would be left 
between the crown of the tile and the surface of the 
mould. But for the expense another foot might 
very well be added to the four here recommended 



for garden drains, as garden tilths, especially those 
devoted to tbe cultivation of the best vegetables, 
can hardly be too deep, nor rich ; and by the ojjera- 
tions of natural laws and the application of manures, 
the tilths have a tendency to grow as deep as the 
drains. 

Frequently, too, the depth has to be curtailed, owing 
to the fact that the natural outlets — that is, ditches, 
streams, or rivers — are so exceedingly shallow. It 
is generally an expensive operation to deepen these, 
not seldom impossible ; and hence the natural outfall 
must too often be made the measure of the depth of 
the main drains. 

Unless this is found sufficient it should never be 
accepted as the only possible outfall without testing 
and trying for a lower one ; and, indeed, the depth 
and direction of the main drain should always be 
determined first. This found, and the general 
average elevation of the land to be drained also 
ascertained, the possible depth of the drains becomes 
a mere matter of calculation. 

If sufficient depth and to spare is found to exist, 
it is easy to choose out of this excess ; but if a useful 
depth cannot be commanded, some other lines at a 
lower level must be found for the main di-ains. 

Fall of Drains — The exact ratio of falls is 
really of little moment so long as the water runs, 
and the choice of any special fall, as a quarter or half 
an inch to ten feet or twenty feet, is seldom com- 
pletely in the power of the drainer. Where the 
drains are made parallel with the fall, they simply 
follow the same level, or nearly so, as, of course, it 
would be undesirable or mischievous to follow the 
ups and downs of any trifling surface irregularities. 
In these cases the workmen are mostly provided 
with a stake furnished with a cross-bar across the top 
to keep it on the exact level of the surface. (See 
Fig. 21.) By placing a second cross-bar across to 
indicate the Avidth of the drain, a handy test of the 
correct size and depth of the drain is always on the 
spot. 

A very simple way of securing an even fall in the 
bottom of drains where the surface is uneven, is to 
use long borning-stakes with cross-bars, as already 
described. Place one permanently at the farther 
end of the drain, or at any handy distance where the 
level has been ah-eady ascertained; place another on 
the tiles already laid ; and the third against the work 
proceeding. If the three can be sighted at once the 
drain has the proper fall. Another way is to find 
the entire fall from one end to the other ; calculate 
how much that amounts to for every ten to twenty 
feet ; nail or screw a piece of wood on to one end of 
the straight-edged spirit or foot-level, and place this 
end on to the lowest part of the drain. When the 



GROUND OPEEATIONS. 



239 



plummet or spirit-level teads or stands true, tlie fall 
will be regular from one end of the drain to the 
other. As it is exceedingly awkward to get any level 
into the bottom of a drain, or to use it when there, 
boining-rods may be used, and the straight- edged 
level placed on the top of their cross-bars, with the 
addition suggested ; the thickness of the splice may 
be so adjusted as to give a regular fall throughout 
any length of diain. The fall should invariably be 
regular throughout, with this exception, that the 
drains should discharge themselves into the main or 
outlets at a sharper fall, and consequently with 
greater speed, than they rim through any other 
portion of their course. This simple expedient is 
one of the surest antidotes to silting up and blocking 
the mouth of the drains, secondary or main. 

Sizes of Drains. — The efficiency of drains 
IS not seldom in the inverse ratio of their area. 
The smaller the more efficient, when well made, and 
possibly the less danger of silting up ; and drains are 
only safe against blocks when fairly at work. It has 
also been found on calculation that inch drains are 
of sufficient area to cope successfully with any amount 
of rainfall that we have to deal with in our climate. 
It is very seldom that more than an inch of rain falls 
in twenty-four hours. This amounts to something 
like one hundred tons to the acre, and inch drains 
could easily discharge this in eighteen or twenty-four 
hours. It has been calculated an inch drain can 
readily discharge half a ton of "water per hour. As 
there are twenty-four hours in a day, and generally 
several drains in an acre, it is easy to see that even 
the smaller drains are not likely to be over-freighted 
for any length of time with an excess of water. Any 
small aperture can pass an enoraious amount of 
water through it in a given time, especially when, as 
in the case of full drains, the current is strong and 
the motion perpetual so long as there is any water to 
move. 

However, in gardens^ in which the permanent 
crops forbid a repetition of drainage, it is well to 
use tiles of two or even more inches for the drains. 
Three-inch mains, and an inch and a half or two 
inches for feeders are, however, amply sufficient. 
The tiles may be either round (Fig. 15), horse-shoe 
(Fig. 16), or elliptical, the form matters little. Open 
horse-shoe tiles, laid on a movable sole, are also 
used at times (Fig. 16). These are in nowise better 
than the horse-shoe tile made in the usual way. 
Superior tiles, especially those used in the mains, 
are also generally made with sockets ; that is, the 
one end of each pair of tiles slips into the 
other (Fig. 17). These, however, cost more, and 
are not much believed in by practical drainers. 
AVhere the subsoil is stiff, and the point of union 



between the pairs of tiles is clayed over, the drain 
is moulded into a union throughout, and seldom or 
never gets blocked up. 

Several Tiles in One Drain.— The intro- 
duction of two or more small tiles to take the place 
of one larger tile is a very old method of draining. 
Illustrations of two such drains are given. There is 
no objection to the piling together of tiles in tLe 
bottom of drains, only the expense. In Fig. 18, Xo. I 
shows a drain cut out with an elbow, with one tile on 
the bottom. No. 2, a drain bottomed with the horse - 




Fig. 15.— Common Eound Drain-tile, without Socket. 



shoe tiles, the bottom one inverted ; and No. 3 is 
finished with three tiles of the same shape, the upper 
one resting on the two lower. The last two drains 
are made somewhat wider to receive these additional 
tiles. 

Stone drains again, as Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7 (Figs. 18, 19), 
are made of different forms as weU as sizes. The 
Box drain, No. 4, derives its name from its form. 




Fig. 16. — Horse-shoe Drain-tile, with Movable Sole. 



Where sand, flint, or other stones, easily split or 
broken into slabs, abound, there is no drain more 
easily made, few more efficient. The Angle stone 
drain. No. 5, consists of a single or several large 
stones for a base, on which two pieces are set to form 
the point of a triangle in the centre of the drain. The 
vacant spaces on either side of the angle are filled 




Fig. 17.— Common Eound Drain-tile, with. Socket. 



full of rubble or rough stone, and these are disposed 
in the best possible position for the rapid discharge 
of water into the drain. Fig. 19 shows the more 
common rubble or flint drains, filled up to different 
depths. This description of drain should average a 
foot in depth, and from six to nine inches in width. 

It is needful to make stone di-ains of larger area 
than those of tiles, as the danger of silting up 
increases in the direct ratio of the amount of such 
drainage material as broken stones, and thus the 



240 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENTN-G. 



question of size brings us to another point of much 
moment. 

The Materials used for Drains. — There is 

a general consensus of oxjinion that tiles are the best 
materials. Among their other merits some also think 
them warmer than stones. Either, of course, quickly 
become assimilated to the temperature of the soil, 
but as stones conduct heat faster than tiles, they 
feel colder, and hence the origin of the fancy that 
stone drains are cold. Doubtless, next to tiles there 
is nothing like good sound stones for drainage. 
They should, however, be fresh and good, and of as 



So strong does this domed soil over the crown of 
drains, especially if of a semi-tenacious character, 
become, that it is no uncommon thing to meet with 
drains that have been excavated for fifteen or twenty 
years, and merely filled in with a little brushwood or 
straw, stni retaining their form, and discharging their 
drainage functions, years and years after the perish- 
able materials had disappetired and been washed 
away. 

Fagot, Furze, Brush, and Straw Drain- 
ing. — These are, or rather have been, practised 
very extensively where stones are scarce, and where 




nearly as may be uniform 
hardness and quality. The 
land pickings, and general 
collections of builders' 
rubbish and effete brick- 
bats, &c., sometimes used 
for drains, are very inferior 
to chalk, flint, river or sea 
shingle of sufficient size, 
or the refuse or inferior 
stones of the quarries. 

These may be used of considerable size, especially 
towards the bottom of what are called rubble drains. 
The rough stones keep the water-course open, main- 
taining a free course for the water as in the case of 
box, angle, or tile drains ; while the smaller stones 
at succeeding elevations, and the yet smaller on the 
surface of the drain, act as percolators, and also as 
barriers to the passage of silt into the drains. 

To make security doubly sure against these 
blocking tendencies of the soil, a thick turf is often 
inserted over the upper layers of fine stones, or a 
thin covering of straw is placed over these or the 
tiles. Buried thus, the straw will last long enough 
to keep the soil out of the drains until it (the soil) 
has once more become so consolidated as to form an 
indestructible arch over the drainage material, which, 
though not impervious to water, is to the passage 
through of any sand or silt. 




Fig. 19.— Bubble Drain 



no other hard material 
abounds. They are fairly 
effective and durable, but 
are altogether out of char- 
acter and form for garden 
purposes. 

Turf Drains. — The 

same may be said of these , 
but they answer well in 
old meadows, where the 
turf is thick, fibrous, and strong. It used to be cut 
almost two inches thick and securely placed on the 
artificial ledge cut out for it near the base of the 
drain, the base section being miade as narrow as 
possible, as ia No. 1, Eig. 18. It is said on good 
authority that some of these drains have lasted sound 
and good for periods so prolonged as from twenty 
to thirty or even fifty years. By this it must not, 
however, be understood that the tm-f lasts so long 
as that— only that the earth has formed a solid arch 
over it, and the drain keeps rimning. 

But none of these perishable materials should find 
any place in garden drains, as in these only the 
best and most desirable ought to be used. 

Outlets. — It is hardly too much to say that the 
weakest parts of drains are in their outlets. Great 
care and trouble are often expended ia the planning 



GROUND OPERATIONS. 



241 



and execution of the drains, and only the best 
materials are used; but so soon as the nearest 
waterway is reached the drains are run into it, 
very often on the level, and not seldom under it. 
Many times it is in flood, and, of course, unless the 
water has free course from the mouth of the drains, 
the drains themselves are useless. They are not 
merely stopped for the time being, but disorganised 
throughout their entire course. For flooded drains 
become weak as mud, and almost as difiicult to keep 
level or on an even fall. Hence, so soon as the flood 
permits them to run they often get out of level, and 
are thus rendered totally useless. 



The Tools for Making Drains.— These are 
both special and numerous. The spade is the chief 
or only tool needed to make stone drains. A deep 
furrow was taken out with a broad-moulded plough, 
and from this part the spade did the work, cutting 
it down square and even, and to a depth of two 
or more feet throughout, narrowing to a foot or 
eighteen inches at the base. But with the introduc- 
tion of tiles a whole family of draining tools has 
sprung forth. The purport of most of these is to 
cut or scoop out the drain as deeply as wanted, 
while keeping it as narrow as possible. To this 
end spades little wider than chisels are used in some 






Fir^. 20.— Draining Tools. 



Another great fault in regard to outlets is that 
they are so often left without any grates or guards. ■ 
Those who have had experience of the enormous 
injury inflicted on drains by rats and other vermin 
that find lodging and breeding-grounds there in dry 
Weather, and by their persistent efforts burrow their 
way under or out of them, to the partial or complete 
disruption of the drains, will be sure to protect any 
outlet that comes to the light with wire or other 
vermin-guard. Where drains discharge from the 
side of a high bank, a very simple mode of protec- 
tion consists in running a long tile some way beyond 
and clear of it. These projecting tiles baulk the 
rats ; but they are in danger of being broken off or 
pulled out by hedge-trimmers or other accidents. 80 
that on the whole there is nothing, perhaps, to equal 
wire guards or iron gratings for the outlets of drains. 

It is also most import.int to keep these outlets 
elear of silt and other weeds, as either or both fre- 
quently cause serious and most injurious blocks. 
16 



parts of the drain, and scoops or spoons with long 
handles follow these into deep narrow spaces, where 
no man could find room to stand or use a spade, 
however narrow. No. 1 (Fig. '^0) is about the widest 
spade used in draining. It is mostly made more or 
less bent, but this is not matei-ial, and a common 
spade might just as well be used. No. 2 is a most 
useful spade to follow the first, and is succeeded by 
Nos. 3 and 4. No. 5 represents a round-pointed 
shovel, turned up at the edges, which is very handy 
for getting out the crumbs, that is, the pieces that 
fall off the full spadeful in the lifting. No. 6 
is a similar tool mounted on a long handle, to bo 
used under the work. No. 7 is one of the narrowest 
spades used in drainage, and is bent in so much at 
the sides as to form almost a semicircle, and Nos. 8 
and 9 are similar-shaped scoops or spoons placed at 
different angles. There are several others occa- 
sionally used; but these will suffice to give those 
interested in the practical performance of drainage 



242 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GAEDENIXG. 



some clear idea of the nature of the work and the 
character of the tools needed for its performance. 
In general terms, the lower portions of drains are 
wholly excavated hy such narrow tools as Nos. 3, 4, 
5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, Such tools not only reduce to a 
minimum the amount of earth to be moved, hut hy 
reducing the width of the drain to the narrowest 
possible area, the tiles are gripped firmly by the 
solid soil on either side of them and held immovable 
as in a \T.ce. It is impossible to over-estimate the 
importance of this in insuring the stability and 
consequent permanent efficiency of tile drains. A 
horizontal displacement of half an inch would reduce 
the discharging power of inch tiles one half ; displace 
an inch, and the drain would be blocked or stopped. 
Hence the vital importance of a narrow base for 
drains, and a firm wall of earth on either side of the 
tiles. 

Solidity of Base. — This is the most important 
in all drains, but very much more so in the case of 
tiles than of those formed of bushes or stone. In the 
latter an inch or two of subsidence here or there is of 
less moment, though it may prove a serious danger 
in any sort of drain. But with tiles of such narrow 
bore, the danger increases as the tiles diminish in 
size, until with inch only, the most common of all for 
drainage, it becomes most serious. It is not so im- 
minent in gardens as in fields, as in the former, pipes 
of one and a half, two, two and a half, or even 
three inches are often used. But it is equally im- 
portant that in all drains the utmost care should be 
taken to leave the base-lines that receive the tiles or 
drainage material undisturbed. To this end great 
care should be taken with the bottom spit not 
to pierce the soil or subsoil one atom beyond the 
tile-sole, for once the ground is disturbed no 
future attempts at consolidation can restore its 
primitive hardness. It is far better to leave an inch 
or two at the base to be scraped out with the spoons, 
No. 7 or No. 9. Occasionally, too, faults, fissures, 
or gullies will be found in the bottom of the drain. 
These should be filled in with stone or solid earth, 
and made so solid that there should be no fear of 
future subsidence. Tiles may also be had to order 
of several times the ordinary lengths, so as to span 
over soft spots or flaws in the strata, their ends 
resting on the solid soil on either side. 

Figs. 21 and 22 are simple contrivances to measure 
the size or depth of drains. Fig. 22, with its three 
cross-bars, keeps the section of the drain from base 
to summit of regular form throughout. Fig. 21 
merely measures the depth, the cross-bar at top 
resting on the surface on either side. This may 
readily be made movable, so that this simple con- 
trivance would measure the depth of any drain, 



and in cases where the surface has an even fall, it 
answers all the purpose of a level, and no other will 
be needed. Fig. 23 is the tile-layer, the long 
handle enabling the drainer to reach the bottom of 
the drain M'ith the tile on the holder c. It is 
astonishing how rapidly tiles can be well and truly 
laid by this handy contrivance in the hands of a 
skilful workman. 

The Actual Catting and Laying of the 

Drains, — But little remains to be advanced on this 
part of the subject, as it has been incidentally re- 
ferred to in the description of tools. There is 
one very useful lesson in drainage operations that 
landscape and other gardeners may with much 



Fig. 21. 



Fiff. 22. 



Fig. 23. 



Fig. 21.— Stick vnth Movable Cross-bar for Measuring tbe 
Depth of Different Drams. Fig 22.— Stake with Movable 
Ci"oss-bar, and also Cross to Measure Width of Drain. 
Fig. 23.— Tile Layer. 



profit take from farmers, "Wherever drainage 
operations are extensive, it is so much cheaper, 
as well as better, to have the plough remove the 
first spit of the soil. Ha-\dng decided on the lines 
of drains, a good ploughman will draw the lines 
sufliciently straight and at regular distances 
without more ado than the placing of a few poles 
at the end of the land to be di^ained. A good section 
of earth is also removed at the least cost, and the 
workmen having got their work laid out before 
them, there is no loss of time in starting. This 
should always be done, the tiles laid handy and 
convenient, the fall per ten or twenty feet de- 
termined upon, and all adjustments of simple 
working tools and tests provided before starting. 
The advantages of all these preliminary arrange- 
ments will result in the second spit being thrown 
out before the first would have been settled about 
under ordinary haphazard ways of going to work. 

"VMien the space is too limited or confined for the 
plough, the drains should be all carefully set out. 



CULTURE OF MUSHEOOMS. 



243 



the lines, falls, and outlets seen to before beginning 
the work. As a matter of procedure, it is also most 
important that the main drain and outlets should be 
made or altered, if need be, before any attempt is 
made to lay the collecting or feeding drains. 

Another practical detail of great moment is to 
begin digging at the lowest end of the drains. The 
water will then clear itself by running into the 
outlet or main, and the running water on the heels 
of the drain-maker will make the work easier, as 
W3ll as afford impromptu proof on the spot of the 
correctness of the level and the efficiency of the 
work. 

Experienced drainers, testing their work thus as 
they dig, not seldom lay the tiles as they proceed, 
and pass over the major portion of the soil on to 
the newly-laid drain, instead of pitching it all on to 
the surface) in the usual way. 

Horticultural drainers, as a rule, however, mostly 
like to see a considerable length of their drains 
clear before laying them, so as to make sure of the 
discharge of the water. This practice, however, 
carried to excess, as it often is, by laying the entire 
length of the drain open before tiling or covering, 
not only involves the risk of the sides falling in, 
but the flowing water in the base becomes a source 
of weakness, and is apt to cause future inequalities 
of level, and thus injure or ruin the drain. Hence 
the importance of tiling and filling in as rapidly as 
possible. 

No stones nor any hard or porous materials 
should be placed over the tiles. Many amateurs 
in the art of draining seem to reason and act 
as if it were impossible to have too much of a 
good thing. Hardly have they laid the tiles 
till they tumble in all manner of stones or other 
hard rubbish upon the top of them. Nothing is 
more effective in ruining the drains. Not only 
are these apt to crack or smash the tiles, but 
to displace and so disorganise them. On light 
turfy lands the best covering over the drains 
is a sod from one and a half to two inches 
thick. On the majority of other lands a layer 
of the stiffest available soil is the best next to 
the tiles. If carefully trodden or rammed down, 
all the better. This binds, almost welds, the 
pipes into a semi-solid mass of continuous bore. 
There need be no fear but that the water will find 
its way into the pipes. It is sure to do so, if 
not just over them, then down by the sides. Not a 
few act, in drain-filling, as if the chief purpose of 
the drains was simply to dry the section of land in- 
cluded in their area. Were that all, or the chief, 
desideratum, better not make them. The fact is, 
the drain should remove any superfluous water from 
the whole area of the tilth, and, what is of much 



more consequence, keep the water in perpetual 
motion through its substance and mass. It is as 
valuable as a circulating as a depleting force, and the 
recognition of this fact would prevent full haK the 
fallacies existing aUke in regard to the theory and 
practice of drainage. 

In laying the tiles great care must be taken to 
make the ends of the tiles meet as correctly as 
may be. And of course when inch socket tiles 
are used, these will be carefully placed within, 
each other, and much care taken all through the 
process of laying to prevent an}' stones or clods 
of earth entering the bore of the tiles. It is 
well, however, to tread in the earth more or 
less in the process of filling up, so that most of 
it may return from whence it came. Three prac- 
tices, all too common, are named here to be shunned. 
The first consists in filling in loosely and leaving 
the soil in a heap over the drain ; the second is 
filling in level and scattering the spare soil all over 
the land ; the third is the placing most of the best 
soil in the bottom or middle of the open area, and 
scattering the barren or worthless soil on to the top. 
The first is unsightly ; the second yet more so, as 
after a time the land subsides, and a furrow on the 
surface marks the course of every drain ; the third 
clearly marks the drain- spaces w:ith an unsightly 
and unprofitable line of barrenness. The first two 
evils may be cured by careful filling in, and the 
•last by the common-sense simple plan of reserving 
the top spit for the crown of the drain- space. 



THE CULTURE OF MUSHEOOMS. 

By "William Earlet. 



THE Edible Mushroom [Agaricus campestris), as 
it is generally and not inappropriately called, 
from the peculiarity of its growth, and the esteem 
it is held: in as a comestible, is hedged around 
with a large amount of interest. Wayward to a 
degree, as regards its natural growth in our fields 
and pastures, it has nevertheless been made perfectly 
a,raenablet6 certain studied rules of artificial culture; 
so much so, that the merest tyro may infalHbly grow 
a crop by accepting these rules, which are very 
simple , for his or her guidance. 

It is the more necessary for us to refer to this 
subject in this wise, from the fact that, whereas aU 
other kinds of vegetables are produced from either 
seeds, side shoots, buds, or cuttings, all of which 
tend to strenQ;then or afford tangible evidence of a 
reasonable probability of success in raising and grow- 
ing future generations of the same kind, the culture 
of the Mushroom seems rather wanting in such 



244 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENING. 



tangible evidences of certainty of reproduction. 
The beginner must, therefore, place faith in the 
result of his buried efforts, whilst patiently waiting 
the issue. 

The Alj)ha and Omega of Mushroom culture is a 
good supply of horse-droppings, without which good 
productive beds are not easily obtained, though we 
shall show presently that Hmited numbers may be 
grown without the aid of this, or any other kindred 
manure. Along with such horse-droppings stable 
sweepings may be freely mixed, pro\aded all are mo- 
derately dry. It is objectionable to permit other 
ingredients in liquid form 
to be mixed with these. 

Not only is it neces- 
sary to select such diy 
materials, but it is 
always desirable to dry 
them somewhat beyond 
their primitive state of 
dampness, by exposing 
them to sun and air, or 
during the prevalence of 
Tainy weather by spread- 
ing them out, and occa- 
sionally turning them 
over, in a dry, airy shed. 
As these materials form 
the nucleus of the future 
bed, enough must be 
collected together to 
form a bed of the desired 
dimensions. This done, 
it can readily be seen 
whether they are moder- 
ately dry throughout. If 
not, another process will 
have to be undertaken, 

and it is a necessary one in connection with the 
preparation of all beds during the winter season, 
when it is aU but impossible to dry the materials 
sufficiently by any other means. Jf not dry enough 
the whole mass must be thrown up into a conical- 
shaped heap, and be induced to ferment. In process 
of fermenting steam is given off, which is so much 
moisture dissipated. The heap must not be per- 
mitted to ferment too much or too long, however, 
else the materials will be destroyed in process of 
decomposition. It will be necessary, therefore, if 
the heat is becoming great, with much steam, to turn 
the whole mass over, shaking it apart freely to cause 
steam to fly off, re-miLking the heap into another of 
conical shape, placing what was the centre of it 
before on the outside now, and vice versa. 

Even in mid- winter, when materials are damp, and 
the air around highly surcharged with moisture, thii 




Fig. 1.— In-door Mushrooin-'bed. 



second turning of the mass should suffice, and, fol- 
lowing the succeeding ferment, the material should 
be quite ready for bed -making. 

Having turned aside to explain how to dry such 
materials, we will revert to their general use in 
the cultivation of the Mushroom. Supposing that 
these needful materials are ready to hand, our atten- 
tion must next be called to the formation or making 
of the Mushroom bed, and all the needful additional 
materials requisite. 

Before we proceed with the bed-formation, however, 
we must first fix upon a site whereon to make it. 

We will, therefore, tiun 
our attention for a short 
time to this matter of 
convenient or proper 
places for Mushroom 
beds. And here occui's 
one important fact, 
which must rule and 
determine every decision 
in regard to them. The 
bed must rest on a dry 
bottom, else the spawn 
will be injured or 
checked dming its pre- 
liminary stages of growth 
by damp arising from 
the base. 

It is quite immaterial 
whether the site be an 
elevated one or upon the 
floor, whether in a light 
or dark place, moderately 
warm or somewhat cool 
and aiiy, provided it be 
dry, and in winter one 
where the thermometer 
will not fall below a temperature of from 50° to 
55". Any situation in total darkness will suffice, 
though air should have access to the bed; but 
even this may be dispensed with, with impunity. 
Thus an elevated shelf, so boarded as to contain 
about one foot in depth of these materials, will 
do admiraldy. 

Where proper Muf;hroom- houses are constructed 
this elevated-bed fashion is often had resort to, to 
economise space. One bed is made upon the floor, 
up against the back wall of the shed, of the average 
width of three or four feet ; a tier-bed is then built 
above it, of equal wddth, and, if room permit, yet 
another bed above (Fig. 1). 

To insure the greatest possible amount of success 
in connection with such Mushroom houses proper, it 
is essential that the roof be plastered, and the whole 
made as aii'-tight as possible, with the object of 



CULTUEE OF MUSHEOOMS. 



245 



retaining the moisture. "^Tiere a certain and constant 
supply is required, the houses must be warmed by 
flues or hot- water pipes, the artificial heating media 
beiag needful to keep up the necessary amount of 
heat, and to insure such dampness in the air in con- 
nection with it as is congenial to the crops, and this 
is insured by frequently damping over flues or pipes 
with tepid water, so as to cause a dense steam to 
pervade the house. This crop may also be grown in 
cellars, bins, or boxes, during the winter months, with 
the minimum temperature above referred to main- 
tained. 

All forms of enclosed structures are only suitable 
for winter culture, however. All beds made up 
during the months of May to July, inclusive, must, 
therefore, be built 

out of doors, or in -s=^^- 
very cool cellars. 
Not because they 
will not succeed in 
bearing crops, but 

owing to the fact -=^- 

that all produce 
formed in enclosed 
and covered struc- 
tures during the 
summer months is 
so infested with 
maggots internally 
as to be absolutely 
useless. Practice 
may probably dis- 
cover a remedy for 
this drawback, but 

until such time as it does, all attempts at such cul- 
ture must be abandoned. 

Beds formed, however, out of doors in the above 
months prove most successful, giving abundance of 
very meritorious produce. It is well to bear certain 
facts in mind when selecting a site for summer 
beds. The situation should have for its base a cer- 
tain amount of natural dryness, and be one not likely 
to be subject to the inflow of water, as the result of 
heavy rains. Some back corner beyond observation, 
under trees having moderate heads of foliage to 
save too much drip from heavy rains, would be 
suitable, though it will be well to have it contiguous 
to the water-supply. An empty pit, not required for 
other uses, would suffice, and the under- stage floor 
of a glass structure would suit during the winter 
months. 

Having sufiiciently explained what are the most 
convenient places adapted to the formation of Mush- 
room beds, we return to the materials prepared and 
ready for use. 

In-door beds, which may be made between the 





Tig. 2.— Cakes of Masbroom Spawn. 



months of August and IMay, should not be less than 
one foot in depth of material. To insure this it is 
best to place a board or boards, attached to firm up- 
rights, one foot or fourteen inches in depth, on all 
outer sides, where any bed does not rest against a 
wall or partition. 

This is essential, from the fact that the materials 
require to be of an equal depth throughout of one 
foot, and must be trodden and beaten down as firmly 
and evenly as j)ossible. 

Along with the materials previously jpi'epared a 
quantity of stiff fibrous yellow loam should also be 
secured. Place a layer of straw over the floor first, 
and upon it another layer of the coarsest, or straw- 
litter portion, of the materials prepared, and again 

cover these over 
with a layer of the 
material in bulk. 
These layers will 
raise the space 
allotted to the bed 
up to about 0]ie- 
half its height. 
Sprinkle next over 
this mass a thin 
layer of the loam, so 
that it falls in be- 
tween the material 
and partly covers it 
over. Add another 
layer of material, 
then just another 
sprinkling of loam, 
continuing thus 
until the space within the boards has a heap of loose 
materials within it, which rises some six inches 
higher than what is to be the height of the bed 
when well beaten down. Thrust a thin long stick 
to its base in the centre of this heap for a test of 
the action of heat within it, and let the whole remain 
for two or three days. 

After the lapse of this time the materials should be 
again slightly fermenting, and a nice warmth should 
prevail within them, which will communicate itself to 
the test-stick, by the withdrawal of which its extent 
can be ascertained. Should the heat be great, as is 
occasionally the case when the materials are damp, 
the bed must remain for another day or two, for it to 
moderate. Then tread down evenly and firmly, and 
with beater or rammer make the whole as uniformly 
firm as possible. The test -stick must be again 
inserted, and a day or two allowed to pass before 
more is done. After which, if the internal heat of 
the bed does not exceed 70° it may be spawned. 

In the event of the heat exceeding this, more time 
must elapse before spawning. On the other hand. 



246 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



should the materials not ferment after heing- rammed 
down, spawning must be done immediately, and the 
bed be covered with about six inches of hay ; such 
hay to be well beaten over first to separate the seeds 
from it and to make it more pliable, so that it lies 
closely upon the bed and together. 

The process of spawning is very simple. Cakes of 
Mushroom spawn are purchasable from all nurseries 
and seedsmen by the cake or bushel. One cake will 
be ample for a bed one yard square. With a very 
blunt dibble make a hole in the surface of the well- 
beaten bed, about one inch deep, break a cake of 
spawn into eight or ten pieces, and insert a piece 
into the hole, drawing the material around and over 
it tightly so that it is just covered over. The whole 
bed must be dotted over with such pieces at equal 
distances apart. Though it may not be possible to 
say how far any one piece will extend ultimately, 
it is well to intimate that the thicker the spawn is 
placed the better, as there will then be far greater 
certainty of an early and good crop. 

When the bed is very warm or likely to fluctuate, 
beat the surface over with the back of a sj)ade to make 
the mass of the bed as firm as possible again, after 
spawning, and leave it thus for a day or two. 
Should it not be too warm or likely to fluctuate, 
place a layer of one to two inches in thickness of the 
yellow loam, previously referred to, evenly over its 
surface. Carefully remove all stones and rough 
portions, and beat it down firmly and quite evenly 
throughout, even to the very corners. Now procure 
tepid water, with a water-pot having a fine-rosed 
nozzle, and a pail with water also. Sprinkle the bed 
over so that this loam becomes evenly moistened over 
its whole surface, and again pat it down with the 
bright back of the spade, dropping a little more 
water meantime to give it greater plasticity, or 
to make it like mud. This secured, dip the blade 
of the spade into the pail of water and work the 
surface over, so drawing it backwards as to leave a 
smooth plastered-in appearance. By this means 
the whole mass will, when dried, cohere together, 
which insures just that particular wholeness or 
consistency wherein the tubercles or Mushrooms 
form best upon the singular white thread-like myce- 
lium, called in the aggregate spawn. It only re- 
mains now to place a nice covering over the bed of 
the hay, slightly damped, prepared as before sug- 
gested. Any other bed which may be too warm for 
soiling at the time of spawning, must be treated in 
like manner as soon as the heat wanes. And the 
proper heat for spawn to grow in may be marked as 
being between 58" and 75°. 

After the bed has been soiled, and covered with 
hay, it will need no further attention for about 
one month. In the meantime, during winter, the 



artificial heat within structui-es may range be- 
tween 60° and 75°, and all beds made out of doors 
must be duly protected from excessive rains and the 
too great heat of the sun, the latter being secured by 
additional coverings of hay, straw, or other similar 
Utter. 

More rapid progress is made by dipping the spawn 
bricks into a pail of luke-warm water for about 
twenty minutes before the cakes are broken to pieces 
for use. 

Though we have given the best, quickest, and 
safest method to grow good crops of this excellent 
comestible, we have not by any means exhausted the 
subject, or methods which might otherwise be em- 
ployed to secure good crops. It is not always con- 
venient for amateurs to use- crude horse-droppings 
and stable sweepings only. In cases where this can- 
not be done, collect a heap of horse-di'oppings or those 
of sheep and deer, along with a little somewhat diied 
cow-dung. Add to this heap about an equal part of 
decayed manure from an old cucumber-frame, or 
any decomposed sweet vegetable manure. Tirni it 
well up together, intermixing all the parts most 
thoroughly. Make a bed with these, in all respects 
similar to that suggested above, in-doors or out of 
doors, according to the time of year, treating it 
similarly in the matter of spawning, kc, and a crop 
may be expected. 

Mushrooms may also, in the majority of instances, 
be grown without the aid of artificial spawn, as 
follows : — Prepare stable manure and sweepings as 
for the bed originally given above. Place a layer of 
stra\'*' at the bottom of the bed, then a layer, about 
two inches in thickness, of the stable manure, then a 
layer of one inch of such loam as recommended 
above. Upon it put another layer of loam, finishing 
off with another layer, as aforesaid, of stable manui-e. 
Make very fii-m and place surface soil as before. 
This bed, though longer coming into bearing, will 
after a month or two produce a good crop. 

It is necessary to refer to one consideration iu con- 
nection with the materials. Observation, present 
and past, seems to afiirm the fact that horses fed 
upon dry food— corn, &c. — afford the best materials 
for this purpose. Horses and cows, on the other 
hand, whose diet is grass alone, afford little or no 
assistance to the growth of these fungi. ■ We suggest, 
therefore, that such be always avoided. 

The treatment of the beds after cropping has com- 
menced, or after spawning, is an important consi- 
deration, both as regards the merit of the immediate 
produce and its future continuance. 

Semi-dryness Essential to the G-rowth. of 
Spawn. — Mushroom spawn refuses to grow in a wet 
medium ; indeed an excess of latent moisture exist- 



CULTURE OF MUSHROOIklS. 



247 



ing in any matter within measurable distance of 
it cheeks, if it does not destroy it ; for this reason 
the materials must be moderately diy, and for this 
reason also the bed must be kept diy for a period of 
five or six weeks after spawning, and during such 
time as the spreading of the spawn fibres in process 
of growth takes place. It is owing to want of bet- 
ter knowledge in this respect concerning the earlier 
stages of progress of those underground fibres, that so 
many fail in attempts at growing this crop ; the 
belief being that moisture is the very existence or 
life of this strange production, an inference obtained, 
no doubt, from the thought that duiing damp, showery 
autumns the indigenous crop is most abundant. The 
fact is overlooked that invariably a dry spring or 
early summer period, giving birth and life to these 
underground ramifications, preceded such an one of 
dampness. Generally after beds have been spawned 
and soiled about five or six weeks the minute buttons 
begin to appear. Then is the time to commence 
slightly sprinkling, or syringing, the surface of the 
bed, to be continued and increased as the crop 
matiu'es, until in about six or eight days such a 
main watering may be given as will find its way 
throughout, down to the very bottom of the bed. In 
connection with such watering, should the bed be one 
heated in-doors during winter, a nice warmth should 
be generated throughout in the heating media and 
the house or shed. The water used should be 
slightly warmed for the pinpose. In like manner 
when out-door beds are watered it is best done 
upon a warm sunny day. From this time forward 
the bed must be frequently moistened upon its 
surface, and receive such an amount of water 
within generally, as will insure to it a nice amount 
of internal moisture, which can be secured without 
much risk if a good site has been chosen and the 
drainage, consisting of rough materials at the 
bottom, is perfect. After beds have been ''in crop " 
about one month, or at such time as the supply of 
produce decreases, give a watering with moderately 
strong liquid manure, adding about an ounce of 
common salt to each gallon of water. 

Scientific research has all but demonstrated the 
fact that the surface growth, or the Mushroom itself, 
is an immense absorrient of food for its own growth 
and support, as witness, even during long dry periods 
in early autumn, what a free growth field Mushrooms 
make dm^ing nights when excessive dews prevail. 
This shows that very frequent surface sprinklings 
are more to be desired than much water below the 
surface. By the practice of the former, beds will 
not only be more, productive throughout, but will 
continue far longer in bearing. 

It is injurious to the future crop to permit the 
produce to become old before cutting, as the spores 



then ripen, and place a far greater tax upon the 
base. As far as possible, gather the crop by twisting 
oli each single Mushroom. Where clusters grow 
together, however, they must be neatly cut off. The 
old base should be removed immediately it shows 
symptoms of decay, or it will comnmnicate such to 
the other active portion below ground. 

We have treated thus far of definite methods by 
which Mushrooms can be produced. By the employ- 
ment of similar practices, in connection with such 
materials as we have named, there is, however, 
hardly any limit to the variety of ways they may be 
grown — as, for instance, in boxes, baskets, pots, &c., 
of any size. Many excellent crops are secured by 
simply inserting pieces of spawn into the sides, &c., 
of cucumber-beds ; and, indeed, they have been 
induced to grow by inserting artificial spawn into 
pasture-land early in the month of May. 

British growers are very much behindhand in re- 
gard to Mushi'oom culture. In France it has been 
reared into quite a distinct industiy, so much so that 
it is estimated more than twenty tons are grown and 
sold daily in and around Paiis, where caves and 
subterranean quarries are set apart for the purpose, 
those of Montrouge in particular. 

The horse-manure of Paris is valued accordingly, 
bought up and contracted for year by year ; so 
unlike that of our own metropolis, where the General 
Omnibus and other companies can hardly induce 
agriculturists to cart such away and keep their over- 
filled yards empty. 

Mushrooms sell at from 8d. to 9d. per pound in 
Paris, in the quantities named. In England, any 
kind of punnet is charged at from Is. upwards. 
Worse than this, 95 per cent, of British-bought 
Mushrooms consist of the coarsest variety, indigenous 
to our fields and woodlands, known in rustic lore as 
the " Horse " {i.e., coarse) Mushroom. 

The chief enemies of the Mushroom are mice, 
slugs, woodlice, beetles, and flies. Woodlice are 
destroyed by being attracted to a dry corner and 
made short work of with boihng water. Fresh- 
slaked lime placed in water, used in moderate quan- 
tities, will lessen the fly plague. The other pests 
are destroyed in manj^ ways, which need not be 
explained here. 

The produce of some beds is attacked by a 
parasitical disease, consisting of a fibre-like fungus, 
which overruns the beds and envelops the crop in 
such manner that the produce is deformed, the 
very fibres being enlarged, flattened, or contorted. 
The only remedy appears to be the removal of the 
bed infected, a thorough cleansing of the site, and 
the procuidng of entirely new spawn. 

Mushroom spawn is an object of interest, though 
in its superficial aspect simple and easily under- 



248 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



stood. Its undergTound thread-like fibres, the 
mycelium, have an immense capacity for propa- 
gation and extension, so much so, that in congenial 
surroundings every particle of it is capable of exten- 
sion and extended growth. The spawn must how- 
ever, to do this, be maiden spawn, or such as has not 
"fruited," or actually produced Mushrooms. It re- 
quires a dry place wherein to grow,"and so particular 
is it in regard to this, that the spawn of Mush- 
rooms and of many other fungi has a peculiar 
power of keeping off rain and moisture. There 
is no more certain method of destroj-ing some 
troublesome growths of the kind than by immers- 
ing them in water. To this characteristic may be 
added another, that it matters not how long pm-- 
chased cakes of spawn be kept, providing they are 
stored in a warm and di^y place, even if over an oven 
or flue, though not too close to it. 

To obtain an increase of spa^Ti, stable sweepings 
with other manures mixed -^dth loam are moistened 
so that they can be made into "bricks" or cakes. 
Tliey are then placed to dry. "VA-Tien moderately diy 
a small place is cut or scooped out of the centre of 
each. A small portion of an old cake is inserted into 
the ca%'ity formed. The ca^dties of two cakes are 
then placed opposite each other, the sides of each two 
meeting. The many cakes when done are placed in 
one heap, closely packed and fitting together, and 
either by aid of well-seasoned fermenting material, 
a flue, or otherwise, a nice dry warmth is maintained 
throughout this mass, the result being that the 
spawn permeates the whole. Immediately this is 
seen the cakes are separated and dried. Thus is 
maiden spawn held in suspension, as it were, until 
such time as it is again set to work growing, and 
given the natural power to produce vegetation in 
Ivind. In a word, one leaven, an old spawn brick or 
cake, leavens the whole ; the leaven being still held 
in bondage until, like German yeast, it is needed 
for the main pm^pose. 

As showing how amenable to the proper stimulus 
it is, let a box be filled with straw to the depth of 
an inch, firmly at the bottom, then break a cake of 
spawn into pieces and lay evenly and firmly upon 
the straw, and cover with three or four inches 
of loamy soil, ramming all down quite hard. 
Keep in a warm place for five or six weeks, sprink- 
ling the surface as frequently as it becomes diy, 
and the spawn will grow, and Mushrooms be pro- 
duced. 

It is imagined that a darkened place, and more or 
less airless, is needed in connection with the arti- 
ficial culture of Mushrooms. An idea so opposed to 
nature's plan is an error. A covering of hay, as 
advised, is useful in preser^-ing an uniformly moist 
surface ; but, so far as can be- observed, the Mush- 



room is one of those few vegetable products to which 
the darkness and the light are both alike. 



PORTABLE CULTURE OF THE MUSHROOM. 
By D. T. Fish. 
The Mushroom, though as a rule cultivated in 
beds, out of doors and in, as already described, can 
also readily be grown in pots, pans, baskets, as 
well as in stables, cow-houses, common garden 
frames, green-houses, cellars, garrets, kitchens or 
other li\dng-rooms, and outhouses. The details of 
culture in these cases vary, but the general prin- 
ciples that underlie it are the same as those already 
laid down. There is, however, this important dif- 
fei'ence at starting, that as the area occupied in 
portable and what may be called makeshift ]\Iu3h- 
room culture is mostly very limited, only the very best 
materials should be used. These are, in brief, horse- 
droppings, not only from corn-fed horses, but, as far as 
possible, from the purest and highest-bred animals ; 
for it has almost passed into an axiom in Mushroom 
culture, that the higher the breed, as well as the 
harder the food of the horse, the better the spawn 
runs in it, and the finer and more plentiful the 
jMushrooms produced. Hence the droppings of 
carriage and riding horses are far preferable to 
those of cart or team horses ; those of hunters better 
than of carriage horses, and those of race-horses 
best of all. Therefore, if the latter are procurable, 
pro^'ide such for the pot-culture of the* Mushroom, 
and see to it that they have neither been injured 
by wet, nor weakened by any admixture of stable 
sweepings whatever. As the droppings can hardly 
overheat within the narrow limits of a six or eight- 
inch pot, if they are sufficiently dry they need no 
sweetening or preparation whatever, but may be 
rammed firmly into the pots so soon as received. 
Pots for ]Mushrooms should be drained with a few 
potsherds, as already described for pots in general; 
or if that is not available, a little rough and very dry 
cow-dung may be used in heu of crocks. A piece of 
spawn the size of a bantam's egg may be placed 
in the centre of the pot, within two inches or an inch 
and a half of the rim. This will be sufficient for a 
six-inch pot. Should eight-inch or larger pots or 
pans be used, four pieces may be placed in each pot, 
one in the middle, and the three to form a triangle 
round it. Cover over with the droppings, ramming 
them in as firmly as possible, and surface with a 
mass of good loam, leaving the surface as hard 
and smooth as may be. thus beginning and com- 
pleting the miniature ]\Iushroom-bed at one opera- 
tion. But lest any reader should be discouraged 
from trying the pot-culture of IMushrooms because 
he cannot procure the droppings of thoroughbred 



CULTUEE OF MUSHROOMS. 



2i9 



horses, it may he stated at once that any manure or 
compoimd of sweepings or ruhhish that will grow 
good Mushrooms in beds, will grow them in pots, 
boxes, baskets, or other portable contrivances. 
But with weaker and inferior material to start with, 
it can hardly be expected that so many nor so fine 
INIushrooms will be gathered from a given area. 
AVhatever sort of material be used, the mode of pro- 
cedure, and the necessity of firmness and solidity^ 
will be A^ery much the 
same. Here, then, we have 
say an eight-inch pot 
charged with JMushroom- 
growing - materials ; the 
next step, and in a sense 
the first, in the portable 
culture of the jNIushroom, 
is to place it in Mushroom- 
growing conditions. The 
French cook who was re- 
ported to have grown his 
buttons, that is, his small 
Mushrooms, in his kitchen 
drawer, would doubtless, 
in his anxiety for his 



favourite flavour and gar- 
nish, whip the charged 
-pot into his hot closet, and 
so warm up and quicken 
the mycelium, as to force 
the Mushrooms forth with 
a rush. Well, 
if he did not 
exceed a tem- 
perature of 7o^ 
probably no 
harm would be 
done, and much 
time saved. 
But the best way would be 
to plunge these pots to the 




Mushrooms in a Pot. 



rim in a bed of fermenting 

manure, at a temj)erature of 70° or so, till the spawn 
had covered the surface of the soil with white threads ; 
these should be rubbed off as they give the surface 
a white appearance, as otherwise the strength of the 
spawn will run to threads, not to Mushrooms. The 
pots may continue in a temperature of 66° till small 
Mushrooms form, and can then be removed into a 
sitting-room or other window, so that their growtli 
may be watched. As the ordinary living-room is 
mostly too dry for the well-doing of INIushrooms, it is 
a good plan to cover them with a bell-glass or cloche, 
to keep up a moist atmosphere for the IMushrooms. 
The trouble is not greater than in the case of Ferns 
grown under similar conditions. The interest of 



watching the development of the pure white fimgus 
is equally great, and the produce is assuredly more 
useful. 

But such troublesome expedients are only needed 
in what may be called the parlour- window culture 
of the JMushroom. If content to reap the sweet pro- 
duce only, without having the additional pleasure 
of seeing it growing, the Mushroom pots, boxes, 
or pans may be set anywhere, in the dark, on a 
shelf, or on the floor,- and 
they will need but little 
attention till the produce 
is fit to gather. They may 
also be grown in rooms 
with safety, with the sur- 
face covered with green 
moss, and it is one of the 
most pleasing sights in 
horticultural pursuits to 
see the rising cluster of 
Mushrooms in the centre 
of the pot fii'st upheave, 
and finally throw off their 
coverlet of moss, and stand 
out in all their freshness 
and purity. Besides, the 
Mushroom pot or pan may 
stand in a warm room or 
shelf from the first, with- 
out any harm, if the sur- 
face is covered either with 
moss or cocoa-nut fibre re- 
fuse ; or they might even 
be planted with some of 
the more dwarf Club 
Mosses or Lycopodiums, 
such as the golden or silver 
varieties of " SelagincUa 
denticulata. But apart 
from the fanc}^ and orna- 
mental portable culture 
of the Mushroom, it may 
readily be made as profitable as any other method, 
and it , brings a supply of this much -coveted 
luxury, good fresh ^Mushrooms, within reach of all 
classes and conditions of men ; while even those 
who have means of cultivating ^Mushrooms in 
permanent beds out of doors, or real ^Mushroom 
houses, might often supplement these by hxmying a 
few jMushrooms in more quickly, and to fill up or 
prevent those awkward gaps that are so apt to 
occur between the exhaustion of one series of beds 
and the incoming of another. In the portable cul- 
ture of the jMushroom for utility, far larger pots, 
pans, and boxes or baskets are used. Old packing 
or grocer's boxes of any kind, especially the stronger 



CASSELL'S POPrLAR GARDEXIXG. 



250 

and deeper ones, and tlie round baskets received from 
niirserymen with plants, are admirably adapted for 
the wholesale growth of Mushrooms on the portable 
method. When these are over a foot deep, it would 
not be necessary to quite fill them with materials, 
and the precautions of watering and testing for fear 
of over-heating, referred to in the preceding general 
article on IMuslii'oom culture. Avould have to be ob- 
served. Hence it would not do to fill spawn and soil 
at once, as for Mushi'oom culture in small pots. 

But supposuig a hamper, a yard or more in 
diameter, thus filled with Mushroom-growing mate- 
rials, room could generally be foimd for it in an 
empty stable, or corner of a stable, cow-house, or 
bullock-shed ; and it would be impossible for art 
to provide a better or more genial atmosphere 
for the rapid gi-owth of ^Mushrooms than that 
produced without cost in such places by the in- 
sensible perspiration and breathing of the animals. 
Another capital plan fur growing one or more 
boxes or baskets of Mushrooms would be, on a few 
basketf uls of fermenting materials in the corner of 
any outhouse or cart-shed, with a covering of the 
same or of hay thi'o-^-n over the sm-face. Xeat clean 
boxes could also "be placed in store-rooms, beer, coal, 
or wine cellars, in the larder or kitchen, or any spare 
room or corner. Properly prepared, the boxes or 
baskets would need no water till the Mushrooms 
began to come, and probably little or none after- 
wards. If the surface got dry, a mere dewing 
over with a fine-rosed watering-pot would suffice ; 
and if more water became needful as the crops 
grew, it would not be very difficult to remove the 
pots, pans, boxes, and baskets, give them a liberal 
watering with water at a temperatui'e of 80° at the 
least, cover over fi'om the air. leave them an hour or 
so to diip. and return from whence they came. If 
Mushi'oom material in smaU. pots gets dried up, the 
simplest manner of watering such sufficiently is a dip 
overhead in water of the above temperature. But 
this is seldom needful unless they are placed in very 
dry positions. The results of watering ]Mushi'Oom- 
beds in bearing, whether large or small, are so 
problematical, and the judgment needful to perfonn 
this crucial operation so great, that, as a rule, the 
amateur grower will do far better by c-athering all 
the beds will yield without watei'ing. then removing 
them, and starting anew with fresh material, instead 
of striving, often in vain, to resuscitate the produc- 
tive force of semi-exhausted beds by attempts to 
water them again into new life and more produce. 

Yet watering properly imderstood and skilfi>lly 
practised is often most useful. The two worst diffi- 
culties in the way of the successful culture of ]Mush- 
rooms, are an excess of moistui'e and a low tempera- 
tui-e at the same time. Xow, supposing a pot, box, 



or basket of ^Mushrooms to be over- watered, nothing 
can be easier than to whip them up, place them in 
or over a dimghill for a time, or in a hot closet 
or warm shelf in kitchen or store-room, or over the 
manger in stable or cow-house, until the e\il effects 
of excessive moistm-e are neutmlised by the prompt 
apphcation of extra caloric. 

Again, supposing a pot, box. or basket of Mush- 
rooms fail, the loss is but trifling, and others may 
soon be pushed forward to fill the gap. But 
should a large bed get out of order, there is the 
loss of months, and also of a large amount of 
produce. 

But the great advantage of this system is that 
it brings ^Mushroom culture within reach of all. 
The poorest cottager may pick up an old box at his 
grocer's for twopence, and sufficient amount of 
di-oppings may be gathered off the road at his ver>^ 
door, and for another penny the nearest nurser}-man 
will furnish him with a bit of spawn ; a spadeful or 
two of new soil, or of cormnon garden earth, will 
suffice to cover it ; it may be propped up over the 
sleeping place of his pig, and anon he will gather 
several shillings worth of ^lushrooms, either to add 
to his slender income, or pro\-ide a few most nutri- 
tive meals for himself and family. The artisan and 
amateur will find a new pleasure in the culture of 
the ^lushi'oom on these portable plans. 

Those, too, with small gardens, may place bits 
of spawn among their growing crops in the kitchen 
garden, bury some horse-droppings, with a morsel 
of spawn in their centre, in their grass lawns, and 
place pieces wrapped round with prepared dung 
under cloches and bell-glasses, and in cucumber 
and melon frames towards autumn- tide as these 
crops decline, and under the stages and shelves of 
their green-houses and conservatories; and so after 
due time find Mushrooms springing up, alike to 
their profit and pleasure, in the most out-of-the-way 
places. 

Mushroom-growing is indeed one of those pursuits 
that those in crowded towns may follow as suc- 
cesstully as the more favoured horticulturist in the 
coimtry. The best of horse-droppings abound in 
towns. Boxes of all kinds are also plentiful, and a 
few of these properly filled could even be placed on 
areas, balconies, and housetops. Carefully covered 
over, and protected from extremes of drought and 
of cold, the spawn would run as freely and as 
strongly among surrounding soot, dust, and dirt, as 
in the purest air of the country. The portable 
Mushroom-beds, canopied with cocoa-fibre, tissue, 
moss. or. if prefeiTed. an old flannel petticoat, will 
feel none of the untoward influences around them, 
and are. when they push through, smoothly covered 
^vith an anti -adhesive skin, that the blacks will 



FLOBISTS' FLOWEES. 



251 



glide as harmlessly off from as water from a duck's 
taek. Besides, they need never be exposed to the 
light at all, as there is no perceptible difference 
either in substance or flavour between Mushrooms 
grown in the dark and in the light. To the Mush- 
room, in fact, as has already been observed, the 
darkness and the light are both alike. Even the 
very poor, who live alike in the blinding glare of 
the garret and the stifling gloom of the cellar, and 
who in both mostly manage to keep some flowering 
plants alive in some broken jar or cracked tea-pot, 
may have some of the pleasure and profits of Mush- 
room-growing brought wdthin their reach. The 
portable culture of the Mushroom will prove easy 
to those who have done so much and so well with 
other plants, under difficulties that seem as appalling 
as insurmountable. 



FLOEISTS' FLOWERS. 

By Eichaed Dean. 



CALCEOLARIAS A2fD CSRYSANTEEMUMS. 

The Calceolaria.— There are three distinct 
t^'pes of Calceolarias known to florists, viz. — the 
Herbaceous, the Shi-ubby, and the Bedding. The 
first-named of these is represented by the pretty 
green-house vai*ieties of the present day, so much 
seen during the months of 3Iay, June, and July, 
in gardens and in the flower markets. The Shrubby 
Calceolarias have almost ceased to be gvo^m by 
plant cultivators ; they are a section intermediate 
between the Herbaceous and the Bedding varieties, 
and good plants of the type can be occasionally met 
with in the windows of cottages in country districts ; 
the Bedding varieties are of hardy gro^i:h, and are 
much used in flower gardens during the summer, 
though not so much as they formerly were. The 
Calceolaria has the common name of Slipperwort, 
and the generic name, Calceolaria, was bestowed by 
Linnaeus from calceolus, a slipper, in allusion to the 
form of the flower. 

It is recorded that in 1820 only six species of 
the Calceolaria were known in this country, the 
handsomest of which was C. conjmbosa. the flowers 
of i\'hich were yellow. These were probably natives 
of Peru. During the subsequent period, up to 1830, 
several other kinds were introduced from Chili, two 
of w^hich had purple flowers, viz., C. purpxirea and 
C. arachnoidea. As soon as the plants bloomed in 
the nursery of Messrs. Youngs, of Epsom, it struck 
Mr. Penny, the foreman, that it would be advisable 
to hybridise them. The attempt succeeded beyond 
expectation, and the result was, a number of beauti- 
ful varieties were prodiiced and offered to the public 
under appropriate names. In 1831, C. cnnatljlora, 



ha\'ing yellow flowers spotted with dark, was intro- 
duced from Chili, and from this some finely-marked 
varieties were raised. These productions fii-ed others 
with a desire to improve this flower, and it was 
taken in hand by several cultivators, all of whom 
were highly successful. Such names as Plant, Major, 
Bames, Green, Kinghom, Gaines, Catleugh, and 
others occur to us ; and later in point of time, 
]Mr. James, formerly of Isleworth, did much to 
develop the really magnificent fiowers we are ac- 
customed to see in the present day. Concurrently 
with the improvement of the flowers came the 
dwarfing and rendering more compact and bushy 
the habit of growth of the Calceolaria, as formerly 
it was quite tall and lanky. AVe fear that now-a- 
days raisers look too much to the mere size of the 
flowers, and too little to their form. A model plant 
of Calceolaria should have a -^dgorous free -branch- 
ing, yet compact and healthy, habit of growth ; the 
flower-stems strong and erect ; the flowers large and 
globular, of regular outline, and clear of indentation, 
the marking decided, and striking in coloui\ Such 
a plant is seen in the illustration accompanying this 
article. 

Xot'^'ithstanding that the Herbaceous Calceolaria 
is considered by some to be difiicult of cultui^e, we 
assert that this is a fallacy, for ^\ith due care and 
attention there is scarcely another florist's flower 
more easily managed ; and it is not an unusual sight, 
as stated above, to see this plant in a country cottage 
■«dndow, luxuriant in growth, freely flowered, and in 
the best condition. Here are a few golden rules for 
growing the Calceolaria successfully : — Keep the 
plants tolerably dry in winter, well protected from 
frost, with as little flre-heat as possible ; and during 
the summer months supply them liberally with 
water. Keep them well shaded fi'om the sun, and 
at all stages of the growth of the plants maintain 
the foliage clean and entii-ely free from insects. 

T^me was when fine varieties of the Calceolaria 
were increased by offsets and cuttings taken in 
September. Then it was much more difficult to 
grow a good specimen than it is in these days, when 
dependence is placed entirely upon seedling plants ; 
but our forefathers used to produce splendid speci- 
mens at flower-shows notwithstanding, raised from 
cuttings, that were the admiration of all who saw 
them. 

In these days the method of culture is simpler, 
more rapid in development, and when done vdih. care, 
equally at least, if not more satisfactory. The 
successful culture of many plants depends, to a great 
extent, upon little attentions constantly paid them, 
and the Calceolaria is a case in point. The seed may 
be so^TL in ]May, Jime, and July ; and a light, rich, 
sandy soil must be employed. If pans or pots are 



252 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GARDENING. 



used, they should he half or nearly half filled with 
pieces of pots — crocks, as they are termed — hroken 
small, to give drainage ; over these should he placed 
some rough soil, and then filled to the sui-face viith. 
fine soil, pressed down until a level smooth surface 
is secui-ed. Now the seed of the Calceolaria is very 
small indeed, and so a mere piach sufiices for a sow- 
ing ; this should be spread over the sui-face as thinly 
as possible, and when this is done, covered with a 
very slight sprinkling of silver sand. The pots or 
pans can then be placed on a shady shelf in a green- 
house, or for the matter of that in a cold pit, and if a 
piece of glass is placed over each, and the tiny seeds 
shaded from the sim, the surface will be kept cool and 
moist, and germination greatly assisted. As soon as 
the tiay plants appear above the soil, which -will be 
in a short space of time, a little ak should be given, 
and the plants encom^aged to grow as strong as pos- 
sible. But they should not be allowed to become 
very wet nor very di'y. As soon as large enough to 
handle it is best to prick them off thinly into other 
well-di'ained pots of fine soil, as this not only 
encoui-ages the transplanted plants to grow on into 
size, but it gives more room for the remainder to 
develop. ' As soon as any of them are large enough, 
they should be potted singly into small pots, placed 
in a cold frame, shaded fi'om the sim, kept moist 
and growing, have plenty of air, and be shifted into 
larger pots as requii^ed. No shifts should be given 
between November and February, as dui'ing mid- 
winter they do not make roots, and the plants T\-inter 
best when the roots touch the sides of the pots in 
which they are groTs-ing. The best place for the 
plants dm-ing the winter is a frame heated with hot 
water in case of severe frosts or very damp weather ; 
but failing this, they will winter in an ordi- 
nary green-house if not kept too close in mild 
weather ; and should it be unusually mild, the plants 
might be safely wintered in a cold frame ; but the 
great thing is to guard against injm-y from damp. 
Some of the most successful cultivators of the 
Calceolaria keep their plants duiing mid- winter in a 
temperatm-e not higher than 50", and not lower than 
35", they are kept as much as possible from harm 
thi'ough damp, and every precaution is taken to keep 
them free fi^om the ravages of green-fly. In order to 
do this, they fumigate the plants with tobacco-smoke 
once a fortnight ; but others manage to keep the fly 
at a distance by means of less frequent smokings, and 
even "u-ith none at all. It is on the under sides of 
the thick downy leaves that the insects gather, and 
if there are no fumigations the under sides of the 
leaves -hould be examined at times, and any insects 
brushed away by using an artist's brush. If only 
a good, free, healthy growth can be secm^ed, a satis- 
factory head of bloom will be certaia to follow. 



But from fiist to last this healthy development of 
foliage will depend, to a large extent, on gi\'ing air 
fi-eely, but not when cold frosty winds are blowing, 
and especially so when there is a danger of their 
blowing directly on the plants. Should frosts come 
on suddenly in the night and affect the plants, they 
should be covered up for a day or two, and kept quite 
close and dark ; the resiilt will he that when un- 
covered and exposed to the light they will be found 
to have taken very little harm indeed. But it is 
best not to subject them to frost if it can he avoided. 

But Httle training is necessary in the case of well- 
grown plants of Calceolarias. "VMicn the flower- 
stems appear, a few slight stakes may be necessary 
to keep them erect and neatly displayed; and no 
further shifts should be given after the flower- 
stems have begun to develop. But the pots will 
be full of roots, and the plants must be kept well 
watered, and a little weak manure-water may be 
given once or twice a week with great advantage. 
But as it is quite out of the power of some amateurs 
to provide themselves vrith. liquid manm-e, we can 
confidently recommend the use instead of " Clay's 
Fertilizer," a patent manure of great value, which is 
sold in small quantities in canisters. All that is re- 
quired is that a little of the manure be sjDrinkled over 
the surface of the soil, and washed into it when water 
is applied. 

It is when the amateur gardener places his Calceo- 
larias in his house of mixed plants that they fi-e- 
quently show decided and rapid signs of deteriora- 
tion. They will not stand exposure to hot sunshine 
as well as Pelargoniums, Fuchsias, and other things 
of similar character. These can he occasionally 
sjTinged overhead with water "without doing much 
hann to the flowers, and if they become a little 
disfigured, others are soon produced to take their 
place. It is not so with the Calceolaria ; for its 
blossoms are produced at one effort and not succes- 
sionally, and if water is allowed to rest upon the 
flowers they soon rot. The pots being ftdl of roots, 
the soil soon di'ies, unless they are very closely 
looked after, and no other plant displays the 
deteriorating effect of drought at the roots as does 
the Calceolaria. It is much the best to grow the 
plants in a house by themselves, the roof of which 
can be shaded in some way, and when this can he 
done Calceolarias are not only much more effective, 
but more lasting also. If kept cool, and moist at the 
roots, the plants remain in full beauty for a long 
time, pro%-ided the decapng flowei's be picked off as 
soon as they fade. 

The cultivator should be careful to save a little 
seed from the very best varieties, and sow it as di- 
rected as soon as ripe, if he can obtain it, by the 
month of July. But he should not save merely 



f^LOEISTS' TLOWEES. 



253 



from tlie largest flowers, but from sucii as are finely 
marked, of good size, and symmetrical in form, 
combined with, a good babit of growth. If his strain 
happens to be of indifferent quality, he should 
obtain seed of a good one fi-om some reliable seeds- 
man. Xo list of varieties can be given, because the 



as soon as the young plants are established, the 
shoots should be stojjped, i.e., pinched back; the 
result is that they break out into lateral growth's, and 
by tjing out these shoots, fine specimen plants are 
secured. The principal growth of the plants will be 
made after Christmas. The general treatment is 




Calceolaeias. 



practice of naming fine varieties is no longer fol- 
lowed. 

Tlegarding the Shrubby Calceolarias, a few varieties 
of which can still be obtained, it may be remarked 
that they very seldom furnish seeds, and have to be 
propagated by means of cuttings. Growing young 
shoots strike freely towards the end of the siraimer, 
when the sxm's heat is on the decline. The cuttinc-s 
can be put in. pots of sandy soil, and placed in a cold 
frame, and when they are struck they require to be 
pott ed off singly into pots, returned to the frame, and 



the same as that recommended for the Herbaceous 

Calceolarias, but they will bear a gi-eater amount of 

exposure, being of more robust constitution. 

The following varieties are now cultivated : — 

Golden Gem. | Sparkler. 

General Havelock. | . B' rbid^ei 

Invincible. i Vicroria. 

Tlie Beddino- Calceolarias are treated of under the 

head of " Bedding Plants." 

The Chrysanthemum. — This name is derived 
from chrysos, gold, and anthos, a flower. Tae 



254 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



Chrysanthemum is the favourite autumn flower of 
this country ; it is nearly as popular as the Rose, and 
like the Rose, it can he grown and enjoyed without 
the employment of glass structures, though these are 
of great service in prolonging the beauty of the 
flowers, that would otherwise he marred, if not 
altogether spoiled, by the rains and frosts of autumn. 
Indeed, such improvements have been made in the 
Chrysanthemum of late, that we have now very 
early-flowering and very late-flowering varieties, and 
now large quantities of blooms of Chrysanthemums 
are had under glass as late as the months of January 
and February. 

The remarkable large-flowered varieties of the 
Chrysanthemum at present in cultivation have been 
obtained from C. sinense, a native of China. C. sinense 
was introduced to the gardens of Europe about 1764, 
and, as far as can be ascertained, the flowers of the 
first introduction were rosy-purple in colour. It 
has been greatly improved by the English and Con- 
tinental florists, and at the present day there are 
in cultivation varieties so fine that it seems difiicult 
to imagine they can be materially improved. The 
pretty Pompon varieties, with their small neat 
flowers produced in such plenty, were obtained from 
the Chusan Daisy, sent home by the late Mr. Robert 
Fortune, from China, in 1846. The Continental 
florists -were foremost in improving this interesting 
little flower ; and from its being single, and like a 
common Daisy in appearance, it has been improved 
so successfully, that the flowers have become fully 
double and singularly handsome. The Continental 
florists have always enjoyed one great advantage 
over their brethren in England — that their climate 
is much more favourable to the production and 
ripening of seed than is our own. The late Mr. 
John Salter, who raised many very fine large- 
flowering Chrysanthemums from seed, used to send 
plants to the South of France in order to insure a 
supply of seed. The singular and fantastic Japa- 
nese Chrysanthemums were also obtained from plants 
sent home from Japanese gardens by Mr, Fortune 
some twenty years or so ago , since then the 
varieties have increased with wonderful rapidity, 
and of all shapes and colours. Their grotesque 
flowers are very striking. Formerly they used to 
flower later than the ordinary large-flowered Chry- 
santhemums, but now many early-flowering varie- 
ties have been introduced, and they can be had in 
flower now for something like six months in the 
year ; while they are largely grown for exhibition 
purposes. 

We are now dealing with the culture of the 
Chrysanthemum in pots, and as this system is at 
present generally followed it may be regarded as 
the popular mode of growing this plant. Those who 



grow Chrysanthemums for their flowers alone, aim 
at cultivating good specimens, and it is our pur- 
pose to set forth how this can best be done. To 
commence, it is important that, in the choice of 
varieties for specimens, great care should be taken 
to select only those varieties possessing the following 
qualities, viz., free blooming, clear and distinct 
colours, fine foliage, and graceful habit. There are 
now so many varieties possessing these character- 
istics, that no difficulty need be experienced in 
obtaining them. 

Specimen plants should be raised every year from 
cuttings or suckers, but it is only in the case of a 
few varieties that are shy in producing cutting- 
wood that it is necessary to resort to suckers. And, 
as there is nothing like a good start, cuttings should 
be inserted in autumn or winter, as soon as they can 
be procured. Young wood from which cuttings can 
be obtained is thrown out from the base of the main 
stem of the plants in autumn and spring. Suckers 
are growths sent up through the soil from the roots. 
If a bed of light sandy soil be made up in a cold 
frame, cuttings will soon strike root in it ; or if put 
into pots, singly or otherwise ; or if it be required 
that they root quickly, in a gentle hot-bed. As soon 
as the cuttings are rooted they should be potted i^to 
small pots and grown into size, but taking care that 
the plants do not become drawn, and so spindly and 
thin, wanting in robustness. As soon as the plants' 
are well established in three or four-inch pots, and 
have made three or four sets of leaves, the points 
should be pinched out ; this is what is known as 

stopping." This does not prevent the plant from 
lengthening, and it also encourages the growth of 
lateral shoots, five or six of these being necessary to 
form a good specimen. These, as they increase in 
length, should be pegged or tied down to the pots so 
as to form a good bottom or framework, and the 
plants need to be shifted into larger pots as re- 
quired ; and there should be no check either for 
want of root-room, or moisture at the roots. About 
the last week in June the plants should be shifted 
into their blooming-pots, and for larger specimens 
these should be fully eleven inches in diameter. It 
need, perhaps, scarcely be stated that robust-growing 
Chrysanthemums require larger pots than do spare- 
growing varieties, and as the plants increase in size 
previous to being placed in their blooming-pots, the 
soil should be made richer. In the earlier stages of 
growth it is customary to use a compost made up of 
sweet loam or rotten turf one part, leaf-mould one 
part, and clean coarse sand one part. Later on, the 
compost should be enriched by using rotten dung in 
the place of leaf-mould, and it is of advantage to put 
a pound of bone-dust to every bushel of soil. Some 
lime rubbish — that is, old mortar from buildings, 



FLORISTS' FLOWERS. 



255 



"broken up small and the dust sifted from it — is useful 
as tending to make the soil porous and keeping it 
sweet. Failing this, coarse river sand or silver sand 
can be employed. 

Yv^hen the plants are finally placed in the flowering- 
pots, they should be stood out of doors in the open, 
fully exposed to the sun and air, and they do best 
when placed in lines with an opening between each. 
A bed of cinder-ashes makes the best bottom to stand 
the plants on, or they can be stood in shallow 
saucers of water ; the latter plan has many ad- 
vantages, as it prevents the roots from penetrating 
the soil, and saves watering, as no amount of water 
in the saucers will harm the roots, provided it be not 
raised above the level of the drainage in the pots. 
It also prevents worms from entering the pots. 
The best drainage for the pots is a good-sized oyster- 
shell at the bottom, then an inch of broken jDotsherds, 
and over this a layer of lime rubbish. 

As most specimen plants require a centre stake to 
support them, this should be placed at the time of 
potting, and by fastening the main stem to this, the 
plants are kept from being blown about by the wind. 
During July and August strict attention must be 
paid to watering, and if a layer of soot be placed 
over the surface of the pots, and watered into the 
soil, it will greatly assist to keep the foliage in fine 
condition, and retain the leaves. ]\Iany amateur 
cultivators are frequently much concerned by reason 
of their plants losing their leaves — a condition com- 
mon to the Chrysanthemums ; and it is only by high 
cultivation, and constant attention to watering, that 
the foliage can be retained. Stopping must be 
done as required, but a plant should never be re- 
potted and stopped at the same time. It is very 
difficult indeed to lay down anything like general 
rules for stopping, sis so much depends upon the 
variety. It is a matter depending a great deal on 
experience. During August the leading shoots 
require regulating, and the lower ones should be 
kept as near the pot as possible. About the middle 
of September the plants should be trained to the 
requisite shape by placing a stake to each leading 
shoot, leaving the stake longer than the shoot, as it 
continues to lengthen until it comes into flower. As 
soon as the flower -buds appear, some disbudding 
will be necessary. This is done by remo\'ing all 
buds except the one in the centre of each branch, 
for if the plant be vigorous, these will be quite 
enough to insure a fine head of bloom. But if 
a quantity of bloom is preferred to large flowers, 
little, if any, disbudding need be done. The plants 
should be housed about the middle of October, but 
much depends on the character of the weather. 
They are better outside so long as the weather is 
open and the buds do not show colour ; the foliage 



also remains in better condition in the open air. 
When housed, fire-heat should be given onlv wnen 
absolutely necessary, but the plants should have as 
much air as possible. When the plants have gone 
out of flower, they should be placed on one side, but 
looked after in order to furnish young wood for 
cuttings. 

It may be that some of our readers have a desire 
to grow a few cut blooms of Chrysanthemums for 
exhibition, seeing how many Chrysanthemum shows 
are held now-a-days. It is a very pleasant occupation, 
and a most agreeable recreation. Now, in order to 
have a few fine blooms, the late Mr. Samuel Broome, 
of the Middle Temple, recommended that cnttings be 
taken in the beginning of November from the suckers, 
or from the laterals of the flow^ering stems. These 
should be rooted in small pots, and placed in a cold 
frame for protection through the winter ; shifted as 
soon as the roots are fairly formed into larger pots, 
say eight or ten inches in diameter, drained with 
potsherds or broken oyster-shells. Care should be 
taken not to allow the fibrous roots to rise round the 
pots too much before shifting, as this injures the 
plants, and thus progress will be materially retarded 
if they are not re -potted at the proper time ; more- 
over, the fibres must be as little disarranged as pos- 
sible in the operation. 

In April and IMay a south aspect is desirable for 
the plants, but from the middle of June to the middle 
of August they should be removed to a shady spot, 
where they will only get the morning sun until 
eleven or twelve o'clock. Manure-water of a weak, 
cooling nature may be used in the former months, 
but its strength should be afterwards increased until 
the flower-bud begins to give indications of colour ; 
in no case, however, should it be given until the 
plant has been soaked with clear water. When the 
crown of the plant divides itself, remove all lateral 
growths ; and when the flower-buds are well grown, 
disbud or cut out aU but the most shining, leaving 
but one to each stem. Should any of the blooms, on 
breaking, show an eye, it is a sign that the plant has 
been overdone with kindness. If the early blooms 
are too soon for any that may be later in flowering, 
and it is desirable to retain the former for exhibition 
purposes, they may be retarded for a week or nine 
days, and their back petals be preserved from decay, 
by gathering them into a ball and tying them up 
with some wadding, and then putting them into a 
bag made up like a sugar-paper. Another plan is to 
pass the bloom through a flower-pot, of which the 
bottom has been previously chipped out, and to cover 
it with a piece of glass. This has the effect of not 
only preserving the back petals, but of bringing the 
centre ones up to the light. In fact, it will make an 
incurved flower of a reflexed one. 



256 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



There is such a thing as " dressing " flowers, in and they can be removed to prevent a little undue 

oraer that all incurved Chrysanthemums should be roughness in appearance. Nothing must be added to 

presented as even and regular in shape and size as the flowers; but superfluous and injured or imper- 

possible. Such finely-shaped flowers as Mrs. Geo. feet petals may be removed. 




Pompon (Mo-lel of Perfection). 
Incurved (Mrs. Geo. Kundle). Japanese Incurved (Lord Beaconsfield). 

Chrtsaisthemums. 



Rundle do not require any dressing, but in others 
there may be some deformity of petal, or they may 
be a little irregular, and the tweezers soon make it 
riiiht when used by a practised hand. It sometimes 
happens that more petals are produced than required, 



The Pompon or small-flowered Chrysanthemums 
are cultivated in much the same way as the large- 
flowered Yarieties, but it is not necessary that dis- 
budding be carried on to the same extent. The 
Pompon varieties are often grown as standards, and 



FLOEISTS' FLOWEES. 



257 



with great success, and tlie large-flowering varieties to get as many l)reaks as possible from the first 
oan be grown as standards also if only the proper stopping to form the head. All side shoots must he 
varieties be selected. To foiin standards ^-igo^ous plucked off. A small framework of lathSj erected 




Single i^ilrs. Kellock). Pompon Fimbriated (Maraboiit). Japanese Eeflesed (Mons. Ardene). 



CHETSANTHEMUirS. 



autiman cuttings or rooted suckers should be selected, 
potting them and shifting as reqidred, and staking 
the plant to the height it is desired the plant should 
reach — about two feet six inches. After the plants 
have reached a little beyond the required height, they 
need to be stopped, and the gi-ower should endeavour 

17 



under the head, is the handiest for training them 
on. Early-flowering varieties should be grown as 
standards, because they can be stopped a fortnight 
later than the others, which is necessary in order 
to obtain a good head. 

The treatment of the Japanese varieties is similar 



2.68 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



to that recommended for the large-flowering Chry- 
santhemums, modified in a few particulars by ex- 
perience, and it also holds good of the large Anemone- 
liowered varieties. 

The small Anemone-flowered varieties should he 
treated in the same way as the Pompon varieties. 

There is a group of early-flowering Chrysan- 
themums which is being increased yearly, because 
they are found so useful. For pot-cultm-e, these 
may be struck at almost any time, but cuttings 
raised between October and March as a rule give the 
finest blooms. Those struck in October mostly 
bloom in May and June ; those in February and 
March bloom in July and August ; and the plants 
should be stopped only once. For planting out in 
beds, where they are very serviceable, cuttings need 
not be struck until the end of February, and even 
up to the end of March, and they will all bloom w^ell 
from July to September; and the semi-early varieties 
from September to the end of October, when the 
late varieties open their flowers. This is a very 
useful section indeed. 

Also single varieties of the Chrysanthemum are 
taking a place among the cultivated kinds. They 
differ from the Anemone-flowered varieties in that, 
instead of having a disc of tubular florets, as in the 
case of the latter, they have a disc like that of the 
single Dahlia. They will no doubt be imj)roved 
in size, and especially in colour', the last requisite 
being essentially necessary. 

Green- fly is very apt to lodge in the centres of the 
young shoots of all Chrysanthemums. The best 
remedy is a little tobacco powder, carefully dusted 
over the affected parts. Mildew is best grappled 
with by dusting sulphur lightly over the leaves. 

The following is a selection of large-flowered in- 
curved Chrysanthemums :— 



Alfred Salter. 

Barbara. 

Beverley. 

Bronze Queeu of England. 

Emily Dale. 

Empress of India. 

Enamel. 

George Glenny. 

Golden Beverley. 

Golden Empress of India. 

Hero of Stoke Newmgton. 

Jardin des Plantes. 

Jeanne d'Arc. 

John Salter. 

Lady Hardinge, 

Lord Alcester. 

Lord Everslejr. 

Lord Wolseley. 



Mr. Bunn. 

]Vlr. Corbay. 

Mrs. Dixon. 

Mrs. George Eundle. 

Mrs. Heale. 

Mrs. Norman Davis. 

Nil Desperandum. 

Prince Alfred. 

Prince of Wales. 

Princess Beatrice. 

Princess of Wales. 

Princess Teck. 

Queen of England. 

Kefulgence. 

Sir Stafford Carey. 

Venus. 

White Globe. 

White Venus. 



The following are reflexed large-flowered Chry- 
santhemums :~ 



Amy Furze. 
Annie Salter. 
Chevalier Domage. 
Christine and its \ arieties. 
Cloth of Gold. 
CuUingfordii. 



! Dr. Sharpe. 
Felicity. 

King of Crimsons. 
Mr. Forsytli. 
Phidias. 
Violet Unique. 



The following list of Japanese Chrysanthemums 
is especially recommended for exhibition purposes : — 

Balmoreau. 
Baronne de Frailly. 
Belle Paule. 
Boquet Fait. 
Boule d'Or. 
Carew Underwood. 
Comte de Germiny. 
Duchess of Albany. 
Edwin Molyneux. 
Elaine. 

Fair Maid of Guernsey. 
Fanny Boucharlot. 
Grandiflora. 
Hiver Fleuri. 
Japoiiais. 
J. Delaux. 
L'Adorable. 
Lady Trevor Laurence. 
La Triomphante. 

The following are excellent decorative varieties of 
the JajDanese section : — 



Mad. Clemence Audiguier. 

Maiden's Blush. 

Marguerite Marrouch. 

Mdlle. Paule Dutour. 

Mdlle. Lacroix. 

Meg Merrihes. 

Miss Stevens. 

Mons. Ardene. 

Mons. Astorg. 

Mons. Garner.' 

Mons. J. H. Laing. 

Mons. Tarin. 

Mons. William Holmes. 

Mr. H. Cannell. 

Mrs. H. Cannell. 

Ralph Brocklebank. 

Thunberg. 

Val dAudorre. 



Arlequin. 

Beaute de Toulose. 
Bertier Eendatler. 
Blanche Neige. 
Coeur Fidele. 
Constance. 
Dr. Masters. 
Etoile du Midi. 
Fulton. 
Hiver Fleuri. 
He Japonaise. 



James Salter. 
^ a Charmeuse. 
Lady Selborne. 
Margot. 

Martha Harding. 
Mons. Brunet. 
Peter the Great. 
Ked Dragon. 
Sarina. 

Soleil Levant. 
Source d'Or. 



A selection of Pompon Chrysanthemums : 



Adele Prisette. 
Antonious. 
Aurore Boreale. 
Bobs. 

Cedo Nulli and its varieties. 

Dick Turpin. 

Elenore. 

Fanny. 

Golden Madame Marthe. 
La Vogue. 
Madame Montels. 
Marabout. 

Mdlle. Elise Dordan. 



Early - flowering 
varieties : — 



Mdlle. Martha. 
Miss Wheeler. 
Mr. Astie. 
Mrs. Bateman. 
Nellie Eainford. 
President. 
Prince of Orange. 
Prince Victor. 
Eose d' Amour. 
Eosinante. 
Souvenir de Jersey. 
St. Michael. 
St. Thais. 



Bouquet Estival. 

Ete Fleuri. 

Felicite. 

Feu de Bengale. 

G. Werring. 

Isidore Feral. 



Chi-y santhemums : Japanese 



Madame C. Desgrange. 
Mandarin. 

M. Pynaert van Geert. 
Eoi des Precoces. 
Sunon Delaux. 



Early-flowering Pompon Chrysanthemums : — 



Anastasio. 
Curiosity. 
Early Blush. 
Frederic Marronet. 
Hippolyte Jamain. 
Le Petite Mnrie. 
Madame Jolivart. 



Madeline Davis. 
Mr. W. Piercy. 
Nanum. 
Precocite. 

Souvenir de M. Eampont. 
St. Crouts. 
St. Mary. 



GARDEN WALKS AND EOADS. 



LINES OF BEAUTY IN ROADS AND WALKS. 

IN the olden times the shortest route between two 
places — if at all practicable — was chosen as the 
best. Hence the old Roman roads were generally 



GARDEN WALKS AND EOADS. 



straight, and there are facts and traditions referring 
tc their proceeding in direct lines from Kome to 
London and most of the other provinces of that vast 
empire. 

The same principle was exhibited in most of the 
older carriage-roads — straight lines from the nearest 
highway to the mansion ; and these, overshadowed 
by over-arching trees, were the rule. Hence the 
origin of the avenue, with all its arboreal magnifi- 
cence and simple gran- 
deur, some grand relics 
of which may yet be 
found. But they were 
well - nigh imiversal 
imtil Capability Brown 
laid his .heavy and 
isharp axe to their roots 
during a period of wild 
and unreasoning re- 
action from the stiff 
and formal into mean- 
dering lines of beauty. 
Curved lines carried 
fashion and society so 
thoroughly with them, 
that grand avenues 
which had stood for 
centuries were levelled 
with as little compunc- 
tion as if they had been 
the mere upshoots of 
yesterday. 

But this is not the 
place to discuss the in- 
fluence of fashion on 
the art of road-makiug. 
No sooner, however, 
was the straight — that 
is, the shortest — route 
abandoned for the 
curved, than the dan- 
gers and difficulties of 
road-making vastly in- 
creased. Almost any one could design or choose the 
hest straight line between two objects — the entrance- 
lodge and house or mansion — but once deviate from 
this, and to many it would immediately seem that 
some rejected line was as good as the selected, or 
better ; and no doubt it often is so. 

Laying Out. — Taste is capricious, but not des- 
potic, and were its laws more generally under- 
stood, possibly it would no longer be felt to deserve 
its character oven for caprice. Be that as it may, 
there are certain general principles that apply to the 
lines of carriage-roads, and the nearer they approach 



Fig. 

Carriage Entrances. 



to these the more satisfactory and pleasant they will 
be found. The first of these principles is that the 
road, at all points of its course, should be obviously a 
road to the house. There could be no mistake about 
this when the roads were straight, as they mostly 
ended in front of the maD.sion or house, and had the 
latter for their chief centre and ornament along a 
great portion of their- coiu'se ; but with curved lines 
comes a certain amount of freedom which may easily 
run into licence, and 
it needs much art of 
the highest character to 
distinguish large, easy, 
natural, and necessary 
curves, and small, mean- 
inglesss, and offensive 
bends for the sake of 
winding. Fiu"ther, the 
line shoidd never seem 
to lead away from the 
house. This is among 
the most trying and 
frequent faults of 
many carriage - roads. 
Glimpses of the house 
are seen, and the road 
seems making straight 
for it, when suddenly 
it bends off into a pro- 
voking divergence al- 
most in an oj)j)osite 
direction. So obnoxious 
and provoking are such 
lines, that pedestrians 
mostly quit the road 
and take a short cut 
across the grass, to the 
disfigurement of the 
latter, and as a natural 
and emphatic protest 
against capricious, and 
consequently false, lines 
of beauty. 

Some object to curved lines in toto, because they 
add to the length of the road ; but if properly 
graduated, the additional length is far less than is 
generally supposed, as it has been calculated that 
were a straight road ten miles long so much curved 
that not more than a quarter of a mile could be seen 
from any one point, it would not be lengthened in the 
process more than a quarter of a mile. And every 
reader will admit that the improvement and addi- 
tional pleasure to equestrians and pedestrians alike 
would be well worth this trifling addition to its 
length. A great mistake is often committed in the 
carrying of approach-roads too near to the boundaiy 




260 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENIXG. 



line of a demesne, either for the sake of adding- to 
its length, or for giving it bolder and more numerous 
curves. Though the concealment of boundary lines 
is often carried to ludicrous extreir.es, yet that does 
not make their obtrusion less offensive to propriety 
and good taste. 

The opposite evil is even moie common — that of 
carrying a meandering line of caxTiage-road through 
the middle of a comparatively small park, and by 
such means reducing it to meanness or insig-nifi- 
cance. In cases where it seems desirable to deviate 
from what would ob\'iously prove on the whole the 
nearest way to the house, either natural or artificial 
obstacles — the latter being made so like nature as to 
be mistaken for such — should intervene to compel 
the deviation. To manage these with judgment 
and effect are among the most difficult efforts, and, 
when successful, are reckoned amongst the highest 
triumphs of landscape gardening. 

Entrance. — ^The line of carriage-road at its point 
of divergence from the public road is also of the 
utmost importance. Where a demesne is of couv 
siderable size and the choice considerable, it should 
never, if it can possibly be avoided, diverge from the 
highway at right angles. By taking advantage of 
bends in the highway or byway, it is generally prac- 
ticable to diverge so easily and naturally as to make 
the carriage-way apjDcar, as it were, a continuation of 
a part or the whole of the main road. This imparts 
great dignity and importance to a house at a very 
trifling cost, and may often be managed without 
adding seriously to the length of the carriage-road. 
In cases where the carriage-road jDroceeds for any 
distance almost parallel with the public road, it is 
very important that the one should be hidden from 
the other, as it would generally be considered vulgar 
taste and a mere ostentatious assumption of an 
unreal extent of property to lengthen the carriage- 
way beyond what was needed to afford an e.asy and 
commanding entrance from the public highway. 

In Fig. 7 the carriage-road is in effect a continua- 
tion of the public highway on its main line ; but, of 
course, on coming from the right at A, a sharp bend 
would occur in making for the carriage entrance. 
This might have been avoided by throwing the lodge 
further back, and carrying the road round a gentle 
curve from a to b. As a rule, however, carriage 
entrances planned as in Fig. 7 answer all practical 
pm^poses well, the public road, a, being but little 
used. In cases where there is much traffic in that 
direction, it is common to have a second carriage- 
road join the public road at some distance beyond the 
house, thus rendering access to the house of equal 
importance from all points. 

In Fig. 8; liowever, it will bs seen that the peculiar 



bends m the public highway — and these can be 
generally found or readily made at a trifling expense 
— are of such a character that the cari'iage-road is 
equally commanding whether entered from a or b. 
Few things add more to the pleasure and safety of 
carriage-roads than such easy and commanding lines 
of egress and access. 

The efi^ect of avenues is also at times greatly 
augmented by taking advantage of straight pieces of 
highway running in the same direction, which at a 
distance gives all the practical and perspective effects 
of a continuation of the avenue. As straight roads 
are, however, rather rare, it is comparatively seldom 
that these can be utilised by the carriage-road de- 
signer, whereas handy curves, semi-natural-looking 
bends, can mostly be found if looked for, or easily 
made by very slight diversions or widenings of 
jDublic highways in proximity to carriage entrances. 

Finally, the house should not be seen too far off, 
nor often lost sight of after being seen ; or a sense of 
weariness and of uimecessary length for length's 
sake are apt to be engendered that are anything but 
pleasant first impressions of a demesne. On nearing 
the house the road may api^roach and, as it were, bear 
down upon it at right angles, or enter the carriage 
front on one side. The first is generally chosen for 
avenues or carriage-drives that start at right angles 
from the mansion and proceed straight from it foi- 
some distance; the second for those that wind or 
bend almost immediately they leave the house. 

Furnishing the Sides of Roads — Avenues. 

— The use of trees for this piu'pose is probably as 
old as the art of road-making. It is not unlikely 
that the planting of single, double, or several rows 
of trees to fuimish shade and shelter and define 
boundaries preceded the making of roads, and, by 
concentrating traffic, rendered the making of roads 
needful. Be that as it may, avenues of trees on 
either side of roads were at one time almost 
universal. These were mostly formed of single rows 
on either side, but often double, and sometimes 
three or more rows were used. A double row on. 
either side added a greater wealth of arboreal 
grandeur to the road, and also furnished space for a 
most enjoyable foot-path between the rows. There 
are few more suitable or imposing modes of furnish- 
ing the sides of the highways or of private roads 
than by planting them with suitable trees at proper 
distances. 

Among these the Plane, Lime, Beech, Sycamore, 
Oak, Elm, Poplar, Spanish and Horse-chestnut, Birch, 
and in damp situations the Alder, are the more suit- 
able ; the wild Pear and Cherry, the Walnut, the 
stronger-growing Apples and Pears, the Mock Acacia, 
and other trees, would also make effective avenues. 



GARDEX WALKS AND RCADS. 



261 



Fashion in trees has so greatly changed within 
the last few years, that deciduous avenues have been 
greatly threatened by evergreen ones. The rage for 
coniferous plants has been so great that it has found 
an outlet in avenues, and hence one often meets with 
lines of Wellingtonias, Araucarias, and the finer 
Silver and other Firs, the majority of which impart 
but slight shade or beauty to the roadway, and do 
less in their serried lines of unequal stature to 
recommend themselves as avenue trees. Where an 
evergreen avenue is wanted, there are few trees to 
equal the Douglas and common Spruce, the common 
Scotch and Silver Firs, and the Cedar of Lebanon 
and Atlantic varieties 
of the same, for form- ., -^^ 

ing it. Marshalled " - ■ 

lines of Scotch Firs, ^ , 

with their ruddy stems 
and dark, almost black, 
massive tops, are sim- 
ply magnificent; and 
the Silver Fir, from its 
free growth, its semi- 
glaucous hue, and its 
clear fine boles, is even 
more effective. 

Width, of Ave- 
nues. — This will, of 
course, vary consider- 
ably, according to the 
character of tree em- 
ployed and the vital 
difference between 
mere lines of trees on 
either side of the road, 
and avenues over which, 
the trees are to form 

an arch. Hence, the distance may vary from thirty 
or forty feet in the case of Limes, to a hundred or 
a hundred and forty feet in the case of Cedars of 
Lebanon. 

Then again, there are Poplars and Poplars, Elms 
and Elms, and so of other species in general. The 
upright pillar or pyramidal Lombardy Poplar might 
be planted much more closely than the Populus alba, 
P. monilifera, or P. Canadensis nova. The former shoots 
up like a spire or the pji-amidal Cypress ; the others 
spread out broad and wide, as an umbrageous Oak, 
Elm, or Horse-chestnut. The distance must vary 
with the trees employed ; the distance from tree to 
tree in the row is a matter of far less moment, as 
in aA'enue-planting* the effect in line or mass, and 
not of individual trees, is the one thing desired. 
When two or more lines are used on either side, 
these may be planted so closely as four feet, or as 




Fig. 9.— Avenue of Sycamores 



distant as forty; the closer almost the sooner will 
the avenue be formed. 

The former are generally the more effective, but 
sometimes the latter may be adopted with excellent 
effect ; and as far as the road view and effect are 
concerned there is but little difference; but the 
outside outline of the avenue may be thus infinitely 
varied, here narrowing into a mere line or double 
line, and there swelling out into a mass or clump 
of trees, thus seeming all the solid advantages of 
avenues, and at the same time most of the charms 
of supporting roads with detached clumps or plan- 
tations of suitable trees. 

rringing with 
Belts or Clumps 
of Trees.— As first 
impressions are said to 
be the most durable, it 
is well that approach 
and other roads to a 
demesne should be 
made as jDleasant and 
fringed with as much 
beauty as may be. 
This, however, must 
never be carried so far 
as to leave little more 
to be revealed in 
garden or pleasure- 
grounds; but a great 
variety of arboreal and 
shrub beauty may be 
displayed on the sides 
of ^the carriage- cMve 
without any danger of 
such a disappointing 
sequel. 

Laburnums, Thorns, 
double-flowering Cherries, evergreen Oaks, the flower- 
ing Ash, the smaller Acacias, common Golden and 
Silver Yews, Sumachs, Berberries, Guelder Eoses, 
Syringas, Lilacs, Spireas, Hollies, Laurels, Kalmias, 
Azaleas, Rhododendrons, Heaths, Laurestinus, Sweet 
Bays, furnish almost a prodigality of material for 
these purposes. 

Edgings to Hoads, — As to these, grass is the 
most natural and best edging for carriage and all 
other roads; it should never exceed an inch and a 
half or at most two inches in depth. Yriiere shade, 
such as passing through thick woods, kills the 
grass, Ivy, Periwinkle, St. John's Wort, or other 
plants, may be substituted. Xeither need the grass, 
unless in the case of avenues, be of one uniform 
width. On the contrary, here the shrubs or the 
trees might advance almost to the gravel, and there 




262 



CASSELL'S POPULAH GAEDENINa. 



recede to any desired distance ; a single tree or 
group of shrubs being occasionally introduced to 
give force and meaning to the retreat of the turf. 

Some of the most delightful carriage-roads in the 
country are those that are supported — or rather, 
illuminated when the plants are in bloom — with 
rhododendrons chiefly or only ; thousands and tens 
of thousands of these plants are employed to advance 
and rest on the turf or 
gravel at one side, and 
rise up boldly and meet 
and mingle with the trees 
oa the other. 

Garden Walks 

The same general jarinci- 
ples apply to these as to 
roads; but as one of 
their chief uses is to pro- 
vide a pleasant prome- 
nade and furnish healthy 
exercise within 
one's own do- Fine View 
main, any reason- 
able extension of walks 
within the limits of good 
taste may be permitted. 
Still, mere meandering 
for the sake of lengthen- 
ing must not be indulged 
in. One of the most 
striking examples of this 
fault ever seen by the 
writer was that of a 
zigzag walk carried 
through a belt of wood 
about fifty feet wide. 
The walk skirted both 
sides of the belt, and was 
so bent and curved that 
every now and again the 
two walks came within a 
few feet of each other. 

A definite and satisfactory meaning may mostly 
be given to the curves of walks by the opening out 
of distant views of the surrounding landscape, or 
posting objects of interest, such as a choice tree, or 
shrub, or group, a seat, arbour, or statue, at par- 
ticular points. By such means the course of the 
walk may be made to seem natural, and even neces- 
sary, and the most convenient. As a general rule, 
pleasure-ground walks are best curved ; the line 
of beauty seldom or never being a straight one. 
Hence, to give object and meaning to the curves 
becomes one of the first duties and the highest 
merits of the true landscape gardener. 




Pig'. 10.— Lines of Beauty. 



In Fig. 10 the primary object is to illustrate lines 
of beauty, and show what they are like to the un- 
initiated; the secondary purpose, so to dispose oii- 
ferent objects of interest as to make the lines chosen 
seem the most natural — almost, in fact, the only 
available ones. Hence, in proceeding from the house, 
which is in the direction of a, the fii'st curve in the 
walk is caused by the flower garden, that compels a 
slight divergence to the 
left. Proceeding a little 
further, a dense group of 
trees and shi'ubs blocks 
the way, and compels 
the walk to diverge to 
the right and the left. 
Choosing the right-hand 
path, it would scarcely 
be possible to choose a 
more graceful curve 
thi'ough a grass lawn to 
the collection of trees 
planted in the ai-boretum. 
The walk diverging to 
the right at this point 
leads to the dairy and 
home-farm. The sharp 
divergence here is ren- 
dered necessary by the 
summer-house that again 
blocks the way ; it com- 
mands a view of the 
walks, and the meadows 
and corn-fields on the 
other side of it. Of 
course, the summer-house 
might have been made 
the terminus of the walk. 
But it is generally un- 
satisfactory to be com- 
pelled to return on the 
f,ame walk, where the 
pleasure - grounds are 
sufiiciently large to atiord 
the means of returning by another. In this case, 
too, there are other reasons for turning to the left, -^t 
the summer-house — a fernery to ^isit, a rosary in the 
recess further on to enjoy, and a commanding view 
of fine landscape, &c., in the near foreground, with 
a meandering river coiling through verdant meads, 
like a silvery serpent, in the far distance. Thus the 
interest of the walk is sustained at all points, and 
the curves are so adjusted and worked in to surround- 
ing circumstances as to seem that they could hardly 
have been otherwise. The difference in walking on 
such walks, contrasted with the dreary monotony of 
taking constitutionals on straight lines or round 



GAKDEN WALKS AND EOADS, 



263 



ovals, circles, or meaningless curves, repeated ad 
nauseam^ must be tested by experience to be fully 
appreciated. 

Lines of Divergence. — This is a point of great 
importance. Unless in the case of straight walks, 
they should seldom diverge at an abrupt or straight 
angle, but rather glide 
softly and easily into one 
another. The primary 
idea of pleasure-ground 
walks should be that 
of leisurely enjoj-ment. 
Hence, all sudden and 
abrupt changes or turn- 
ings should be avoided. 
To diverge at right 
angles suggests a sum- 
mons to business, rather 
than a stroll for pleasure. 
Such sudden changes and 
abrupt turnings are quite 
in harmony with street 
traflSc and business pur- 
suits, but incongi'uous to 
garden pursuits and 
pleasures, and therefore 
out of place in pleasure- 
grounds. The illustra- 
tions show how they may 
generally be avoided. 

In Fig. 1 1 the divergence 
of the walk is forced by 
a dense group of Rhodo- 
dendi'ons. The same prin- 
ciple is exhibited in Fig. 
1 2, where a seat or fountain 
compels a turning of the 
walk to either side, or to 
both. The latter is gene- 
rally preferable and the 
more pleasant, and avoids 
any mental questionings 
as to why one side, and 
that probably considered 
the worst, should have 

been chosen rather than the other. By continuing 
the walk on both sides all this is avoided, more 
pleasure is realised, and ideas of larger extent con- 
veyed. In Fig. 11 the main walk is, as it were, 
continued almost straight, and the branch walk is 
narrower, and turns sharply to the left. As a rule, 
the system of nan-owing the walks at the point of 
divergence is not only a con^-enient one, but fui^- 
nishes as it were an additional reason why thej^ 
should diverge. Up to this point a main walk was 




Fig. 13. 

Lines of Divergence. 



needful for the common traffic. From here two or 
more points of interest of equal moment clairb. 
attention, and hence two or three narrower walks 
may suffice. There is one point in Fig. 1 1 that ma 5- 
be adverted to as a warning — the branch seems at 
starting as if it were about to rejoin the main walk. 
This shordd always be avoided, the walks diverging 
boldly, as in Fig. 12. Here 
the branches are little 
narrower than the main 
walk, and the two 
branches are assumed to 
be of equal importance 
from the seat or fountain 
onwards. It will be seen 
that they boldlj^ diverge 
fi'om each other, as if 
they never meant to meet 
again. All this is based 
on the soundest judgment 
and the truest taste. If 
walks seem at starting 
about to meet again, the 
question is sure to arise, 
Why part them? Of 
coui'se, in small gardens 
the curves, departui^es, 
re - meetings, and final 
coalescings of w^alks may 
all be seen, even from the 
starting-point. The small 
area renders this unavoid- 
able. But that cannot be 
offered as any excuse for 
not avoiding such faulty 
features in the disposition 
of roads or walks in gar- 
dens of larger area. 

Fig. 13 shows another 
and still more common 
mode of divergence. The 
two lines simply form an 
angle on the grass or 
gi'avel, and proceed on 
their allotted coui'se, either 
of equal or unequal size. 
In the figure the two walks are of the same breadth 
as the main walk. The divergence is also so man- 
aged that no one can tell whether the right or the 
left is the branch. In the plan they are both desig- 
nated "branch." They might, however, with equal 
propriety be termed mains, both walks in the illus- 
tration being of equal importance. In cases w^here 
it is otherwise, the angle of divergence should be so 
disposed as to continue the principal as the main, 
and show the smaller to be a branch or side walk. 



264 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



These illustrations have all heen confined to two 
walks. It is equally easy to show three or more 
proceeding from one point. The writer has seen 
even five, and in one instance eight. In the latter 
case, however, a fine group of sculpture formed a 
centre-piece, on which eight straight walks converged. 
Each of these was also terminated at the far end 



Privacy in Walks. — Roads running nearly 

abreast in one direction always suggest a waste of 
space, or of material, or of both. And it is just the 
same with two walks ; but in these another xital 
objection lies against their contiguity, that is, the 
destruction of their privacy. This is one of the chief 
charms of gardens or pleasure-grounds ; robbed of. 




ASPI-ENIUM INIDUS. 



xvith a vase or a pjTamidal tree. This was an 
example, however, of the convergence rather than 
the divergence of walks, and was by no means 
satisfactory. 

Five lines of divergence are several too many, 
four are fiiidom artistic and pleasing, and even 
three are apt to prove embarrassing, and to give 
rise to mental doubts and questionings, which 
somewhat mar the leisurely pleasure of walking 
in gardens. Two lines at one spot are on the 
whole in best taste, and hence none others are 
given here, though similar principles apply to the 
many as the few. 



their privacy, one might as well walk in the public 
streets as their pleasure-grounds. 

Hence, where the grounds are narrow, or where it 
is desirtible to go and return by different route?, 
the importance of carrying the walks by differing 
levels if practicable, or of so plantiag the grounds 
between as to hide the two walks from each other ; 
or a raised bank may be constructed, to be planted 
with thickly-growing shrubbery and a few trees, 
which will effect an entire separation of the two 
Vv'alks. By such means not only may more perfect 
privacy be obtained, but also the apparent extent of 
the grounds be very much enlaxged. 



FERNS, 



265 



FERNS, 

By James Britten, F-L.S. 



Asplenium. — The genus Asplenium, as under- 
stood by the authors of the Synopsis Filicum," the 
standard authority on ferns, is a very extensive one. 
In number of species it occupies the second place in 
iern genera, and includes plants from all parts of the 



horse-shoe-shaped, as in the section Athprkcm. As 
it would be impossible within the limits proposed for 
this work to mention very many of the species — a 
considerable number ot them not yet having found 
their way to cultivation in this country — a selection 
of the best and most distinct, from a garden point of 
view, is given under the different heads of Stove, 
Grreen-house. and Hardy. 





Asplenium Hemionitis. 



world where ferns grow. Within the limits of the 
genus every variety in size, in texture, and in the 
cutting of the frond is comprised, most of the species 
being evergreen, and a large proportion of them 
highly desirable and ornamental plants. At present 
the species formerly classed under the genera Tham- 
nopteris, Hemidictyiim, Anisogonium, Diplazium, 
Athyrium., and Darea, are included in Asplenium., 
which now numbers about 350 species. In the vast 
majority the veins are free, simple, or branched, and 
the sori are linear or linear-oblong, the involucre 
being the same shajje as the sorus. Now and then 
the sori are more or less curved ; sometimes, indeed. 



STOVE KBSTDS. 

A. alatum is a handsome species from the West 
Indies and tropical America; from a thick lieshy 
crown it produces an abundance of pleasing light 
green pinnate fronds, which gi'acef ully arch over, and 
render the plant a thoroughly suitable one for culti- 
vation in baskets. A. auritxim has also bright light 
green pinnate fronds, from a foot to a foot and a halt 
in length ; in addition to the countries given for the 
last-named species, this is also found in the Neil- 
gherries, in Bourbon, and in Madagascar. One of 
the most handsome and distinct of all the Aspleniums 
is A. Belangeri, fi-om the Malayan peninsula, Java. 



266 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



Sumatra, and Borneo. The deep green feathery 
bi-pinnate fronds, of a somewhat leathery texture, 
measure from one and a half to two feet in length, 
and bear a profusion of young plants — this viviparous 
character affording a ready means of increasing the 
stock of such a useful and elegant subject, 

A. bissecium hails from the West Indies and Ecuador ; 
it is of tufted habit, with pinnate fronds about two feet 
long, the firm, erect, chestnut-brown, nearly naked 
stipe measuring about four or six inches in length ; 
the frond is made up of twenty or thirty pairs of 
horizontal deeply-cut pinnce two or three inches 
long. A. caudatum has firm erect tufted stipes about 
foirr to six inches long, densely clothed with fine 
brown fibrillose scales ; the beautiful dark glossy 
green pinnate fronds, twelve to eighteen inches long 
by four to eight inches broad, are composed of twenty 
or thirty acuminated deeply- toothed pinnae on each 
side of the villose rachis ; this species has a very 
wide geographical distribution, being found in a wild 
state in Polynesia, Malaya, Australia, Hindostan, 
Comoros, Angola, Ecuador, and Brazil. A. cicutarium 
is a handsome species, with delicate green, feathery, 
tri -pinnate, shortly-stalked fronds, from six to eighteen 
inches in length, and four to six inches in breadth ; 
it is a native of tropical America, and is also found 
in Abyssinia, and on the Guinea coast. 

A. crenulatum, in common with A. lanceum, A. latifo- 
lium, A. Shepherdiia,nd.A. Thwaitesii, mentioned below, 
belongs to the section Diplazium, in which the veins 
are free, the sori and involucres extending to both sides 
of some of them. This species has an erect subarbo- 
rescent caudex, and firm, erect, slightly furfuraceous 
stipes, twelve to eighteen inches long; the fronds, 
with fifteen to twenty pinnae on each side below the 
pinnatifid apex, measure two to three feet long by 
nine to fifteen inches broad ; it is found in a wild 
state from Cuba and Mexico to Brazil and Ecuador. 
In A. dimorphum considerable differences in general 
appearance are exhibited between the barren and the 
fertile fronds, the former being bi-pinnate, with 
broad and somewhat toothed pinnules, and the 
latter tri-pinnate, with very finely-divided pinnules ; 
this is a noble species, with large, gracefully arching, 
shining dark green fronds, which, like those of A. 
Belangeri, previously mentioned, are very proliferous, 
and thus furnish a speedy method of propagation. 

A. lanceum has nearly entire, leathery, slightly 
undulated fronds, six to nine inches long by three- 
quarters to one inch broad, and slightly fibrillose 
stipes, four to six inches long ; it is a native of the- 
Himalayas, Ceylon, China, and Japan. A. laserpi- 
tifolium is a handsome, large-growing species, with 
fmely-cut fronds, some two to four feet long by six 
to eighteen inches broad, surmounting firm, erect, 
greyish, naked, tufted stipes, six to twelve inches 



in length ; this is found from the PoljTiesian 
Islands and North Australia, northward to Chusan 
and Assam. A. latifolium has an erect subarbores- 
cent caudex, and strong erect tufted stipes, a foot or 
more in length (clothed towards the base with nar- 
row dark brown scales), and thin pinnate fronds, 
two to three feet in length by nine to eighteen, 
inches in breadth ; in a wild state this occm-s in 
Ceylon, the Neilgherries, South China, and the 
Philippines. A. myrioplujllum is an exquisitely 
beautiful fern, with somewhat the aspect of A. cicu- 
tarium, but the fronds are a darker green, and more 
graceful and feathery in outline ; it is a native of 
tropical America. 

One of the most strikingly distinct, and, in 
a certain sense, one of the most useful of stove 
Aspleniums is A. Nidus, the Bird's-nest Fern, so 
named from the hollow nest -like centre, caused 
by its peculiar habit of growth. This is the best 
known of a small section — with undivided fronds 
and veins, connected at the apex by a transverse- 
intra-marginal line — formerly referred to the genus- 
Thamnopteris. The lanceolate, leathery, dark glossy 
green fi'onds measure when fully grown two to four 
feet in length by three to eight inches in breadth. 
A popular writer on ferns has called this " a sublime 
Hart's-tongue," and this descriptive phrase certainly 
gives a good idea of the general aspect of the plant. 
Good-sized plants of this species have been used with 
great effect, dming the summer months, in sheltered, 
shady spots for so-called " sub-tropical " work. A. 
SJiepherdii, a tropical American si^ecies, has thin, 
bright green, pinnate fronds, twelve to eighteen inches, 
long by six or nine inches broad, surmounting firm, 
erect, tufted, greenish, scaly stipes a foot in length. 
A. Thwaitesii, from Ceylon, has pale green hairy 
fronds, a foot in length by fom- inches broad, with 
eight to ten distant pinnae below the pinnatifid apex ; 
the slender green stipes, densely clothed with strong- 
white woolly hairs, measure about six inches in 
length, and spring from a wide-creeping rhizome. 
A. viviparum has beautiful dark glossj' green, finely- 
cut fronds, one to two feet long ; in common with 
several other species, the upper portion of the frond, 
develops a profusion of young plants, which grow 
rapidly if the frond be pegged down on damp soil. 
It is a native of Mauritius and the Bom-bon. 

Cultivation. — The Aspleniums as a rule, at any 
rate the stove and green-house species, present no 
especial difficulties to the cultivator. The stronger- 
growing kinds flourish in good loam and leaf -mould, 
and are especially benefited by the repeated adminis- 
tration of weak liquid manure during the gi^owing 
season. Some few kinds seem to thrive best in pm'& 
peat and sand. A. viviparum succeeds well under- 



FERNS. 



267 



tliis treatment; Mvhilst A. Kid us, for instance, does 
well in pm^e peat mixed with chopped sphagnum. 
The majority of the species take very kindly to a 
mixtui-e of peat, loam, and leaf- mould, with a slight 
addition of sharp sand. All require frequent syring- 
ings during the season of growth, and a moist atmos- 
phere throughout the year. Good drainage is an 
essential in every case. Although many seem to 
stand full exposure to direct sun-light under glass 
fairly well, they seem to produce finer and more 
deeply- coloured fronds when grown in partial shade. 

GREEN-HOUSE KINDS. 

On account of its rapid growth, its elegant ap> 
pearance, and the ease with which it can be success- 



sphere, resembles a good deal the A. caudatum, men- 
tioned among the stove species ; probably A. erosum is 
onlj' a V/ est Indian form of A. falcatum. A. Jtahelli- 
folium is a delicate little species from temperate 
Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand ; it is par- 
ticularly adapted for cultivation in small-sized bas- 
kets, as under these conditions its slender bright 
green fronds are seen to greatest advantage ; it also 
makes an excellent subject for fern-cases, as its- 
arching fronds are proliferous at their tips, and root 
freely on contact with the ground. 

A. jiaccidum, a very variable plant from New Zea- 
land, Australia, Van Diemen's Land, &c., is excellent 
for growing in a basket ; its pendulous, bi-pinnate, 
rich deep green leathery fronds often attain a length of 




A. Felix-fcemina, var. pltjmosum. 



fully grown, even with limited means at command, 
A. hulhiferum is deservedly one of the most widely 
known as well as one of the most popular of green- 
house ferns. The handsome pale green fronds, 
which sometimes attain a length of two feet, are 
now and then so heavily weighted with their crop of 
young plants as to cause them to assume a pendulous 
position. As might be expected in the case of a fern 
having such a wide geographical distribution — it is 
found in New Zealand, Australia, New Caledonia, 
&c., Samoa, North India, tropical America, Bour- 
bon, &c., and Natal — a number of forms have been 
regarded as species; amongst the most distinct of 
these are A. laxum, with more slender habit and 
narrow segments, and A. Fabianum, with narrow divi- 
sions and submarginal sori. A. falcattim, a, widely- 
distributed fern throughout the Southern Hemi- 



three feet. A . fitrcahm., widely distributed through- 
out tropical and sub-tropical regions, has leathery 
fronds six to eighteen inches long by four to six 
inches wide ; this species may be likened to a magni- 
fied specimen of our native Black Maiden-hair Spleen- 
wort. A. Semionitis, a native of the Western Medi- 
terranean region, is a pretty dwarf species, of which 
the illustration renders a description unnecessary. 
A. incisiim, from Japan and West China, resembles 
our native A. lanceolatum, but the fronds are narrowei 
in outline and thinner in texture. A. monantheimim 
with the general aspect of the Black Spleen wort {A. 
Trichomanes), is one of the prettiest of small-growing 
green-house evergreen ferns; the bright green 
pinnate fronds now and then attain a length of 
eighteen inches. Bulbules are often produced in the 
axils of the lower pinnae. This species has a rather 



■268 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



^peculiar distribution, being found in Madeira, Azores, 
.Abyssinia, Cape Colony, the Sandwich. Islands, and 
Mexico, along the Andes to Chili. A. ohtusatum, of 
"which species A. lucidum and A. obliquum are mere 
varieties, seems to the casual observer like a large 
edition of our native Sea Spleenwort, A. marinnm. 
Although rather 
formal for pot- 
culture, this 
makes a fine ob- 
ject for the 
green-house 
rockery ; and, 
indeed, when 
planted out in 
the open border 
of the perfectly 

• cool conserva- 
tor}^, its leathery 

• evergxeen fronds 
are produced in 
^^eat abund- 
ance, and attain 
to a large size. 
■ This species is 
abundant in a 
wild state in 
New Zealand 
and Australia, 
and is also found 
in the Polyne- 
sian Islands, 
Peru, and Chili. 
A. Hemionitis, 
with its light 
green fronds, 
which are hal- 
berd- shaped in 
outline, with a 
triangular acute 
terminal lobe, 
and two large 
cordate ' acute 
lateral ones, each 
again bluntly or 
acutely lobed, is 

a very distinct and striking species. It is found in 
Spain, Portugal, Barbary States, Azores, Canaries, 
Madeira, and Cape Yerde Islands. 

Cultivation. — Our remarks under stove species 
apply to green-house ones aiso. 

HARDY SPECIES. 

In this group, except in very favoured spots in 
the South and South-west of Britain, few except 
■our native species can fairly be placed. These, 




however, exhibit considerable differences in size and 
general appearance, and have beautj' enough to 
recommend them to the fern-lover, in addition to 
the interest which attaches to some of them on ac- 
count of rarity. The small number of species, too, 
is amply compensated by the enormous number of 

garden forms of 
such as the Lady 
Fern, Asplenium 
Filix - famina — 
formerly (and 
sometimes now) 
looked upon as 
distinct from 
Asplenium, and 
generally found 
in nurserj-men's 
catalogues under 
the name of 
Athyrium FUix- 
foemina. This 
species, both in 
a wild state and 
imder cultiva- 
tion, vai-ies ex- 
cessively, some 
of the garden 
forms betraying 
to the uniniti- 
ated no trace 
of their real 
relationships. 
Among the best 
of the varieties 
with non- crested 
fronds ai'e lati- 
folium, rhceticum, 
and phcmosum, 
the latter being 
the most finely 
cut and hand- 
some of the en- 
tire set. Of 
those with vari- 
ously crested 
fronds, a good 

selection is crispnm, ccrymhosum, depauperatum, Vic- 
tories, FieIdi(B, Frizellia, polydactylon, &c. All of these 
grow freely enough in any moderately moist shady 
spot, and are invaluable in the out-door rockery. 
They will not thrive in places where stagnant mois- 
ture abounds ; given a spot clear of the latter, and 
commanding shade, they are indifferent to soil. 

A. Adiantum nigrum and A. lanceolatum like a moist 
but well- drained- spot, and succeed well in any soil 
containing a fair share of decayed vegetable matter. 



FiLIX-FCEMINA, VAR. CRISPUai. 



FERNS. 



269- 



A. viride, the Green, and A. Triehomai^es, the Black 
Spleenwort, thrive well in any well-drained "pocket" 
of the rockery, with leaf -mould and sand mixed with 
pieces of stone — pieces of old hrick ruhhish do 
thoroughly well ; indeed, wedged between the brick- 
work of an old wall, and kept damp until the roots 
have had time to fix themselves in their new 
quarters, when the plants will need no further 
attention, they will often grow more luxuriantly, 



A. Germanimm succeed well either as pot plants, 
using loam and leaf-mould mixed with small bits 
of limestone in well-drained ^pots, or in the open 
rockery, where care is taken to prevent access of 
superfluous moisture. Perhaps the most difficult to 
manage of all the hardy Spleenworts is A. septen- 
trionalc, which in most places succeeds best in a cold 
frame, using thoroughly well-drained pots and a 
compost made up of sharp sand, a small quantity of 




ASPLEXIUJI FONTANUM. 



and look much more beautiful, than when grown in 
pots. Crested forms exist of the last-named species, 
and also others with pinnules deeply cut; the best 
of both sections are incision, cristatum, depcmperatum, 
miiUiJidum, and ramosum. 

The Wall-rue, A. Ruta-mKraria, and the Scale-fern, 
A. C'cterach (often given in catalogues as Ceterach 
officinarum) require very perfect drainage ; the 
former does best wedged between pieces of lime- 
stone or old brickwork ; the latter also succeeds well, 
and reproduces itself freely enough, under similar 
conditions. The Sea Spleenwort, A. marinum, of 
which hundreds of bunches of fronds are weekly 
imported to Covent Garden Market from the South 
of Europe for household decoration, likes a sheltered 
spot amongst pieces of sandstone. A. fontanum and 



leaf -mould and loam, and a large proportion of small 
pieces of soft stone. 

The Onychiums. — The genus Onyclni(m con- 
tains but four species, and only two of these have 
yet been introduced to cultivation. It belongs to a 
large group or tribe, the Pteridece, of which the 
genera Fteris and Adiantv.m are familiar examples. 
Indeed, by some authorities Onychium has been 
united to Fteris, from which the species mentioned 
below differ rather in the cutting of the fi'onds, and 
the smallness and narrowness of the ultimate 
segments, than essentially in fructification. There 
are few more graceful and elegant ferns than 
0. auratum and 0. Japonicnm. Both succeed well in 
a cool house ; indeed, in structm-es where no fire-heat 



270 



CASSELL'fe POPULAR GARDENING. 



is at any time available, the latter often thrives 
admirably. So fine, indeed, are the ultimate divisions, 
that it is difficult in non-technical language to give 
a fairly correct idea of the beautiful and delicate 
tracery of the fronds. 

0. aiiratum owes its name to the rich golden-yellow 
colour of the membranous involucres and numerous 
sori. It is a native of the Malayan Peninsula and 
Islands, and also of the Himalayas, where it ascends 
to elevations of 5,000 feet above sea-level. The 
stout, smooth, straw-coloured or pale brown stipes 
measure from six to twelve inches in. length, and the 
ovate fronds a foot or more in length by about six 
inches in breadth. 0. Japonicum is distributed 
throughout Java, Japan, China, and the North of 
India, where it ascends in Sikkim to elevations of 
9,000 or 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. 
This species is somewhat like the last in size and 
general appearance, but the membranous involucres 
are pale-coloured, and the sori are brown. 

Cultivation. — Both the species mentioned are of 
neat tufted habit, and make excellent subjects for 
cultivation in pots for cool house decoration, or for 
l^lanting out in the fern-case. A mixture of peat 
and sand with a little leaf-mould suits them 
thoroughly, and well- drained pots only should be 
used; good examples can be grown with but limited 
root-room. 0, Japonicum is the hardier of the two, 
and will even succeed in the open air in thoroughly 
sheltered spots in favoured localities of the South and 
South-west of England. 



GROUND OPERATIOlSrS. 



OF all athletic exercises, with perhaps the single 
exception of cricket — and it is doubtful if that 
is an exception — the very best is digging. Probably 
every single muscle, vein, artery, and nerve in the 
body is vigorously exercised in the process. There 
is the weight of the spade, the power expended on 
the thrust, the loosening force, the lifting weight, 
the skilful and rapid inversion of the mass, the 
throwing power, the levelling tact, calling and 
keeping in vigorous exercise almost every function 
and capacity alike of body and of mind : for digging 
is a science as well as a practice, it needs thought 
as much as physical strength, and, like most sorts 
of what is called manual labour, it will be found 
mostly to be good or bad according to the measure 
of thought put into it. 

Every Man his own Bigger.— AVhy not, as 
well as every man his own brewer, baker, lawyer, 



and what not ? The process is infinitely more 
simple and far more sanitary than either of these, 
and countless other things that every man is ad\'ised 
to become, be, or do for himself in these days of 
advice gratis ad libitum. 

There is no constitutional, no aid to digestion, 
no cure for the blues, no receipt for a good night's 
sleep, no quietus for excited brain or ruffled nerves, 
to match half an hour at honest digging once or 
twice a day. Most of the above evils are born of 
mental strain, worry, anxiety, monotony of labour, 
the dreary treadmill exertion of counter or desk, and 
they fly like bats before the day- dawn, at sight, 
sound, or touch of gleaming bright spade thi-ust into 
the earth. Let the tired and the wearied, the di'oop- 
ing, those almost ready to faint, borrow leave to dig 
in their neighbours' gardens, if they can neither hii-e 
nor purchase one of their own. 

But meanwhile, let all the fortunate possessors of 
gardens hasten to do a whole or a part of the dig- 
ging themselves. It is really the best work in the 
garden. Not a few owners slave over cleaning, 
dressing, watering it, and only have a man to do the 
digging. This is beginning at the wrong end — set- 
ting the labourer, in fact, to do the master's work. 
Custom has reconciled society to this order. But 
looking at it from a sanitar}- and business point of 
view, it is nearly as bad as sending the porter to 
the bank while the merchant sweeps the office. 
Good digging is to the garden what the merchant's 
skill and forethought are to his profits ; yet 
honest digging has almost become the exception ; 
a sort of shambling, shuffling inversion of the soU 
the rule. And yet, properly understood, and skil- 
fully practised, the former is more easy than the 
latter. 

Ladies' Garden Tools. — Ladies are most 
cruelly handicapped with these. The majority of 
the prettily got-up sets for ladies are made of iron 
only : pretty, very pretty, but villanously bad. In 
fact, as a rule, they are not made for use, only to 
look at. So soon as they come in contact with the 
gi-ound, they either stick fast or get so coated with 
soil, that it would need a man's strength to work 
with them, small as they are. The same tools are 
also used by boys ; and no grown-up man who has 
ever had to work with ladies' or childi-en's spades 
or other tools can wonder that, as a rule, they arc so 
little used. 

The smaller the tools the better their quality must 
be. This is only reasonable, as their very smallness 
proves they are for those who are comparatively 
weak; and the better the tool, be its size what it 
may, the lighter it is to use. This is emphatically 
true of spades. Hence small spades should be made 



GEOUXD OPEEATIOXS. 



271 



wholly of steel, kept triglit as a steel fender, either 
by honest digging or careful scouring, or both. 
The edge of such spades will be almost as sharp as 
a carving-knife ; no load of soil can cling to them, 
■and the friction in use will be reduced to a minimum. 
Larger ones should be wholly of steel or plated with 
it on iron, the steel plate doing all the cutting, 
keeping the spade clean, and preser\Tiig it in form, 
fts the steel may break, but cannot rust nor bend. 

Plotting out the Ground — The Opening. 

— similar coui-se to that recommended for trench- 
ing is adopted, though not carried to the same 
extent. A space should be cleared at least a foot 
wide and a foot deep for ordinary digging. Some 
tdear more, many attempt to do the work with less, 
but a foot is a safe and convenient average. In 
cases where a heavy coating of manure is dug in, a 
wider opening is desii'able. One of the most impor- 
tant points in digging is to keep this opening clear 
and of one uniform width thi'oughout ; otherwise 
the work will get confused and be badly done, espe- 
cially by amateui's. 

Importance of a Straight Line. — It mat- 
ters little to experienced workmen how the land 
lies, but very much indeed to those who are but 
learning the art of digging. Hence the ground 
should be set out by rod and line to start with, and 
the next piece to be dug, whether twelve, nine, or 
six inches, also marked off with a notch cut out 
with the spade along the line. Then standing fimily 
on the undug ground, if the work is to be done 
towards the left, the spade is grasped with the right 
hand on and through the eye, and the left hand just 
under it. The left foot is then placed firmly on the 
head of the spade, and its pressure and the thrust 
of the hand send it down its whole length into the 
ground ; the spade is suddenly di^awn back towards 
the digger, with the load of earth on it, and at the 
same moment the back is bent, the left hand placed 
lower down under the handle, the spadeful is lifted 
up and neatly inverted, and forms the newly-dug 
portion of the ground-line. 

One or two points need special attention during 
the performance of the simple, yet compound, ope- 
ration of digging. The spade should be thrust in 
a line perpendicular to the surface. One of the 
surest signs of imperfect digging is a long sloping 
side against the solid undug ground — the more it 
is sloped the fleeter the digging — and in this way 
"spit-deep," as it is called, is often not more than 
half, or at the most three-quarters, of a spit, or 
length of the spade. Another point of great moment 
is the depositing of the spadefuls with neatness and 
regularity. When the art of digging becomes per- 



fected, these spadefuls will be placed so well at first 
as to need no touch with the spade aftei-wards in the 
case of rough digging. There is no surer test of 
skill in digging than the measure of interference 
with the ground on the newly-dug surface. The less 
interference the better the digger, and vice versa. 
The bad digger seems as if he would never leave the 
earth alone after its inversion ; the good touches i1 
not at all, unless it needs breaking. 

Changing Hands.— Comparatively few k- 
bourers ever learn to change hands in digging. In 
the Xorth, where the young gardeners do all the 
digging and take pride in their work, the art of dig- 
ging has been elevated almost to the level of a 
science ; and the lad or man who could not change 
hands at the end of his stitch, and dig equally 
well with his face to the groujid he had dug, from 
left to right as from right to left, was considered 
an inferior workman. Hence, no sooner was the 
end of the brake or stitch reached, than the spade 
was pitched up with a flourish, the left hand placed 
on the top instead of the right, and the digger 
faced round and proceeded in the opposite direction. 
In digging for health, this change of front and of 
hands is of very gTcat importance. It brings the 
whole of the muscles of the body into more equal 
exercise, giving to each side of the frame exactly the 
same weight to lift and an equality of movement. 

Different Kinds of Digging.— These are the 
general terais applied to digging — rough and fine. 
The first in perfection consists of spadefuls just as 
they are lifted and inverted. The more entire and 
UP broken the mass, the more perfect the rough dig- 
ging, pro\ided however that the surface, though 
rough, be even : that is, the upper surface of the 
lumps or spadefuls should be all of one height ; and 
this is not only desirable to give a workmanlike 
appearance, but also for cultuial purposes, inasmuch 
as ground thus roughly dug will be sufiiciently 
level for cropping, when the weather has mellowed 
the rough clods down into a fine tilth. 

Fine digging consists in not only inverting the 
soil as already described, but in breaking it down 
fine at the sam_e time. This is done by forcing i1 
over by several thrusts, and, if need be, pats with 
the back of the spade after inversion. Portions of it 
may also be lifted and re-distributed, if needful, in 
order to make the surface more level as well as more 
fine. This sort of digging is far less j^ractised than 
formerly, and is mostly confined to digging among 
flowers or for seed-sowing. For most other purposes 
rough digging, or a sort of hybrid between that and 
smooth, is the most general, it being found better 
for the soil, as well as far cheaper, to allow the 



272 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



atmosphere to fine down the soil into mould, and 
confine the spade chiefly to inversion. 

Inversion. — This is essential to the distributing 
and covering of manure, the picking out of the roots 
of perennial weeds or other rubbish, the bur5T.ng of 
the comparatively effete surface soil, and the ex- 
posure of a fresh stratum of earth to the ameliorating 
and enriching effects of the atmosphere. 

Best Mode of Applying and Burying 
Manure. — Professional cultivators mostly spread 
this on the surface and dig it in, thus inserting it in 
the bottom of the trench or furrow. Perhaps, on 
the whole, there is no better way of applying and 
equally distributing the manure. It is not, how- 
ever, the only way, which is fortunate, for ladies 
could hardly be ad^dsed to do their own digging 
under such insanitary conditions. The surfacing 
with manui-e before digging also adds considerably 
to the labour. The manure has to be pierced 
through, no matter how rank it may be, before the 
ground is reached. It i'= also apt to fall on the earth 
in the act of being turned, and so protrude through 
the sm-face of the freshlj^-dug soil, much to its 
disfigurement, and also to the inconvenience of 
cropping. All these evils may be obviated, and the 
work of digging rendered quite cleanly, and far 
more easy, by applying the manui-e to the bottom 
of each trench or furrow as the work proceeds. By 
placing a little, also on the face or slope of the 
newly-dug surface, the manure will be just as well, 
or even better, distributed, and all the drawbacks of 
surface-dressing the undug surface with manure be 
prevented. 

The Best Time to Apply the Manure to 
Land. — This is a matter of still more importance 
than the mode or place to apply it. As a general 
rule, there is no doubt that the autumnal manuring 
is best for horticultural purposes. Garden crops 
cannot use rank manure ; and applied early, it will 
have time to be broken down into useful and avail- 
able plant-food before the roots of plants need it. 

The Depth to Dig.— There is a very general 
consensus of opinion in favour of a foot, that is, a 
good spit in depth. Some however, go deeper, or 
by means of extra thrusting gain three inches or so 
more depth. Others double-dig, that is, take a 
part or the whole of a second spadeful ; this requires 
n wider opening or furrow, and really differs little 
from trenching excepting in name. Shallow or fleet 
digging is also very common. Not only is nomi- 
nally deep digging scamped down to a depth of nine 
or six inches, but differing degrees of shallow dig- 



ging, termed pointing, are also advisably adopted : 
for example, ground deeply dug in the autumn is- 
pointed — that is, dug over from three to six inches 
deep — before being cropped the next summer. This 
sort of digging is light and easy, and requii'es 
no treading of the spade with the foot, the mere 
force and weight of the spade being sufficient. 

The Times to Dig. — Generally digging is 
characterised as autumn, or winter, and summer 
digging, though, as a matter of fact, the operation is 
performed at any and every portion of the season 
when necessary. The necessity for digging arises 
the moment a crop is finished on any spot of 
ground. Vacant ground loses productive or grow- 
ing force every day that it remains rmdug, and as 
crops now succeed each other in far more rapid suc- 
cession than fonnerly, so of necessity do successive 
diggings. Still, the two great divisions of digging 
into winter and summer are retained, as they 
indicate, as we have already seen, a distraction in 
kind as much as one of season, the former being- 
rough, the latter fine digging. 

Other Kinds of Digging. — These are what 
are called bastard, or baulk digging, ridging, and 
forking. 

The name pretty well explains the character of 
baulk digging. About half of the ground remains 
undug, and the dug portion is inverted on to the top 
of the undug ground, lea^dng about one-half of the 
groimd undisturbed, that is, baulked of its digging. 
The work is done more rapidly, and a very large 
area of surface is left to the ameliorating and 
emiching influences of the atmosphere. If the 
ojjeration could be performed early in the season, and 
repeated again about the beginning of the year — 
digging up the ground that was baulked on the 
f onner occasion — this would prove one of the best 
means of thoroughly cultivating the soil of the 
garden in winter. As there are various ways of 
baulk diggiug, and the easiest is as good as any 
other — that is, the placing of each spadeful of moved 
earth upside-down on the nearest unmoved spit 
beside it — and as this does not involve the removal 
or transference of any opening or furrow, this 
baulk digging need not cost more than one-half of 
that of the usual character. 

Ridging up the iand. — This system is often 
preferred to rough digging. It may be performed 
in a similar way to bastard or baulk digging, that 
is, leaving the base of the ridge undisturbed, 
and placing a spadeful from either side on it. In 
that case the base of the ridge should be eighteen 
inches or two feet broad, to receive and retain a full 



GROUND OPERATIONS. 



273 



spadeful from either side. The ground may be 
either finished off in a series of sharp ridges and 
deep fruTOws, or both may be rounded. Either form 
answers well — the pointed finish being best for wet, 
and the more round form for less moist climates and 
localities. 

To derive the full benefit from ridging up, the 
base of the ridge of whatever form should first be 
dug, and a spadeful from one or both sides placed 
on the top of it, the entire area of the surface 
being thus inverted and distui'bed. A very simple 
plan of ridging consists in digging just as in the 
ordinary way, with the exception that one spadeful 
may be inverted in the place it was lifted out of, 
and a second one jDlaced on the top of it. By 
repeating this process all over the ground, a series of 
hills and holes, or of small ridges and furrows, will 
be found that shall expose a maximum amount of 
sirrface to sun and air at the smallest possible ex- 
penditure of time and labour. When the ground 
is wanted for cropping, it is simply pointed back in 
the opposite direction, thus filling up the space left 
where the ridging up left off. 

There is yet another way of ridging up which 
leaves ridges of better form and equal size at equal 
distances, say of two feet or thirty inches in width. 
In such case the bottom of the furrows will be the 
same distances as the crest of the ridges. Hence, 
after mellowing all winter, potatoes may be planted 
in the bottom of the ridges, well dunged either imder 
or over them (it really matters little which), and the 
ridge, with all its finely -mellowed sides, is split down 
the middle with the spade, and one-half allotted to 
either side, and the planting is finished, with a 
better prospect of success than by any other known 
method. This ridging of the earth for the sake of 
its enrichment and amelioration merges into and 
becomes a very important part of cropping. 

The Forking up and over of the Soil. — 

When steel forks — at once light, bright, and sharp — 
were introduced, it was thought by not a few that 
the range of the spade would be from thenceforth 
greatly limited, if its days were not absolutely 
numbered. Nothing of the kind has happened, 
however. Fork-culture has been added to rather 
than become a substitute for that of the spade. The 
need of deeper, higher cultivation for the earth 
arose almost simultaneously with the general in- 
troduction of digging-forlvs. Hence there is room 
and work enough in most gardens for all and more 
than both can do. There are, however, some pur- 
poses, such as the cleaning of foul land, the rapid 
stirring, loosening, and intermixing of the soil, its 
preparation for catch and inteimediate crops, for 
which the fork excels the spade. 
18 



Other tools, such as hand-ploughs and harrows, 
scarifiers, and other implements, have been strongly 
recommended for gai'den purposes. To any about 
to use these, our advice would be, Don't. Stick to 
the spade and the fork, with an occasional help 
from the pick, mattock, or crow-bar, and these will 
be found sufiicient for all horticultural operations on 
the ground. 

A hand-roller, for the consolidation and smoothing 
of the substance and surface of most garden soils, 
may be said, to be almost essential to success. Tread- 
ing with the foot is the most usual mode of con- 
solidating loose soils, but a small iron hand-roller 
proves a useful supplement to these primitive com- 
pressors, and while indispensable on gravel and grass 
lawns, is hardly of less use as a clod-breaker than in 
making a hard bed for onions and other crops. 



GEEEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 

By William Hugh Gower. 



Azalea. — A genus of highly ornamental plants ., 
indeed, so popular is the flower that many nurser}-- 
men devote their whole establishment to the hybrid- 
ising and cross-breeding of this genus alone; the 
result is that many hundreds of kinds are in cultiva- 
tion. Azaleas are plants verj" easily managed, so that 
every one who possesses a small green-house may 
venture upon their cultivation with every prospect 
of success, whilst those with more extensive accom- 
modation can insure a succession of their beautiful 
flov/ers from Christmas to May and June. 

To maintain such a disj)lay, however, a goodly 
number of plants would be required. It should also 
be home in mind that when in flower these plants 
will stand unharmed in drawing-room or boudoir for 
a long time, and therefore it will be necessary to 
have a selection of sizes, as Avell as variety, in order 
to produce a suitable effect in the house ; when the 
plants used are of proper size, an Azalea in flower 
may be used in any place. 

Azaleas stand in the first rank as exhibition plants. 
They are also invaluable for cutting for bouquet- 
m^aking, room-decoration, or weath-making, and as 
the variety of colours is so great every one can have 
his taste gratified. To those who cut their flowers 
with long stems, these plants especially recommend 
themselves, as they bear this with great impunity ; 
in fact, the amount of cutting which Azaleas bear 
would quite destroy many plants. After flower- 
ing is past, the plants should be examined. If it is 
desirable to re-pot into a larger pot, this is the best 
time to do it. With many plants this is necessary 
annually, but Azaleas may be kept in the same-sized 



274 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



pot for several years. The soil they thrive well in is 
a mixture of peat, loam, leaf-mould, and sand, using- 
three parts of the first to one each of the latter. 
Drain well and pot firmly, and if it is poaisible to 
give them a little warmth, the growth will be more 
vigorous and raj)id. At this time they should be 
syringed about twice in the course of the day, morn- 
ing and evening being the best times to apply the 
shower-bath. 

The original species, A. iitdica, v/as introduced 
in the early part of the present century; and 
although at that time considered a very fine and 
showy plant, it has long ago been left behind by 
the improved forms which have been brought into 
commerce by the florists, who have been most 
painstaking and successful in improving this flower, 
both in size and variety of colour. During the 
last few years a new feature in this family has 
been obtained by the hybridisers, and this is the 
introduction of a class of small-growing kinds, which 
flower very early, and produce small flowers, that 
are perfect gems for button-holes, bouquets, shoulder- 
sprays, and such-like purposes, when the flowers of 
the ordinary kinds cannot be used. At present the 
numbers of this section are few, but the cross- 
breeders are busy at work, and before long these, 
like their larger-flowered relations, will undoubtedly 
form a leading feature in the garden. 

A. Alice. — Flowers very dui-able ; beautiful deep 
rose, with large blotch of vermilion. 

A. Argus.— ^Qmi-d.o\x\Ae, splendid shape arid sub- 
stance ; light salmon, with deep crimson blotcn. 

A. Apollo.- — ^Very large : white, with carnation 
flakes and stripes. 

A. Baronne de Vrire. — rEnormous flowers; petals 
beautifully waved, snow-white, flaked with crimson, 
blotched with sulphur on upper petals. 

A. Bernard Andre. — Flowers double ; rosy-purp"^e, 
very fine. 

A. Bernard Andre, alba. — A close, compact habit; 
flowers double, pure tvhite, very beautiful. 

A. Bijou de Paris. — Pure white, striped with rosy 
carmine, and blotched with ye:low; flowers veiy 
large ; a very desirable kind. 

A. Brilliant. — A late-bloomiixg variety ; flowers 
of good form, rich orange-scarlet. 

A. Cedo NulU. — This is generally supposed to be 
the nearest approach to a blue Azalea which has yet 
been obtained; flowers of good substance, and very 
rich purple. 

A. Charmer — A very distinct variety ; flowers 
bright amarantii, blotched with a deeper shade. 

A. Chelsoni. — Fine form and substance; colour 
light orange-scarlet, blotched with purple. 

A. Comet. — Bright light scarlet or flame-cclour, 
upper petals shaded purple , very showy. 



A. Comtesse de Beaufort. — Beautiful rose-colour ; 
up^Der petals blotched with deep crimson. 

A. Comtede Hainault. — Flowers immense; salmon- 
pink, upper petals well spotted with dark maroon. 

A. JJr. Moore. — Flowers double ; intense rose, 
shaded with violet ; perfect form. 

A. Br. Livingstone. — Large and handsome ; rich 
rosy-purple. 

A. Dominique Vervaenc. — Fine double, orange-red 
flowers. 

A. Due de Brabant. — Dark rose, with dark spots 
on the upper petals. 

A. Buchesse Adelaide de Xassau. — Fiery crimson, 
shaded with violet ; large and fine. 

A. Buchess of Edinburgh. — Pure white ; fine 
form ; very useful for forcing. 

A. Buhe of Edinburgh. — Deep crimson, upper 
petals shaded purple ; fine flower. 

A. Eclat ante. — Deep crimson, shaded with rose, 
densely spotted ; one of the best. 

A. Fascination. — Bright rose, spotted with rosy- 
crimson, and edged with white. 

A. Flambeau. — Glowing crimson, very bright. 

A. Flag of Truce. — Pure white, double and very 
full ; one of the finest double whites. 

A. Franqois Bevos. — Clear deep crimson; very 
double, and good shape. 

A. Her Majesty . — Rosy-lilac, blotched and spotted 
with crimson, and bordered with white. 

A. Holfordiana. — Rich rosy-crimson ; very fine. 

A. llortense Vervaenc. — Rosy-salmon, edged with 
white. 

A. imbricata. — Double white ; very full and double, 
superb flower. 

A. John Gould Veitch. — Rosy-lilac^,• with white 
veins, blotched with saffron, and bordered with 
white ; a superb flower. 

A. Juliana. — Rich crimson, densely spotted. 

A. La Victoire. — Bright red, beautifully spotted 
with crimson-maroon. 

A. Louis von Baden. — Pure white ; form and sub- 
stance good; profuse bloomer. 

A. Madame Louis de Rerchove. — Bright cerise, 
flaked with orange, shaded with carmine, blotched 
with maroon, and bordered with white ; superb. 

A. Madame ir«r<5?j/.— Orange-scarlet, upper petals 
purplish-crimson ; large and fine. 

A. Madame van Houtte. — Pure white, flaked with 
rose and crimson ; grand flower. 

A. Madame van EckhauL—Ylowevs upwards of 
five inches in diameter, intensely double, with broad 
outer petals of good substance ; perhaps the best 
double white yet raised. 

A. Madame Ambroise Verschaffelt. — Yiolet-rose, 
flaked with crimson, and edged wath white. 

A. Madame Camille van Langenhoven. — Pure white, 



GEEEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 



275 



broadly flaked with salmon and carmine, blotched 
with yellowish-green ; very fine. 

A. Madame Iris Lefehvre. — Very double, deep 
orange-red, flaked with dull \iolet. 

A. Marquis of Lome. — Beautiful orange, blotched 
with salmon ; fine flower 

A. Mdlle. Lconie van Houtte. — Pure white, 
streaked with rose, "oale yellow in centre ; fine flower. 

A. Mdlle. Marie van Houtte. — Semi-double, pure 
white, flaked and dotted with salmon ; a beautiful form, 

A. Mdlle. Marie Lefehvre. — Pure white; flowers 
very large ; form excellent. 

A. Magnet. — Bright rosy-salmon, blotched with a 
■darker shade ; very large ; excellent form. 

A. Mars. — Orange-crimson, well spotted with vivid 
red; very showy. 

A. Mont Blanc. — Fine double white of great sub- 
stance. 

A. narcissiflora. — Pure white, double ; medium 
isize : well adapted for early forcing. 

A. Ne Flus Ultra. — White, mottled with salmon ; 
large and free. 

A. Ferryana. — Dark orange -scarlet ; good form and 
substance. 

A. President Ambroise Yerseliaffelt. — Bright orange- 
scarlet, shaded wuth bluish-purple, and spotted with 
maroon ; flowers large and good. 

A. President Ghellinch de Walle. — Very double deej) 
Tose, blotched with lake, and flaked with crimson ; 
£ne flower. 

A. President Vanden Heche. — White, dotted and 
striped with bright crimson, centre yellow. 

A. Prince of Orange. — Bright orange - scarlet, 
heavily spotted with crimson ; good habit, very free. 

A. Princess Alexandra. — Flowers large; white, 
.streaked with rich crimson ; very handsome ; well 
adapted for early forcing. 

A. Princess Alice. — Pure white ; fine form and 
■substance. 

A. Princess Tech. — White, flaked with rose and 
-salmon ; flne shape and substance ; very useful for 
early forcing. 

A. Parity. — White ; large ; fine form and substance. 

A. 7'oscejlora. — Flowers double, like a fine Balsam ; 
rich rosy-red ; exquisite form, very dwarf ; a most 
desirable variety. Introduced from Japan. 

A. Poi des Beautes. — Double rose, bordered with 
-white ; fine flower. 

A. Poi de Holland. — Vivid scarlet ; large ; fine form. 

A. Rci des Doubles. — Sosy-carmine ; very double, 
large; fine form ; profuse bloom. 

, A. Souvenir de Prince Albert. — Beautiful soft 
.rosy-peach, bordered with white ; showy and fine 
variety. 

A. Stanleyana. — Rosy-carmine, flaked with ama- 
ranth ; large and handsome ; flne form. 



A. Stella. — Bright orange- crimson, blotched with 
reddish-purple ; large and handsome. 

A. Vesuvius. — Bright orange-scarlet, upper petals 
shaded purple ; very brilliant. 

A. virginalis. — Pure v/hite, with wavy margins : 
fine flower. 

A. Vivid.- — Splendid scarlet; petals of fine sub- 
stance ; fine form, extra. 

Banksia. — This genus belongs to • the natural 
order Proteacece, and assuredly the various plants 
which make up the order are of the most protean 
forms. The late Dr. Lindley says, " Upon the whole 
the order is the most useless to man," nevertheless 
many of them bear extremely ornamental flowers, 
and others have equally beautiful foliage. The genus 
Banlisia is named in honour of Sir Joseph Banks, 
who did so much for botanical science, and natural 
history in general, and it is rather discreditable 
to the present generation of gardeners that his 
memory is held in so little respect, for we have no 
hesitation in saying that one-half the plant culti- 
vators of the pi-esent day have no knowledge of any 
of the species. The eaidy botanists did all in their 
power to honour his name, and no less than three 
authors have made a genus Banksia ; two of these, 
however, have been suppressed, one being merged in 
the genus Costus, and the other in Pimelia. ' The 
present one established by the son of the immortal 
Linnajus remains, and therefore we introduce it here, 
notwithstanding they have come to be looked upon 
by many gardeners of the present age as old-world 
plants, entirely beneath their notice. 

In the early part of the present century, Banksias, 
and other members of the order, were much prized 
by gardeners and amateurs, for their elegant leaves 
and their beautiful and singular flowers. They are 
plants of slow growth; and in these days of steam 
and electricity, they probably cannot be waited for, 
gardeners preferring such plants as will make a 
large specimen in a short time, to the exclusion of 
many beautiful plants that formally were the delight 
of all beholders. 

Banksias are, for the most part, low-growing 
shrubs, although some few species do attain to the 
dimensions of trees. As before mentioned, they are of 
slow growth, and require considerable care to culti- 
vate them successfully ; they are plants that dislike 
frequent re-potting, and may remain in the same pot 
for several years with advantage. The soil best 
adapted for their requirements is good yellow loam, 
not too heavy, with a liberal addition of sharp sand ; 
the drainage above all things must be kept open and 
free, and great care must be exercised in watering. 

Cuttings do not strike freely, and propagation is 
best effected by seeds. 



276 CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENIXG. 

After flowering, Banksias produce large woody teneath, and furnished at the margins with a few 

cones, in which their seeds are enclosed, many of spines ; flowers pale yellow, very showy, on large 

them heing very grotesque in form. oblong heads. 

B. mcsfralis. — A compact -growing plant, seldom £■ clnjaxdroides. — A charming small - growing 

exceeding six feet in height, with small dark green plant with pinnate leaves, resembling some of the 




Eoi des Doubles. President A. Verscliaffelt. 

Azaleas. 



leaves, which are silvery-white beneath ; flowers 
green. 

B. compar. — This is considered by some a variety 
only of B. intcgrifolia ; it differs, however, in having 
the margins of its leaves serrated ; they are dark 
green above, and silvery- white beneath ; flowers 
straw-colour. 

B. Cunninghamii. — A handsome dwarf species, 
with narrow dark green leaves, which are hoary 



small-growing simple-leaved Polypodiums ; lobes 
triangular, dark green above, ferruginous beneath ; 
flowers pale yellow. 

B. foliosa. — Leaves obhmg, deep green above, 
clothed with a greyish tomentum on the tmder side, 
finely serrated on the margins ; flowers greenish- 
yellow ; a highly ornamental plant. 

B. HooJcerii. — A noble plant, with broad and 
deeply- lobed pinnatifid leaves, dark green above. 



GKEEX-HOUSE PLANTS. 



277 




Bigkoii::a vIenusta. 



grey "beneath, veins prominent ; flowers reddish.- side, clothed with h grey tomentum helow, midrih 

"brown. and principal veins very prominent, furnished with 

B. latifolia. — As a young plant, this is very a thick covering of rufous hairs ; flowers greenish- 

"beautiful ; it attains with age the dimensions of a yellow. 

large tree ; the leaves are hroadly lanceolate, B. serrata. — A free-growing species, which in its 

narrowest at the hase, dark green on the upper native country attains considerable size ; leaves some 



278 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



six inches long, toothed at the edges, deexD green ; 
flowers yellow. 

B. Solanclri. — A fine hold kind, with hroad deeply- 
lohed leaves, upper side dark gTeen, silvery-white 
beneath ; flowers scarlet. 

B. speciosa is one of the most charming species in 
the family ^ leaves six or more inches long, divided 
to the midrib into semi-circular lobes ; deep green, 
tinder side silvery-white, the young growths and 
midribs clothed with a chestnut-brown tomentum ; 
flowers yellow. 

IBeaufortia. — Handsome evergreen flowering- 
shrubs, belonging to the IMyrtle family, all natives 
of Australia. They should be potted in a mixture of 
three parts fibrous peat and one of sandy loam. 
Ordinary green-house treatment suits them. 

B. decussata. — Leaves opposite, ovate, dark green ; 
the flowers sj)ring from the axils of the leaves near 
the points of the shoots ; bright scarlet, very showy. 
Maj^ and June. 

B. imrpurca. — Leaves at base narrowly lance- 
shaped, becoming cordate near the points where 
the globose heads of purple flowers are produced. 
Summer months. 

B. spJendens. — Leaves small, oval, light green; 
flowers bright scarlet, style much exserted. Summer 
months. 

Bignonia. — A genus of handsome climbing 
plants, bearing large panicles of irregular bell-shaped 
flowers. They are admirably adapted for covering 
pillars and rafters in gTeen -ho use or conservatory 
when planted out, but under pot-culture they are 
seldom satisfactory. 

Plant them in two parts good rich loam and one 
part peat and sand. 

B. GhamherJaymi jjroduces large, trumpet-shaped, 
rich yellow flowers during the whole of summer. 
Brazil. 

B. speciosa is a beautiful companion to the pre- 
ceding, its large clusters of lilac flowers forming a 
nice contrast. Spring months. Uruguay. 

B. venusta. — This plant should find a place in every 
green-house, its charming large deep crimson flowers 
rendering it most effective. It blooms nearly the 
whole summer and autumn. Brazil. 

Boronia. — These are pretty green-house shrubs, 
with opposite pinnate leaves, more or less show}-, 
producing their pink and white flowers in spring 
and early summer ; they should be potted in good 
peat and a little turfy loam in the proportion of two to 
one, to which add a little sand. Boronias naturally 
form bushy shrubs, but if not looked after are apt to 
get bare at the bottom, and present an unsightly 



appearance ; theiet'ore, after flowering, all the shoots 
should be cut back, in order to encourage lateral 
growths, which, if not producing the largest plants in 
the shortest time, produces much the best specimens. 
Boronias require strict attention in the matter of 
water ; they like a copious sui)ply, but at the same time 
the drainage must be free. They also require tho- 
rough ventilation, but avoid cutting winds ; again, 
they should not be in the open air exposed to the sun 
during summer ; it causes the foliage to turn bro'mi, 
which remains as a permanent disfigurement. 

B. JJrummondll. — Leaves pinnate, bright green; 
producing in abundance its charmy rosy-pink 
flowers in April and May. 

B. Brummondii alba. — As its name implies, the 
flowers of this variety are white. 

B. elatior. — One of the freest-growing sj)ecies, and 
a charming plant when in bloom ; leaves pinnate, 
dark green ; flowers large, numerous, deep rosy- 
purple. Xew Holland. 

B. heterophylla, the most recent addition to this 
genus, and perhaps the most beautiful. It is an erect 
shrub, producing numerous slender branches ; the 
leaves are of various shapes, simj)le or trifoHate, but 
always narrow. The flowers are globose, pendent, 
freely produced, and bright carmine-scarlet in coloui-, 
very fragrant. Spring months. Swan River dis- 
trict, "Western Australia. 

B. mcgastigma. — A very slender-growing plant, 
with line-like divisions to its pinnate leaves ; flowers- 
freely produced, drooping, the outside dull pui'ple, 
greenish-yellow inside. This is by no means showy 
when in flower, yet no green-house should be without 
the plant on account of the delicious violet-like frag- 
rance which it diffuses. It flowers during spring and 
early summer. King George's Soimd, 1868. 

B. plnnata. — Elowers pink, with a fi-agrance re- 
sembling Hawthorn ; produced in April and May. 
Eort Jackson, 1794. 

B. serridata. — This species differs from all the 
others in having simple and not pinnate leaves; 
they are somewhat trapeziform in shape, and bright 
green in colour ; flowers cherry-red, with a fragrance 
like that of the Rose. May and June. New South 
Wales, 1816. 

B. tetrandra. — This j)lant bears some resemblance 
to B. pinnata ; it is, however, a smaller grower; 
flowers pink. March to May. Swan River, 1824. 

Bossioea. — A- genus of Pea-flowered Australian 
shrubs, of great beauty when in bloom; they re- 
quire careful attention in the matter of water, and 
should be potted in about three parts peat and one 
of loam, to which add sufficient sand to make the 
whole feel sharp to the hand. 

B. cordifolia. — A compact-growing species, the 



GEEEN- HOUSE PLA^'TS. 



279 



branches densely clothed with, dark g-reen cordate 
leaves ; flowers yellow and purple. May and June. 
New South AVaies, 1824. 

£. cUsticha. — Leaves somewhat ovate, dark green; 
flowers yellow and red. March to May. Swan 
Siver, 1840. 

B. tenuicaicUs. — An extremely handsome species, 
and profuse bloomer ; stems slender ; leaves ovate 
acute ; flowers yellow, streaked with purple ; pro- 
duced in March and April. Tasmania, 1836. 

Bouvardia. — This genus contains some of the 
most useful plants that can be grown ; they are 



greater numbers and finer-quality flowers than old 
ones, it is much the better system to strike cuttings 
every spring. The old plants, after flowering, will, 
if cut back, soon begin to make lateral shoots, which 
should be taken ofl during March and April, and in- 
serted round the sides of cutting-pots, filled with 
sandy peat, with a cover of sharp sand at top, and 
kept in a moist, close atmosphere until rooted, when 
they must be potted singly into small pots. After 
root-action commences, pinch out the point of the 
shoot in order to produce side branches ; these, 
after having made about two joints, should again be 
pinched, and so on, until a good bushy jDlant is ob- 




BORONIA MEGASTIGMA. 



compact in growth and veiy free-flowering. The 
flowers are much prized for bouquets, shoulder- 
sprays, button-holes, or indeed any purpose to which 
elegant and fragrant blossoms can be put. 

The species are natives of ^Mexico, but some of 
the best varieties have been obtained by cross-breed- 
ing in English and American gardens. Whether 
these are stove or green-house plants is rather a dis- 
puted point amongst the members of the horticul- 
tural world, some favouring one side, and some the 
other. However, as they thrive admirably in the 
green-house, and are only put in stove-heat in 
autumn, in order to force them into bloom through 
the winter months, which is the time the greatest 
demand occurs for such flowers, we have included 
them with the green-house plants ; at the same time, 
it is quite true they enjoy a little more heat in 
winter than is given to such plants as Heaths. 

Bouvardias may be grown into good-sized plants 
in a single season, and as 5'oung plants produce 



tained. As the plants increase in size, and the pots 
get filled with roots, it will be necessary to shift into 
larger pots, and by the end of J uly or beginning of 
August they will be well established. During all 
this time the plants have been growing in a rather 
warmer and moister atmosphere than an ordinary 
green-house, in order to induce rapid growth, but at 
about this time remove them into a cool house or 
frame, where they can have free ventilation. This 
will mature the growths, and cause them to set 
their flower-buds freely. Towards the end of Sep- 
tember again place them in a house where heat is at 
command, if a period of wet or cold weather should 
set in ; and as flowers are likely to be wanted, from 
time to time remove a batch into the stove, in order 
to keep a succession of flowers during the winter 
months. This treatment may be said to favour the 
stove more than the green-house, but it must be 
bome in mind that old plants which may not be 
wanted in bloom so early, can be grown entirely in 



280 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARBEXINa. 



the cold house, and even planted out in cold frames ; 
they make fine specimens, and may be lifted and 
potted up in autumn. For soil, use a mixture com- 
posed of peat, 
loam, and leaf- 
soil, in about 
equal parts, a 
portion of 
sharp sand be- 
ing added to 
keep the whole 
porous ; drain 
well, and sup- 
ply liberally 
'^vith water. 
Keep the 
syringe going 
frequently 
amongst them 
to prevent the 
ravages of red 
spider or green 
fly. The fol- 
lowing are 
amongst the 
most desirable 
kinds: — 

Alba - odo- 
rata. — Elowers 
white, very 
fragrant. 

Augustifolia. 
— Bright scar- 
let. 

Brilliant. — 
Fiery red. 

Blegans. — 
Brilliant scar- 
let. 

Delicata. — 
Salmon - red 
and pink. 

So gart h. — 
Brilliant car- 
mine. 

Humholdtii 
corymbifera. — 
Pure white, 
the purest and 
largest variet)', 

but the plant is, unfortunately, rather a shy bloomer, 

Jasminiflora. — Pure white, large flowers. 

Fresident Garfield. — Double pink, very fine. 

Alfred Keuner.—Do-ablQ white, exquisite. 

Vreelandii. — Pure white, very" fine, a most useful 
variety. 




BouvARDiA (Alfred Neuner) 



Brugmarsia. — The plants comprising this 
genus were formerly included with Daturas. They 
belong to the order Solanacsce, and well deserve at- 
tention when 
space will al- 
low of their 
cultivation. In 
growing a 



specmien of 
any of the 
species here 
enumerated, 
the best system 
is to confine 
them to a sin- 
gle stem, until 
they attain a 
height of three 
or four feet ; 
then the poiut 
of the shoot 
should bo 
pinched out, to 
encourage lat- 
eral growths, 
and these 
again, when 
suf&cientlv 



long, must be 
subjected to 
the same treat- 
ment, Tintil a 
good - shaped 
head is ob- 
tained. Brug- 
mansias are 
coarse -feeding 
plants, and 
should be pot- 
ted in rich soil, 
say about equal 
parts of loam, 
leaf -mould, and 
well-decom- 
posed manure. 
After flower- 
ing, which will 
be towards 
autumn, the 
plants may be 

pruned in hard ; this will render them less cumber- 
some ; and during winter very little water should be 
given. 

JS. Knight ii. — Flowers large, drooping, double, and 
pure white ; it blooms in August and September. . 
£. lutea. — An autumn-flowering species, attaining 



SUBURBAX GAEDEXIXa. 281 



a height of a'bout twenty feet; it resembles B. suave- 
olens in its fragrance, hut differs in having yellow 
flowers. August and Sej)tember. South America. 

B. sanguined. — Attains the height of eighteen to 
twenty feet, and is a grand plant for conservatory 
decoration; the flowers are trumpet-shaped, about 
eight inches long, 'with spreading limb ; the tube is 
orange-yellow, and the limb deep scarlet. Peru, 
1833. 

B. suaveolens. — This plant attains about the same 
height as the last-named species, but all these will 
<:ommence blooming when much smaller, the size 
given here being that to which the plant attains 
when mature. Flowers drooping, four to six inches 
long ; limb spreading, pure white, the tube being 
tinged with yellow ; the flowers arc very fragrant. 
August to September. Peru, 1733. 

Burtonia. — Pea-flowered plants, with Heath-like 
leaves, bearing very freely rather large, highly- 
coloured flowers towards the ends of the branches. 
They are by no means difficult to manage, and should 
be potted in light loam and peat in about equal parts, 
with the addition of a little sand. 

All are natives of TS'estern Australia ; there are 
only some nine or ten species known, of which the 
following are the most attractive : — 

B. conferta. — Purple and violet. June and July. 

B. pulchella. — Purple. April and May. 

B. scahra. — Yellow. May and June. 

B. villosa. — Purple. May and June. 

Callistacliys. — This genus includes a few very 
handsome Pea-flowered plants. The name, which 
signifies " beautiful spike," is still applicable, even 
at the present day, when we have such a profusion 
of gi-and flowers for the decoration of green-house 
and conservatory. 

The species of Call is faclti/s are iov the most part 
natives of the Swan River district of Australia. All 
are very free growers and profuse bloomers, and 
thrive well w^hen potted in a mixtirre of peat and 
loam in about equal parts, v.-ith a little sand added. 

C. lanceolata^ — Leaves narrowly lanceolate, clothed 
with numerous silky hairs ; flowers in terminal 
racemes, large, and rich golden-yellow. Summer 
months. 

C. linearis. — Leaves long and narrow ; flowers on 
terminal spikes ; deep purple. October. 

C. longifolia. — A handsome species, ^ith rich yel- 
low and purple flowers. June and July. 

Callistemon. — Handsome plants, belonging to 
the ]M}T.-tle family. Thej' are remarkable for their 
beauty, even when not in flower, as in many instances 
the leaves when young are stained with a rich deep 



vinous red or crimson. There are many species of 
this genus. One species, C. ellijpticHin, a native of Xew 
Zealand, attains a great height, and measures several 
feet in diameter ; the wood is very hard, and takes a 
beautiful polish, resembling rose-wood. Soil same as 
for Callistacliys. They may be obtained either from 
seeds or cuttings ; the latter method is much to be 
preferred, as seedlings frequently grow to a large 
size "^vithout flowering, whilst quite young plants 
from cuttings will be laden with their beautiful 
bottle-brush-like flowers. 

C, lanceolatmn. — A lovely plant with small dark 
green leaves ; flowers axillaiy, forming dense spikes, 
which are nearly terminal ; rich reddish-crimson in 
colour. June. Australia. 

C. lophanthum. — Leaves small, hairy when young ; 
flowers in dense spikes near the points of all the 
shoots ; pale yellow^. Summer months. Australia. 

C. viridiflorurii. — Leaves narrow, lanceolate, small, 
dark green ; flowers in a dense terminal spike ; 
stamens much exserted ; colour, yellowish -green. 
Summer months. Australia. 



SUBUEBAN GAEDEISriNa. 

By James Hudson. 



DETACHED VILLA GARDENS. 

THE space allotted for the garden of a detached 
villa is very often not any larger than that 
connected with semi-detached houses ; but by reason 
of the house standing entirely sun'ounded by its own 
grounds, it affords more scop-j for making a good 
effect. We have repeatedly seen veiy picturesque 
arrangements of the garden ground in connection 
with detached villas. There is also the advantage 
of more seclusion and privacy in the garden, which 
cannot possibly be the case with semi-detached houses 
or with terraces. This is a great boon undoubtedly 
to the occupants, causing the garden frequently to be 
far more enjoyable than would otherwise be the case. 

Detached villas carry us perhaps further into the 
country, but not much ; for although we are within 
sight of the Albert Hall and the Crystal Palace in 
clear weather, we have several such around us. As 
we have previously said, in size these may not 
exceed those of the plans we have given in a pre- 
ceding article, or even be so large, yet from their 
having an entire suiToimding of the house, they are 
of necessity more nearly square in shape ; this addi- 
tion in the breadth will give better opportunities for 
producing a good effect in the design. Long narrow 
gardens, even at the best, are difficult to arrange in 
a pleasing mamier ; but where they are more propor- 
tionate, far better designs can be carried out. 



282 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXINa. 



Fruit-trees. — Many remarks that \re tare 
made in previous articles apply with, equal force to 
the subject now under consideration, and vice versa. 
In this case, however, we may give rather more pro- 
minence to the kitchen and fruit garden, thus com- 
bining more of practical utility with enjoyment, or, 
in other woi'ds, i^leasure and profit combined. The 
culture of fruits is not an easy matter when in close 
proximity to manufacturing towns or large cities. 
There are a few excej)tions, where the site is spe- 
cially faA-ourable or the soil well suited to their cul- 
ture ; but taken on the whole, the proceeds are 
generally at a minimum rate. This should not deter 
those who are more fortunate in being farther re- 
moved from these detracting influences, from making 
fruit-culture to a moderate extent a part of their en- 
joyment and recreation. A'^egetables, too, could have 
a greater space allotted to their culture with advan- 
tage, manure when required for the latter, or the 
assistance of manual labour, being obtainable at a 
less cost. 

Take, for instance, standards of Morello Cherries, 
or other varieties if preferred, but more especially 
the " Morello," because it does not become of large 
dimensions before arriving at a fruiting condition. 
It could also be trained against one of the walls 
of the house, having a north-west or north-east 
aspect. Standard Apples, again, selected from those 
kinds of moderate growth, would have a very pretty 
effect, either among shrubs of an evergreen char- 
acter, or planted on a grass-plot. "Why fruit-trees 
are not thus utilised in combination with flowering 
shrubs and trees of merely ornamental character, we 
do not know; they have the double advantage of 
affording to the possessor the prosjDect of a substan- 
tial return, whilst in point of floral beauty they are 
equal to, and even sui'pass, many things that are 
grown merely for the flowers they produce. Again, 
they will have a beautiful appearance when laden 
with their respective crops ; and this in itself is, we 
think, sufficient to recommend the more extended 
cultivation of fruit-trees in association with those of 
ornamental character only. 

Unsuitable Subjects. — One important obser- 
vation, among many others, should be regarded by 
every one who has under contemplation the planting 
of new gardens or the re-arrangement of older ones, 
and that is, to study well the kinds of trees, shrubs, 
and fruits which thrive best in or near the same 
locality. Indications will be apparent to any close 
observer as to what are the most suitable things to 
select, and also perhaps what to avoid. 

Thus, for instance, hardly any of the Fir family 
are found even in a mediiim condition of health in 
t±ie neighbourhood of the metropolis, and that such 



should thrive when newly planted m the dirt- 
poisoned, fii-e and gas- dried atmosphere of large 
cities is more than can be reasonably expected. 
They linger out a miserable existence for a few 
years, and then succumb to the ine-vitable. We 
have had to remove fine specimens of from twenty 
to thirty years' growth even, from the gradual ex- 
tension of suburban London, more than from any 
other assignable cause. 

Among these were a Douglas Fir {Abies I)o7(glasii]y 
which in the pure country air thrives exceedingly 
well, as may be seen by the grand specimens at 
Heckfield, Dropmore, and elsewhere. The Welling- 
ton gigantea, so well known and deservedly admired 
when in robust health, has with us been a miserable 
failure. In its earlier stages of growth, one specimen 
did fairly well ; but as it was brought more under the 
deleterious influences just adverted to, it succumbed 
and became such an unsightly object that it had to 
be removed. The Spanish Silver Fir [Picea pinsapo), 
which, for small gardens, would be a most appro- 
priate species to plant, is yet another instance in 
which failure has occurred. This is a magnificent 
tree when well developed, but as it takes many years 
to anive at large dimensions, it may be safely 
planted in small gardens in the country. Our largest 
specimen became at last almost completely denuded 
of its foliage, and each succeeding growth it -pro- 
duced was weaker than the last, removal having at 
last to be resorted to. 

It is not necessary to mention here any more 
cases, but a list of what to avoid will be given later 
on. Suffice it to say, there are a few exceptions which 
we have found in members of the Fir-tree family to 
do fairly well. One of the hardiest and best of 
these is the Austrian Pine {Finns Austriaca), which 
at present resists the drawbacks to the culture of 
more tender species, and retains the deep green, 
colour of its foliage very well. The Himalayan 
Pine {Finns excelsa), with its leaves of a glaucous, 
bluish-green, is another notable exception, and a fine 
object when well gro'u'n, being a striking contrast to 
the afore-named species (/'. Austriaca). The Swiss 
Stone Pine [Finns cembra), of slow gTOwth, erect yet 
compact in habit, is another species that thrives 
well in the vicinity of the metropolis. This species 
is well adapted for gardens of limited extent. The 
Eetinosporas, from Japan, and of comparatively recent 
introduction, appear to do very well, especially the 
more robust varieties. Further instances will like- 
wise be treated upon hereafter. 

Any close observers of landscape scenery may, 
however, note for themselves the absence of all of 
the commoner species of the Fir tribe, at least in 
anything like a satisfactory condition of growth, as 
they near ciir large towns and cities ; and probablj^ 



I 

SUBL^RBAN 

I 

I the want of such, large evergTeen trees is the cause 

I of more stunted growth in many dwarfer genera 

i of ornamental shrubs and trees than would otherwise 

be the case. 

Acclimatised Plants. — We consider it an 
excellent plan, in selecting the necessary trees and 
shrubs wherewith to plant suburban gardens, to 
procure them at the nearest nursery grounds where 
good choice is to be had. This will be the more 
likely to insure future success than by having 
recourse to sending to a long distance for them. If 
they have been grown from their earliest stages 
within a fair distance of the garden in which they 
are to be planted, and that too in a similar kind of 
soil, the future well-being of each and all will be 
the more easily attained. This is all the more 
important in small gardens where no experienced 
gardener is employed constantly to see to the 
necessary requirements of the occupants. Where 
such is the case, the soil, &c., can be modified to 
a certain extent by those in charge ; this, however, 
would hardly come under the head of suburban 
gardening; and all trees and shrubs will be found 
to succeed far better if these hints are carried out in 
practice ; indeed, it must necessarily be the case, 
provided the purchases are in good health w^hen 
obtained, they being in a measure comparatively 
acclimatised to the locality. 

Recently we watched with considerable interest 
some well-grown coniferous plants that had been 
just planted in the front of a detached villa garden. 
They were well-grown stock, in every way healthy, 
but we could readily discern by their appearance 
that they had been brought from a considerable 
distance, and off another description of soil to that 
in which they were then growing. Gradually they 
began to assume a sickly hue, and by degrees the 
lower branches died off; later on, some of them 
from their ungainly appearance were removed. Not 
one is now in a satisfactory condition of health, 
though apparently they were fairly well planted, 
and attention given to having the soil around each 
mulched after planting. This, and similar instances, 
are enough to discourage any one not practically 
acquainted with the cause of failure, making him 
feel as if it were quite impossible to succeed 
in his desires. But the stock from a suburban 
nursery, or within a near radius of the neighbour- 
hood of large towns and cities, though not in many 
eases looJcing so robust and thriving, will eventually 
give the greater amount of satisfaction to the 
purchaser. Suburban nurserjTnen are practically 
acquainted with the stock likely to succeed in their 
respective localities, and a glance through their 
grounds will oftentimes be a useful aid in making 



GARDENINa. 283-- 

any future selections. Those things that are most in. 
request will be found in far larger numbers amongst ' 
every genus of plants, and this may fairly be taken 
as a guide in making choice for the garden. 

Whilst on the subject of purchasing trees and 
shrubs, as well as in the case of plants in pots, it 
will not in every case be the cheaper way to procure 
those that are offered at unusually low prices. We- 
advise purchases certainly to be made as cheaply as 
possible consistent with a good article ; but to buy 
any plant just because it is cheap is a great mistake, 
without having closely inspected the plant before- 
hand. Shrubs, &c., are at times offered at tempting- 
prices ; these may possibly have been grown in 
nursery beds or quarters for some seasons without 
removal. In this case their roots and branches will 
have become much interlaced among each other. 
When removal is effected the roots consequently 
become injm-ed, and the branches from want of 
support are unable to retain their proper position. 
Such stock as this is also much drawn up, and quite 
devoid of the sturdy compact growth which is the 
characteristic of well-grown nursery plants. In 
such instances, by reason of less expenditure in 
cultivation, the x^lants can of course be offered more- 
cheaply ; but in the long run they will not be nearly 
so likely to give even a fair amount of satisfaction as 
in the case of such nursery stock as may have been 
subjected to a j)roper course of culture in its various 
stages of growth. 

Times for Planting and Removal. — The 

autumnal months of September, October, and the 
early part of November are generally accepted as 
the most suitable time of the year for the removal . 
and transplanting of trees and shrubs. The first 
half of that period is preferable to the latter, as it 
affords the newly-planted stock better opportunity 
of becoming settled down in their new quarters 
before the advent of a probable severe winter. We - 
therefore strongly urge any contemplated alteration . 
or improvement to be taken in hand without any 
delay when that season of the year arrives. Better- 
choice, too, of the requisite kinds of trees and shrubs • 
will be afforded ; the best of each class invariably 
finding the most ready market. There is another 
disadvantage in deferring the planting operations- 
till late in the season, which is occasioned by the 
removal from their growing quarters en masse in 
prospect of future demands, and also to clear the 
ground for early preparation for re-planting; in 
such cases the stock for sale is generally heeled in 
close together, and if allowed to remain in that 
manner for long, the roots must necessarily suffer in 
consequence, the more so if the autumnal rainfall is 
less than usual. Failure is oftentimes occasioned in . 



.284 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENING. 



our opinion by this interval of time, which ought not 
to he allowed if at all preventihle. Hollies we have 
found, from several years' experience, to remove in 
far better condition during the months of May and 
June than at any other period of the year. We 
have transplanted numbers during those months, 
and have invariably found them to succeed. When 
re-planted in the late autumn and winter months 
they are very liable to shed the greater portion of 
then- foliage; this defect in a large garden is bad 
enough, but in one of limited extent it is rendered 
even more so, through all the occupants of the 
garden coming under closer observation. 

In small plots of garden ground another essential 
point to be studied is the avoidance of a frequent 
repetition of the same individual kind of shrub. 
There are an abundance of good and useful kinds 
from which selection may be made to give as great 
a diversity as possible. 

Hedges. — In the event of any sub-division in 
the grounds being necessary, and this being effected 
by a hedge, we would in every case advise the choice 
being made from those shrubs of an evergreen 
■character. Hollies, Privet (evergreen kinds), Euo- 
:nymus, Portugal Laurel, and Yews (English), are all 
:good selections. Instead, however, of following the 
: generally adopted plan of clipping the same with 
rshears every season, we would advise the requisite 
pruning to be done with a knife until the hedge 
reaches to something like its proper dimensions. In 
this manner the desired object will be more quickly 
attained, the stronger shoots not, by that process, 
ha^dng to share the same fate as the weaker ones, 
which is next to unavoidable when the hedge is gone 
over indiscriminately with a pair of garden shears. 
The side-growths will, as a matter of com'se, need 
pruning rather more closely in order to avoid an 
undue amount of garden- space being taken up by 
the hedge itself. In order, oftentimes, to obtain an 
immediate effect, the shrubs used in the formation of 
a hedge are planted far too closely. For the time 
being this may present a better appearance, but as 
thinning out afterwards, when becoming too thick, 
is not an easy matter with shrubs used in the 
formation of hedges, it is far preferable to plant at a 
moderate distance from each other in the first 
instance, and wait with patience for the desired 
result, which will eventually be far more satisfactory. 
When crowded together, the natural results of de- 
crepitude and decay will sooner or later supervene, 
long ere such would be the case if operations were 
proceeded with in a more practical manner at the 
outset. Patching up in the case of failure in some 
: spots will have to be performed in order to preserve 
•the general appearance, and this even at the best is 



not an easy matter. During long periods of drought, 
a thickly-planted hedge will also suffer much -in 
some soils from lack of moisture. At such times 
there are always plenty of subjects needing more 
immediate attention, with the result that commoner 
things have to be passed over in many instances, 
unless an unlimited supply of water is at hand. 

The plan of lapng up a narrow ridge of soil 
whereon to plant the material for forming a hedge 
should not be practised where it is necessary to gain 
any height at the outset ; the better way will be to 
gradually rise to the required height by easy slopes. 
Other shrubs or plants of an evergreen character 
should not be planted too closely to any hedge, but 
ample space allowed for the growth of both, and 
likewise for a good circulation of air between them. 
When too closely planted one or the other, or 
perhajDS both alike, will suffer if removal is not seen 
to in time. In all kinds of shrub and tree plantin": 
a considerable amount of foresight is requisite with 
regard to their future appearance. Some strong- 
growing kind may gain an undue amount of prepon- 
derance in such cases, after a season or two ; then 
the pruning-knife should be used freely, and some of 
the stronger roots severed with a spade. Rather 
than let a common plant or shrub that is of no 
material value outgrow and deprive choicer things 
of their necessary space for growth and develop- ■ 
ment, it will be far better to remove the same 
entirely. 

Planning. — The design in Fig. 3 wiU be found 
fairly proportionate in arrangement, the space 
allotted to each subject being regulated in such a 
way as not to allow of any one essential of a 
garden about the size of that given predominating 
above the rest. At the first glance, perhaps, the 
space marked out for shrubs would appear to be 
somewhat in excess, taking into consideration the 
space at disposal. TVTien, however, our suggestions 
of intermixing a few standard fruit-trees among the 
other deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs are 
carried out, this will greatly modify any such ap- 
parently undue extent of ground. The margins of 
the shrubs can also be most suitably planted with 
hardy herbaceous and other dwarf flowering plants, 
allowing a broader margin for such where the width 
marked out is proportionately wide. In a small 
garden we would prefer to allow for these neces- 
saries in this way, far before cutting up the open 
spaces into flower-beds, as may very frequently be 
seen, even where the garden-space is most limited 
in extent. The la^vTi will then appear of greater 
dimensions' than it really is, and more facihty will be 
offered for the arrangement of such garden recrea- 
tions and amusements as lawn tennis, &c., for 



8UBUBBAN GAEDENINa. 



285 



■whicli we have allowed sufficient ground, pro- 
vided guard-nets are used at the margins where 
coming somewhat too close up to the borders of the 
shrubs. In the event of no such games being 
required, we would advise the addition of a few beds 
of the choicer 
Rhododendrons 
and other dwarf, 
or comparatively 
dwarf, perma- 
nent kind of 
plants, in prefer- 
ence to marking 
out any set de- 
sign of flower- 
beds for tender 
plants, which at 
the best only 
last in beauty for 
a few months. 
Plants of a per- 
manent charac- 
ter, although in- 
^•olving a trifling 
Increase in out- 
lay at the first, 
will soon recoup 
themselves both 
in the amount of 
labour expended 
on them, and 
in the saving 
effected in the 
non-purchase of 
tender bedding- 
plants for filling 
flower-beds dur- 
ing the summer 
months. 

We have given 
the plan as pre- 
senting an en- 
trance front 
facing the east^ 
with sufiicient 
allowance for a 
carriage-drive to 
the front door, 

with gates for ingress and egress, which will be 
found far more convenient than one gate only for 
both purposes, with the consequent occupation of a 
sufficient space for the turning round of any con- 
veyance that may enter. On this front we would 
advise a few tall trees or shrubs opposite the front 
door, to screen the same from the road. A Copper 
Beech would look well as a central plant if flanked 




Fis 



by evergreens, and one or two Laburnums would 
present a beautiful contrast to the Beech when they 
are in flower. A narrow margin next the grass, and 
in front of the shrubs, might be planted with the 
hardiest of flowering plants, such as the common 

white Pink, Lon- 
don Pride, or 
similar dwarf 
plants of a per- 
manent char- 
acter. On the 
north-east side 
the sj)ace allotted 
for shrubs should 
be somewhat 
elevated ground, 
to act as a screen 
from east winds 
to the portion 
marked out for 
hardy ferns and 
rock plants. We 
have made a 
rather prominent 
feature of these 
for that spot, 
where they 
would succeed 
well with a mo- 
derate amount of 
attention, being- 
shaded by the 
house from the 
noonday sun, and 
partially pro- 
tected on the 
north also from 
cold weather by 
the spaces shown 
as for shrubs in 
that direction. 
Against the 
north wall of the 
building we 
show a narrow 
border to be 
planted with 
Morello Cherries, 

in which position they ought to succeed very well. On 
the south-east side of the house we have marked off 
a rather large space for shrubs, the intention being 
to pi-otect the east end of the small conservatory and 
the flower-beds from cold Avinds, as well as to shut 
off the back entrance to the house itself as much as 
possible; this piece of ground also would be all the 
better in appearance if raised above the surrounding 



Scale 36 Ft. to I Inch. 

3.— Plan of Garden fok Detached Eesiden'CE 



286 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXIXa. 



level. By performing this operation in a careful 
manner as advised in a previous page, the shrubs 
^ill succeed equally well, and a gain in height will 
be secured at the outset. As this is a broader plan- 
tation of shi'ubs, a corresponding margin for flower- 
ing subjects of a dwarf character could be allowed 
for in sufficient number to make it gay and effective. 
We have allowed for a screen of Ivy next the con- 
servatory and flower-beds, to shut the same off from 
the back entrance when viewed from a westerly 
standpoint. 

The small building shown as a conservatory could 
be heated by hot-water pipes connected with the 
kitchen boiler, or by a gas-stove. On no accoimt 
would we allow an oil-stove to be used in the struc- 
ture itself, in order to exclude frost and maintain the 
necessary temperature. These are always doubtful 
expedients, and not to be compared to the hot-water 
sj^stem of the present day. A vine or two would be 
suitable for the roof of this glass structure, if only to 
impart a shade during the summer months, and an 
incentive would thus be given to produce at least a 
few grapes. We hope in the next article to treat 
more fully on what to grow, and the easiest way of 
management, for a small glass-house such as this. 

In front of the conservatory are shown two spaces 
marked off for flower-beds. These would be suitable 
for summer bedding plants, to be followed by early- 
flowering Hyacinths and Tulips, Avith other popular 
flower-roots that could be moved with facility by the 
middle of the following May; cr they could be 
planted with Wallflowers, Pansies, Eorget-me-nots, 
Daisies, Primroses, or Polyanthus. If intermixed 
with each other they would look very well, and so, 
perhaps, be preferable for a small garden. These 
could all be removed and planted in a corner of the 
kitchen garden till required again the following 
autunm, with the exception of such as are annually 
raised from seed. 

Verandah. — On the south front of the house we 
have shown a verandah. This would be a charming 
addition to the garden or secluded side of the build- 
ing, and we often wonder why such additions are 
not more frequently seen, for when well clothed and 
festooned with suitable climbers, a verandah is one 
of the most attractive sights in a small garden, im- 
parting a pleasing appearance, whether "^'iewed from 
the interior of the dwelling, or seen from the ex- 
terior of the same when in the grounds. A bed 
suited for dwarf Hoses is shown near the conserva- 
tory, and some dots on the la-^m denote standards of 
the same flower. A spot is shown also at the oppo- 
site side of the house to that occupied by the bed of 
dwarf Roses, that we should consider a good position 
ior a specimen of Pampas grass. The shrubs on the 



southern side of the garden need not be very tall, 
unless to hide any objectionable object outside the 
boundary ; those, too, that face the house, and ad- 
joining the kitchen garden, should be chosen with a 
view of but few of them reaching to any very great 
height. At the back of these we would plant a 
hedge of evergreen Privet as a boundary to the 
kitchen garden. A bed is marked out in the nor-th- 
west corner of the lawn for Rhododendi-ons, in which 
position they would present a good ajjpearance vrhen 
in flower. If the lawn, however, is not required 
for tennis, this bed could be extended to twice the 
size, with a margin for Lilies and kindred subjects 
that would thrive well among the Rhododendrons. 
These arrangements, chosen for the aspects given on 
the plan, could all be modified to suit other cases, 
where the ground does not face the same quarters 
of the compass, bearing in mind that the greatest 
amoujit of protection is invariably required from the 
northern and easterly winds, and thus making 
arrangements for the better health of the tenderer 
occupants of the garden. 

This is a most essential piece of adAice, that should 
not in any case be overlooked, or deemed of no im- 
portance or consideration. Xumbers of instances 
could be cited by us, and many observant readere will 
of themselves easily discern cases of want of -pmc- 
tical experience in this direction, which might with 
ease have been avoided at the outset. The need of 
sound ad\ice in this respect by those who are practi- 
cally unacquainted with the requirements of plants 
is obvious, in order to avoid or lessen any futui'e 
failure. The work in connection with small gardens 
is oftentimes performed by hands that have not the 
shghtest knowledge of the needs of plant-Hfe : in 
such cases one cannot much wonder at failures 
occurring in numbers of instances. Small gardens, 
too, are planted as soon as the building operations 
are complete, in order to facilitate the letting of the 
house, but without any regard to the future well- 
being of the different subjects that are used. In all 
om- subiirbs there are gardeners who understand 
this kind of work, and the prr.ctical man will soon 
be readily discernible from the notice, although his 
advice and ex^^erience may at first sight appear the 
more expensive of the two. 

With respect to the space allotted as a small 
kitchen garden, we will first conmient shortly on the 
arrangement, and then enter more fully into the 
culture of the easier-grown amongst fruits and vege- 
tables. 

Kitchen Garden. — The portion of ground 
that is marked out for a small kitchen garden wul 
at once be discerned to be of rectangular forma- 
tion. This A\iU be found by far the best arrange- 



SUBUEBAN GARDENINa. 



287 



ment even in small gardens, where fruits, flowers, 
and vegetables are not all intermixed with. each, 
other, and this latter practice should by all possible 
means be avoided. It will- be far more productive 
of good effect to embrace the flowers and ornamental 
trees and shrubs in one arrangement (with the 
exception, as previously ad\'ised, of intermixing 
fruit-trees with the shruDsj, and that within view 
of the house itself. In this manner, the best 
possible piece of ground for a kitchen garden is 
that part which is the farthest removed from the 
dwelling, though convenience of access to the pro- 
duce often causes this arrangement to be reversed. 
When this plan is carried out, the formation as shown 
will be more readily obtainable. The ground opera- 
tions and the allotted portions devoted to the culture 
of each given subject can be more easily arranged, 
and with better effect, in such a case as that now 
brought under consideration. Every square yard of 
ground in such a plan can and should be made pro- 
ductive of the best possible results in the most 
economical manner consistent with good cultivation. 
In such small plots it is far easier to attain to a 
greater degree of cleanliness and freedom from 
weeds than in larger gardens, where it is not so 
probable that every part will come under the im- 
mediate eye of the occupier or owner, as the case 
may be. 

Maintenance. — One little i)iece of advice at this 
point might not be inappropriate, in relation to the 
sizes of gardens and the corresponding increase of 
expenditure to maintain them in good condition 
throughout. When any particular residence and 
grounds are under contemplation for either hire or 
purchase, it is best to consider well beforehand the 
probable cost of maintenance in a good general state 
of cultivation. Should the expense relative thereto 
eventually exceed the anticipations, the result will 
generally follow of an inferior condition of culture 
throughout, or in one portion being very much neg- 
lected. x\s far as the garden is concerned, it would 
be much better to keep clear of such places entirely, 
for if the space cannot be kept in a tolerably good 
condition, it will soon becomie an eyesore to any one 
who really loves a garden and good cultm-e therein. 
The result will inevitably follow of the garden 
becoming a burden rather than a pleasure. It will 
be found a far greater somx-e of enjoyment to 
maintain a small garden in a good state of culture, 
than a larger one partially neglected, and thus 
affording an inroad for weeds and other noxious 
deterrents to the occupants of the same. 

Fruit. — Reverting to our plan, it will be seen at 
once that we have allowed for fruit-trees on each of 



the three walls. The portion that faces about south 
would be most appropriate for Peaches, Nectarines, 
or Apricots, either of the two former being prefer- 
able to the latter, which is more liable to canker in 
its branches. Should neither of these fruits be 
approved of, no better place could be chosen for 
Tomatoes, which are now becoming so deservedly 
popular and in much request, as well as being 
amenable to a simple course of culture. The oppo- 
site piece of wall facing to the north would form a 
good position for Morello Cherries or Red Currants. 
In the case of the latter being chosen, the plants 
should be trained in candelabra or perpendicular 
style, as being at once the best and simplest method. 
The longer stretch of wall will afford an excellent 
place for Pear-trees, than which we do not think 
anything better could be chosen for that aspect, as 
facing towards the east. Plum-trees might certainly 
be planted, especially the Victoria Plum, but the 
probable yield would not equal that from the Pears. 
In the preparation of the borders for these fruit- 
trees on either portion of the wall, allowance for 
themL should be made prior to the jDath being laid 
down, so that every inducement may be given to the 
extension of the roots in each case beyond the 
limited extent between the walk and the wall. It 
will be better to have only a thinly-made path, than 
to endanger the root-extension by deeply excavating 
the soil to properly prepare a sound foimdation. As 
a marginal edging to these and all other kitchen 
garden borders and walks, nothing will surpass a 
stoutly-made pattern of terra-cotta edging tiles, 
that afford but scant refuge for snails or slugs, 
which will most surely prey upon the tender and 
succulent crops. Box edging is not to be recom- 
mended, being more liable to injury, and requiring 
far more attention to keep it in order. (See remarks 
on Edgings, p. 193.) 

Facing to the west will be found a fairly good 
border for Strawberries, and of greater width than 
the other three next to the walls. The protection 
of the hedge will act as a screen from the easterly 
winds, but it should not be allowed to reach to any 
excessive dimensions, either in height or thickness, 
or the surrounding ground would become im- 
poverished thereby. Between the hedge and the 
Strawberries, or any other chosen crop, a line should 
be occasionally stretched from end to end, and a 
spade thrust deeply clown, in order to sever the 
roots from the hedge-plants, and prevent them ex- 
tending too far into the soil of the border. For if 
the latter is maintained in good condition with 
dressings of manure, every inducement will be offered 
for the shrubs to appropriate the same to their 
benefit, which would not bo desirable nor necessary. 

The two central plots could be arranged for vega. 



288 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



table culture entirely, or a margin he allowed next 
the paths and around each plot for the culture of 
Gooseberries, Currants, and Raspberries ; a narrow 
border would suffice for these bush-fruits, three feet 
in width would be ample. All the remainder of the 
ground could be cultivated close up to these, or a very- 
narrow path allowed for, but we should not deem it 
necessary in such small plots of ground to make 
any such allowance. We would advise the margin 
around one piece to be planted alternately with 
Currants and Raspberries, and the other with Goose- 
berries and Raspberries, allowing about four feet 
from plant to plant. Planted near the walk, these 
fruits would be easy of access, and would not when 
arranged in this manner be so liable to depredations 
from birds, not nearly the amount of refuge being 
afforded them when distin-bed. By this method, 
too, there would be a decided gain in the general 
appearance, as well as every inch of ground being- 
economised for the culture of the indispensable 
adjuncts of even a small garden, when kejDt in good 
condition. Parsley, Lettuce, Radishes, and other 
similar small- growdng crops could be worked in 
close up to the bush-fruits, when the latter are only 
grown in a single line. 

Removal and Transit of Rubbish.. — We 

have shown a means of exit in one corner ; this should 
be secured if possible for the getting in of manure, 
and for the clearance of rubbish. This latter should 
not on any account be allowed to remain in heaps, 
but be removed on every available occasion before 
decay sets in. Cleanliness is needed in every garden. 
In a small one the opportunities are more abundant 
to secure this necessary point. 

Vegetables. — With respect to the vegetables best 
suited for a small garden few remarks are necessary. 
It is not advisable to grow large patches of any 
given sort, of Potatoes in particular. If any of 
this every-day vegetable are cultivated, only those 
with short haulm should be chosen, as giving the 
best possible return in a small space. The earliest 
sorts, too, should be selected ; then, as the groimd 
is cleared of the crop, another successional one can 
be got in without delay. Late Cauliflower, Broccoli, 
Colewort, Cabbages, Turnips, or Spinach would be 
good selections. In the case of neither of these 
vegetables would an)'- preparation of the ground be 
necessary beyond levelling it after the Potato crop, 
and the clearance of w^eeds ; digging the soil or the 
addition o£ manure not being required in either 
case. 

Peas are always appreciated when gro-^Ti in one's 
own garden, and to obtain a good crop is always 
very satisfactory. We advise those kinds classified 



as dwarf Peas to be chiefly relied upon. These caTi 
be grown -without the aid of sticks, which is a con- 
sideration when purchase of the same has to be 
resorted to. The dwarf Peas, too, can be grown 
much nearer together in the rows, the tall varietie& 
taking up too much space in a small garden. As- 
these are cleared off, another crop should be chosen 
to take their place. After the earlier varieties 
Spinach or Turnips would be a good selection, but 
after the late kinds we would advise the plantrag- 
of a bed of Cabbage plants for spring cutting. 
After these are cut in the spring, the stumps 
should be rooted up, and then the ground would 
be available for a few rows of Celery. Manure 
should have been used for the Cabbage crop, and a 
little also in the Celery trenches. AYhen the Celery 
is cleared away, the ground could be levelled off^ 
and left in readiness for Peas again. Having re- 
ceived a good working- when under culture with 
the Celery crop, renders it well calculated to bring a 
crop of Peas to perfection. Early Cauliflowers or 
Onions would also follow the Celery very well ; we 
do not advise many Onions to be gi-own, they being- 
purchased very cheaply in most locahties. Scarlet 
Runner Beans are a paying crop, and an investment 
in sticks for a row or t-wo of this A^egetable would 
amply repay for the outlay. French Beans (dwarf) 
are also easily grown, and scarcely need reconmien- 
dation. If the room at disposal is very limited, we 
would prefer them to the Scarlet Runners. A few 
rows of Brussels Sprouts would be of excellent 
ser-^dce ; they could be planted bet"v\-een the rows of 
Potatoes, provided the latter vegetable was given 
somewhat more space bet-^-een the rows, say 2 ft. 6 in. 
Vegetable Marrows require some considerable space, 
and a rich soil, in order to succeed well with them ; 
we would only advise a limited sj^ace being allotted 
for these. 

Carrots, Parsnips, Leeks, and Savoy Cabbages 
had better be left out of the list. The former 
vegetable is very uncertain in some districts, 
and the perfume from the Leeks is not of the most 
agreeable kind during the late autumn, especially 
after a few sharp frosts. If any Savoj's are gTO-wn, 
that kind known as " Tom Thumb " will be found 
the best, occupying but little space. With the pro- 
tection of a cold frame during the winter months, 
some early Cauliflow^ ers should be grown. A portion 
of ground that bore a late autunm crop should ue 
prepared during the winter to receive the young 
plants about the end of February. Asparagus is a 
well-known delicious vegetable, but requires a con- 
siderable amount of room. If any is gro-mi, we 
again advise the French mode of culture in ro-ws, 
not in beds as under the old English system. Broad 
Beans might be dotted between the Potato sets here 



COMMON GAEDEN FLO^^TEES. 



289 



and there, thus occup^-ing no material space of 
ground. 

We would now draw attention to the vegetables 
grown as salads. These are, we venture to think, 
well worthy of more attention than they generally 
receive in small gardens. Lettuces could be grown 
between other crops that are in an early stage of 
growth, and be well out of the way before any harm 
is done to either crop. Attention will be needed in 
order to obtain a succession ; this, by sowing and 
transplanting every few weeks, can be, generally 
speaking, well secui-ed thi-oughout the surumer 
months. Endive can be arranged for during the 
late autumn and early part of the winter with a 
little protection. Some few rows of Beet-root will 
be found of much service, being easily cultivated of 
sufficient size for all requirements. Eadishes can be 
sown in patches wherever there is an odd piece of 
ground vacant. The common AVatercress should 
not be overlooked ; it will thrive well in any moist 
comer of the garden, especially if shaded from the 
noonday sun, "When once sown, it will generally 
reproduce itself every season, with scarcely any at- 
tention to its culture. Mustard and Cress for small 
salad is of the easiest culture. In nearly every case 
when the growing of salads is attempted, the great 
thing to aim at is not to have too much of any one 
thing in fit condition for using at one and the same 
/ time. Small crops in various stages of growth will 
be by far the best course to pursue. 

Some few kinds of herbs will invariably afford a 
more than usual amount of satisfaction, being far 
preferable to the purchases generally made of such 
products. Parsley, for instance, should receive pro- 
minent notice, being in almost daily demand. It 
will thrive well and present a good appearance when 
arranged as an edging next to the tiles at the sides of 
the paths. Mint, too, is of easy culture, not requiring 
much attention. Thyme, Chamomile, Eennel, Sage, 
and Tarragon, all herbs of a permanent character, 
should each have a small space devoted to their cul- 
tm-e. Sweet and bush Basil, Marjoram, winter and 
summer Savory, Balm, and Borage can all be raised 
from seed annually, and should be allowed for ac- 
cording to the requirements. All these minor crops 
have already received special treatment in detail. 

"We would urge upon those who love their own 
productions, that have been grown under their imme- 
diate observation, to purchase at least a stout one- 
light garden frame. It would be useful, as pre\d- 
ously advised, for wintering Cauliflowers, after the 
removal of which it would also come into use for 
Cucumbers during the summer months, and then be 
prepared for the Cauliflowers again. 

Detailed and most explicit directions for the cul- 
tui-e of aU descriptions of vegetable products wiU 
19 



be found in other articles, the perusal of which 
will be most profitable to the owner of even a 
small garden; it is not necessary, therefore, for 
us to enter into such matters here. The same may 
be said of the cultiure of fruits ; we have here men- 
tioned those that would be of most value, with only 
a few general hints which may be of service in this 
particular class of garden ; the pruning of fruits, with 
illustrations and details of cultivation, wiU also be 
found elsewhere in this work. A list of the most 
suitable vegetables and fruits for a small garden, 
and a list of the best kinds of plants for the conser- 
vatory attached to the house, with such further 
details as may be necessary to obtaining in a small 
space the greatest result without too close and bur- 
densome attention, will sufficiently complete this 
series of articles. 



COMMO]^ GAEDEN FLOWEES. 



Lily of the Valley [Convallaria majalis). — 
This is no doubt the most popular and best known 
of the whole family of Lilyworts, and with the 
single exception of the Violet — if even that is an 
exception — it is the most delightfully fragrant plant 
in all the garden. It is a native of Britain, and 
indigenous to various parts of the country, and is also 
found wild over large tracts of the colder parts of 
Europe and Asia. It is mostly found in shady 
woods, and where it finds a congenial home the roots 
will run almost like Spear-grass, soon overspread 
and take full possession of large areas, covering* 
them with dense canopies of leaves, and these again 
are silvered over throughout the months of ]May and 
June with the gracefully-bearing flower-stems that 
ring out from their bending steeples their silvern 
bells, more redolent of sweetness, however, than 
productive of sound. The name Convallaria is 
said to be derived from convallis, a valley, and rica, 
a mantle, and is therefore at once descriptive of the 
density of growth and the favoured natural habitat 
of the plant. The English name, Lily of the Valley, 
is thus but a literal rendering of the botanical name 
Convallaria. 

There is but one species, majalis, for the so-called 
C. bifolia is a widely* different plant, with two 
leaves only, and has been transferred to the genus 
MaiantJienium. There are, however, several very 
distinct varieties, and among these the larger one, 
major, which has larger, stronger flower - stems, 
with more numerous and larger bells, and much 
broader leaves of more substance, is by far the best. 
This is also known as the German or Continental 
variety. It, however, retains its character in this 



290 



CASSELIi'S POPULAR aAEDENING. 



country, though, it needs liberal culture to bring it 
up to the high standard of imported clumps. With 
this and full exposure to sunshine during its growth, 
this variety grown in England is almost equal to 
imported crowns, and so enormous is the demand for 
Lily of the Valley for pot-culture and early forcing, 
that its culture for this purpose has now gTown 
into a special and profitable trade in England, as it has 
long been on the Continent ; and perhaps, looking at it 
in this light, there is more money in the Lily of the 
Valley than in any other plant in our gardens or 
woods. This and other points will be more fully 
adverted to under the head of Flower Forcing. We 
have only or chiefly to do with its merits as a com- 
mon garden plant here. The common variety, with 
narrower leaves, and smaller, more slender flower- 
stems, is the one most common in gardens, and 
gets naturalised in many woods and shrubberies. 
Whilst far from asserting that this should be 
superseded by the other and larger kind, it would 
be most desirable to add the latter to the former. 
The double variety, C. majalis Jlorcpleno, seems a 
Valley Lily half spoilt and robbed of much of its 
elegance and grace. The same remark is even more 
applicable to the red variety, C. m. rubrum. The 
Valley Lily is one of those cases in which the 
colour, or rather want of it, is one of the essentials 
of the flower, and hence a red Valley Lily is robbed 
of full half its charm. The variegated-leaved 
variety, however, is worth growing, as its handsome 
foliage, striped or blotched with gold, enables it, 
where it does well, to rank high as a variegated 
plant. This sort, which is rather rare, seems a 
sport from the larger-leaved and flowered strain of 
Valley Lilies known as major. 

The Lily of the Valley is by no means particular 
about soil, and may be said ahnost to thrive equally 
well in sunshine and in shadow, though the latter 
is mostly selected for it. But it does best in deep, 
rather rich loam, or soils rich in humus, such as 
those formed by the decomposition of leaves in old 
woods, or by incessant manurial dressings as in old 
kitchen gardens. At no season of its gTOwth should 
it be allowed to suffer for lack of water. An 
annual top-dressing over the crowns in the early 
autumn is also most useful, and as the running roots 
run fast and far, and break up into stems and 
flower-shoots almost at every joint, the plants soon 
run into a perfect thicket in which they smother 
each other, and should therefore be often lifted and 
divided, only however operating upon a portion at 
one time. In this way a good stock will always be 
had of the best quality. Xot a few never think of 
interfering with their Valley Lilies, and simply 
leave them to take care of themselves. This, in so far 
as their mere living and holding their own against 



all rivals, they are well able to do. But if fine 
foliage and good flowers are desired, liberal culture 
is needful to obtain them. It is true any x^art of the 
garden may grow Valley Lilies, but no portion of it 
can be too good to grow them to the highest perfection. 
A few patches or clumps should always be grown 
near the dwelling-house, so that its fragrance may 
be mixed with the odours of Violets, Roses, Sweet- 
briars, Gillyflowers, Mignonette, and Jasmine, in 
filhng the house with sweetness. A few clumps 
lifted any time from December to March, and placed 
in a sunny window, will anticipate the natural 
season of blooming by a month or six weeks, or even 
two months. And no plant can bring into the 
house more of fragrance or of sentiment, than a 
few pots or boxes of Valley Lilies in the window. 

Solomon's. Seal {Fohjgonatum). — This is another 
small order of the great family of Lilyworts, and 
somewhat resembles a huge Valley Lily, rising 
in the different species from a foot to a yard in 
height. The flower-stem is bent much in the same 
way, but the leaves are arranged on each side of it, 
and the white bell-like flowers droop from the imder 
side. These are, however, much larger and less 
white than in the Valley Lilies, and have little scent, 
though one variety is fragrant. The name is said to 
be derived from the many- jointed character of the 
stem [poly, many ; gonu, joint or knee). The English 
name is derived from the peculiar knots on the roots of 
some of the species, such as P. officinale, which when 
cut across have a striking appearance that has been 
fancifully compared to the impress of the seal of 
Solomon. Possibly this peculiarity might be the 
more readily revealed from the fact that the 
roots were often dug up, cut into sections, and 
applied to fi-esh wounds or bruises as an antidote to 
pain and to pre'. ent discolouration. Boys at school 
in the olden times, however ignorant of most plants, 
nearly all knew Solomon's Seal, and many were the 
roots dug up, sliced, and used after their pugilistic 
encounters. Hence possibly, to some extent, the 
immense popularity of this plant, which, however, 
deserves a place in every garden for its stateliness 
and beauty, independent of its fancied healing 
merits, or the hieroglyphics supposed to be half con- 
cealed, half revealed, in a cross-section of the swoUen 
portions of its curious roots. The plant flowers in 
jlay and June, and is among the most showy 
of an the plants in the mixed bed or herbaceous 
border while they last in flower. It may also be 
lifted and gently forced into flower at almost any 
season after November; or a few placed in the 
window, as advised for Valley Lilies, will flower 
well, and prove highly ornamental in such positions. 
Solomon's Seal is also well adapted for cutting, and 



COMMON GARDEN FLOWEES. 



291 



lasts "well in vases in cool rooms. There are several 
varieties of the different species vidgare which are 
all -worth growing, also a double-flowered variety 
which is rare, and a more dwarf form of the latter. 

F. latifoUum is a hold, broad-leaved species, with 
flower-stems rising to three feet. 

P. multiflorum is the species most generally grown 
in gardens, and as it is a native of Britain, it is 
iilso one of the hardiest and best. 

F. pnbescens, or Do-^ny-leaved Solomon's Seal, is a 
strikingly distinct species. 

F. japonica. — This differs considerably from either 
of the foregoing, the flower-stems being of a darker 
colour, and the habit more upright. There are 
several other species, but these will be found suflS- 
cient for almost any sized garden. 

The plant can be multiplied to any extent desired 
by di\-ision, and hence it is hardly needful to raise 
it from seed. In general terms it may be stated 
that any root- joint with a knot or knob on the end 
of it may be converted into a plant by simply dis- 
secting it into fragments, and planting it pretty 
1 Irmly about two or three inches deep in the ground. 
Light, rich, rather deep loam suits these plants best, 
and to maintain them in full vigour, fresh planta- 
tions and new sites should be made pretty often from 
the strong running shoots found on the outer ex- 
tremities of established clumps or masses. The 
old ones should, however, never be broken up, nor 
done away with, until the new clumps become firmly 
established, and have grown into such condition as 
to flower in quantity as before, and in far higher 
quality. If grown in front of shrubberies, as they 
often are, the plants will need good soil and frequent 
top-dressing to sustain their strength. The best 
places for Solomon's Seal are just those in which one 
so frequently finds it, about the middle line of mixed 
herbaceous beds or borders, with Phloxes, JMichael- 
mas Daisies, Golden Eods, iSrc, behind, and Pseonies, 
Stocks, Wallflowers, Asters, Marigolds, ifcc, in front 
of it. 

Bachelor's Buttons. — In his interesting book 
on the " Popular Xames of British Plants," Dr. 
Prior informs us that Bachelor's Buttons is " a 
name given to several flowers ' from their similitude 
to the jagged cloathe buttons antiently wome in 
the kingdom,' according to Johnson's Gerarde, 
but ascribed by other writers to a 'habit of 
country fellows to carry them in their pockets to 
divine their success with their sweethearts.' " In some 
parts of the country the name is applied to the 
red-flowered Lychnis diurna, in others to Scahlosa 
SHccisfi, the Devil's-bit Scabious, a blue-flowered peren- 
nial, growing in grassy and rather moist pastures. 
In modern gardens the term Bachelor's Buttons has 



come to be associated with ii«w^;wc?<^<<s acris florepleno, 
a double form of the Upright Meadow Buttercup, 
which is a very common native herb foimd in 
meadows and pastirres throughout Europe. Plow and 
when the double form originated we cannot say, but 
it jDroduces branching- flower-stems surmounted with 
medium-sized and very sjTnmetrical golden flowers ; 
and it has come to be cultivated in borders for its 
beauty, freedom, and durability. It truly deserves a 
place in every select collection of hardy perennials ; 
it grows freely, and does well in ordinary garden 
soil, but a good yellow loam suits it best. It is a 
plant that can be easily increased by means of divi- 
sion of the roots. 

Fair Maids of France. — This is Ranunculus 
aconitifolius floreploio, a very fine Crowfoot, intro- 
duced from France. Like the foregoing, there is a 
single as well as a double-flowered form ; the former, 
which was introduced from the moist parts and 
vaUeys of the Alps and Pyrenees, is not often met 
with, but the double form finds a place among select 
hardy border j)lants. It is indeed one of the best of 
our hardy perennials ; the flowers are pure white and 
exceedingly double, not unlike a miniature double 
white Camellia. The plant forms a branching bush, 
two feet or so in height, and it grows freely in any 
moist situation. A deep moist loam suits it well ; 
and the plants can be increased at any time by di- 
viding the roots. It is one of those things that 
when once grown will not soon be given up. 

Meadow Hue. — This name is applied to two or 
three varieties of TJirdictrum, which come under the 
denomination of " Flowers of the Field." Our object 
is to introduce to oui' readers the Columbine Meadow 
Eue, Thalictrum aqudeglfolium, a native of Germany 
and other parts of Central Eui'ope. This is named 
the Columbine Meadow Rue because the leaves of the 
plant are like those of the Columbine, and it bears 
pale purple flowers. There is a variety named 
roseum, in which the flowers are rose-coloured ; and 
both are stately x)lants, well deserving a place in the 
garden. It is a very accommodating plant, flourish- 
ing in any soil, but, like nearly all the perennials, it 
does well in a good loam. 

Columbine (Aqudee/ia rulr/ayis). — This charm- 
ing flower, which is a true British species, though 
abounding also in most parts of Europe and Japan, is 
a great favourite among our most popular common 
flowers. It derives its name, Columbine, from the 
fancied resemblance of its flowers to a nest of doves, 
columba being the Latin for dove. "When growing 
wild, its flowers are usually white or blue. It may 
be distinguished from all other British flowers by 



292 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



having each of its five petals terminated in an in- 
curved horn-like spur. We have now many beautiful 
varieties in our gardens, hut it is doubtful if we 
have advanced much beyond what our forefathers 
possessed one hundred and fifty years ago ; then 
" there were 
great varieties 
of this plant, 
the flowers of 
which are very 
double, and 
beautifully va- 
riegated with 
blue, purple, 
red, and white." 
But we have 
one great ad- 
vantage over 
our forefathers, 
.in that we in- 
herit several 
very handsome 
and striking 
species that 
were intro- 
duced from the 
Alps of Europe, 
from the Rocky 
Mountains, 
from the Hima- 
layas, and else- 
where : species 
varying much 
in character of 
flower, and ha- 
bit of growth ; 
some less hardy 
than our com- 
mon Colum- 
bine ; but all of 
great value, 
and which have 
been used for 
crossing pur- 
poses, placing 
us in possession 
of many beau- 
tiful garden 
varieties. A. 

alpina, A. chrysardha, A. cmrulea, A. glandulosa, 
and A. Skinncri, among others, may be mentioned 
as particularly deserving of attention as introduced 
species, and they have produced forms of great 
beauty. 

The common Columbine is perfectly hardy, and 
it will flourish in stiff wet soils where many 




Columbine (Aqtjilegia vdlgaeis) 



other plants will fail ; and it will also do well 
under the shade of trees. Many of the double 
varieties are exceedingly beautiful, especially some 
that have dark colours, edged with white on their 
many petals. Some admire the single varieties 

most ; others, 
the double ; 
but all are well 
deserving of 
cultivation, and 
when once 
grown will not 
soon be aban- 
doned again. 

Aquilegias 
are propagated 
by means of 
seed, and it 
should be sown 
in pots or pans 
of good, light 
soil, early in 
March, which 
place in a cold 
f ram e : the 
seeds will soon 
grow, and when 
the plants are 
strong enough 
the}' should be 
planted out in 
the open 
ground, in rich 
soil. If the 
season is fa- 
vourable to a 
quick growth, 
most of the 
seedlings raised 
from the seed 
sown in March 
will flower, and 
so they would 
be practically 
annuals. The 
general rule, 
however, is to 
sow in June, in 
the open air, on 

a warm border. The Aquilegia is a very hardy 
plant ; the severest frosts do not injure the common 
varieties; but such species as coerulea, glandulosa, 
and others, are less hardy, and require to be grown 
in a lighter soil in a more elevated position, exces- 
sive damp often being fatal to them. 

Any fine varieties that it is desirable to increase 



COlVmON GARDEN FLOWERS. 



293 



can be multiplied by division of the roots. A strong 
plant, say one two years old, can be divided, if care- 
fully done, into two or three, and in this way a 
number of plants can soon be had. Seed cannot be 
depended upon to produce exactly the form it is 
desired to preserve. Some will be true to character, 
but a great many will sport into other coloiu-s, as 
is common with 



many 
flowers. 



other 




Th.e Dian- 
thus. (We get 
this name from 
dios, divine, and 
unthos, a flower). — 
Under this head- 
ing there is in- 
cluded a large tribe 
of hardy, and we 
might say charm- 
ing flowers. The 
Carnation, Picotee, 
and Pink are dealt 
with elsewhere, and 
they are all Dian- 
thuses. There is 
the Alpine Pink 
(D. alpiniis), the 
beautiful mountain 
Pink from the Alps 
of Austria, that 
does well on ex- 
posed spots, 
planted in a light, 
gritty loam, where 
it can remain un- 
disturbed. There 
is the Cheddar 
Pink {D. ccesius), 
■which can be found 
on the limestone 
Tocks at Cheddar, 

in Somersetshire : a dwarf-gTOwing kind, producing 
dense tufts, and flourishing in dry sandy borders, 
on rock-work. There is the Maiden Pink 



Brilliant. 



Eastern Queen. 



DiANTHTJS CHIITENSIS HeDDEWIGII. 



and 



{D. deltoides), which is found in Europe, A.sia, and 
Britain, but not in Ireland ; forming grassy tufts, 
and making a pretty rock plant. There is the 
Glacier Pink {JD. glacialis), a charming but very 
dwarf plant, only two or three inches in height, and 
which is found on the granitic Alps of the Tyrol. 
These, together with a few others not so well known, 
make up a group of rock plants of a very pleasing 
character, that are wonderfully pretty when tho- 
roughly established in suitable spots. Some persons 



grow them in pots in gritty soil, and very pretty 
indeed they are when well managed. 

There is also the Fringed Pink (D. superhus), a tall- 
growing handsome form, fragrant, height twelve 
to eighteen inches, the petals of the flowers having 
the appearance of being cut into strips for more 
than half their length. With the exception of 

the last-named the 
foregoing are all 
hardy perennials, 
and in light soils 
D.superhus, though 
really a biennial, 
will become quite 
perennial in char- 
acter. 

Sweet William. 
— The dear eld 
Sweet William of 
our gardens is 
Dianthus harhatus, 
which meanc 
bearded. It is as 
common in gardens 
as some weeds. If 
it is not in a gar- 
den, there is some- 
thing wanting. 
This is not an 
English flower, 
though found in 
almost every Eng- 
lish garden, but it 
originally came to 
us from various 
parts of Central 
and Southern Eu- 
rope. Though re- 
garded as a bien- 
nial, it is in some 
soils a perennial ; 
but those desiring 
to have fine flowers 
every year. This is 
best done in ]\Iay and June, because the plants have 
time to grow strongly, and they can then be depended 
upon to flower the next year. The Sweet William 
has been greatly improved dui'ing the last twenty- 
five years, A Mr. Joseph Hunt, of High AYycombe, 
was fortunate in raising a strain, fine and varied in 
colour, with large bold pips with smooth edges, borne 
on fine trusses of flower. Then Mr. W. Dean, Ship- 
ley, Yorkshire, raised what he called an Auricida- eyed 
strain, having fine pips also, some with smooth and 
some with fringed edges, but all having striking 
white centres. The seed can be sown in shallow 



Crimson Belle. 



will do well to sow some seed 



294 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



boxes, or in beds of fine soil in the open ground, and 
when the plants are large enough, transplanted to 
where they have to flower. The plants should not 
be starved ; they should be in a rich deep loam, where 
they can root freely, and then they flower very finely. 
There are a few double varieties that are esteemed 
because more lasting in character, but they are not 
nearly so showy as the single forms. One, a dwarf- 
growing and very free-flowering bright crimson- 
coloured variety, is very showy in the open border. 
In the market gardens round London a dark reddish- 
leaved single variety is grown, which is sometimes 
used for filling flower-beds in spring. 

Mule Pinks. — There is a group of Mule Pinks of 
a very showy and useful character. They are grouped 
under the head of Bianthus hyhridus, and include 
3everal varieties of different shades of colour, bearing 
medium-sized double flowers. In habit of growth they 
greatly resemble the Sweet William, and they have 
probably been obtained from a cross between the Car- 
nation and the Sweet William. They are of vigorous 
growth, and very free-blooming, and make excellent 
border plants. They are more persistent in flowering 
than some other members of the Dianthus tribe, in 
that they throw up successional flower-stems. The 
varieties can be increased by means of cuttings, and 
division of the roots. The colours are varied — from 
pale pink to deejD crimson through many pleasing- 
shades. They are mainly of Continental origin, and 
new varieties occasionally come to England from 
abroad. Some of these Mule Pinks should find a 
place in the border of hardy plants. A few of the 
best varieties are — Marie Pare, Multiflorus, High- 
clere, Napoleon III., Rosetta, and Striatiflorus. 

Indian Pinks. — These are varieties of B. chinoisis, 
the China Pink, which was introduced in 1 7 1 3. It 
has become greatly improved during the past few 
years ; there are now a great number of varieties of 
varied colours, both double and single, and all worthy 
a place in the garden. Those who have to supply 
cut flowers should make a practice of having a line 
or small bed of this useful Dianthus, which, though 
classed with the biennials, can be treated as an annual, 
for if the seeds are sown in the open air in early 
spring the plants will flower the following summer, 
and they keep blooming until quite late in the year ; 
the more they are cut, the more flowers are produced. 
There is a larger-flowered form of the Indian Pink, 
known as Bianthus ehinensis Heddeivigii ; it was 
raised by Mr. Heddewig, of St. Petersburg, about 
1858 or 1859, and represented a very large-flowering 
single Indian Pink, of great beauty, and with smooth 
edges to the petals. As it seeded freely, seedlings 
were soon obtained from it, and one of the earliest 
was laciniatus, having very handsome fringed flowers. 
Seedlings were found to show a great variety of 



colours and character; and later on double forms 
began to appear, and they reproduced themselves 
from seed. We tliink the single forms preferable to 
the double, and a few of the former have proved so 
fine in character that they have been named, such as 
Crimson Belle, Brilliant, Eastern Queen, &c., all very 
beautiful ; Brilliant is remarkable for its rich ver- 
milion hue. Seed of these fine fonns should be sown 
in early spring on good soil in the open ground, the 
plants thinned out, and then they will flower finely 
during the summer. 

Delphiniums. — These are known as the peren- 
nial Larkspurs, and the name was given from delpli'ui, 
a dolphin, because of the supposed resemblance of the 
spur of the flower to a dolphin's head. B. datum is 
the Bee Larkspur, and was introduced from Siberia 
nearly 300 years ago. As far back as 1817 one of the 
most reliable catalogues of plants published at that 
time gives only nine species and varieties, but since 
that time there has been a great increase, and new 
varieties are constantly being raised both at home 
and abroad. It would be very difiicult to trace back 
the descent of these, but we may fairly assume that 
they are the result of crossing the different species 
and varieties, and so obtaining new types. There 
are now in cultivation nearly one hundred varieties, 
mostly of great beauty, all hardy in character, vary- 
ing in colour and size of the flowers — some double 
and some single, some taU-growing and some dwarf- 
growing— stately plants, flowering freely, very showy, 
and producing magnificent spikes of bloom. 

The culture of the Delphinium can be set forth in 
a few words. It succeeds best on a rich, deep, mellow 
loam, where the plants have ample space in which to 
develop themselves. If left alone for a few years 
they grow into very strong plants, but they are 
greatly helped by being mulched Avith manure in 
spring and autumn. In order to have fine spikes of 
flower, it is best to lift and re-plant once in two or 
three years, digging and well manuring the ground. 
An open and sunny spot suits the Delphinium best, 
but it should be of a character of soil into which the 
plants can strike their roots deeply, or they will be 
apt to sufi^er during a time of drought. If any one 
wishes to enjoy the Delphinium they would do weU. 
to plant a bed of different varieties, placing the tallest 
in the middle, and the dwarfer-growing varieties 
round the sides. In dry weather the plants must be 
freely watered, and a mulching of leaves and dimg 
during the summer will greatly help to keep the soil 
cool and moist. 

As Delphiniums are generally free seeders, young 
plants can be raised from seeds. It is not. very often 
resorted to, perhaps, because the named varieties in 
cultivation are so handsome and good that people find 



THE LTFE-HISTORr OF PLANTS. 



295 



seedlings are no improyement upon them ; also the 
seeds are slow to germinate, and much patience is re- 
quired, and if the seed is kept for a time its germi- 
nating power becomes lost. The seed of some of the 
sorts will not germinate for a whole year. Those 
who have a desire to raise seedlings would do well to 
take some seeds from a few of the hest varieties they 
may grow, and sow it as soon as it is ripe in shallow 
boxes filled with a light soil, placing them in a cold 
frame, moistening the surface when necessary^ and 
waiting patiently for the young plants to appear. 
When they are large enough they should be trans- 
planted to a warm border to grow into size, and then 
they can be planted out where they are to flower. 

Choice varieties can be increased by division of the 
roots. In order to have young growths out of which 
to make plants, the flower-stems should be cut away 
as soon as they have done blooming, and the plants be 
well watered if necessary ; they will then begin to 
put up young growths, and by careful division of. 
these when strong enough a number of young plants 
can be obtained. As a matter of precaution, it is 
well to put them singly into pots, using a suitable 
soil, and keep them in a cold frame, shading from 
the sun, and occasionally sprinkling overhead in dry- 
ing weather. When they have made roots they can 
be placed in the open border with the certainty of 
success. 

Some thirty or so years ago, Mr. W. Lobb, the 
collector, sent home from California a scarlet-flowered 
Delphinium, named carcUnale, of which great expecta- 
tions were formed ; but it was found difiicult to cul- 
tivate successfully in this country, and now it has 
become almost extinct. It was hoped that it would 
prove a valuable species for hybridising, but we be- 
lieve nothing came of it. A few years ago, B. niidi- 
caule (the Dwarf Eed Delphinium) was introduced from 
CaKfornia, and being much more capable of naturali- 
sation than D. cardinale, it has become a favourite in 
gardens ; but it requires to be grown in a warm 
position. On a stiff wet soil, it soon rots. When it 
dies down in autumn, the roots are quite on the sur- 
face, and it is a good and safe plan to cover them 
with some good soil to insure their growth in spring. 
It deserves the little extra care it requires, for it is a 
charming species. 

The following makes a fine selection of Del- 
phiniums : — 

Double-flowered Varieties. 



Single-flowered Varieties. 



Alopecuroides, bronzy-blue. 
Britannicus, rosy-lilac and 

bright blue 
Dicksands, deep plum - 

purple and pink. [lilac. 
Exquisite, cobalt-blue and 
Hermann Stenger, violet 

and blue. 
Lamartine, rosy - lilac and 

azure-blue. 



Michelet, blue and lilac. 

Mozart, mauve, blue and rose 

Noblissima, blue, rosy-lilac, 
and orange. 

Paul et Virginie, bright blue, 
bronzy-red, and white. 

Eanunculaeflorum, bronzy- 
lilac and cobalt-blue. 

Victory, violet-blue, lilac, 
and white. 



Admiration, violet-blue and 
white. 

Brilliant, shining indigo- 
blue. 

Cantab, pale blue, white 
centre. 

Enchantress, lavender-blue. 
Formosum, dark blue. 
Illustration, blue and lilac. 



La Belle Alliance, sky-blue, 

white, and orange. 
Madame A. Etienne, clear 

violet. 

Magnificum, brilliant blue 

and bronzy-red. 
Miss Payne, azure-blue. 
M. Riviere, violet-red. 
Mr. Gerard Leigh, sky-blue. 



THE LIFE-HISTORY OF PLANTS. 

By Dr. Maxwell T. Masteks. F.E.S. 



GBOWTE— BULBS, COBMS, AND TUBEES. 

IN pursuance of our plan of tracing the history of 
plant-growth from its several starting-points 
onwards, we come now to the consideration of a 
number of organs dift'ering from either seeds or 
buds, but having much analogy to both. And first of 
Bulbs. 

Varieties in Bulbs. — There are many dif- 
ferent sorts of bulbs, as any one may see who 
compares that of an Onion or a Hyacinth with 
that of a White Lily, that of a Snowdrop or a 
Tulip with that of an Amaryllis. It forms no 
part of our plan to describe all these varieties in 
detail, though we strongly recommend the young 
gardener to examine the mode of growth of bulbs of 
various kinds at various stages, as a valuable means 
of gaining an insight into the course of plant-life. 
Here we can only point out the main circumstances 
upon which the variations depend, and suggest some 
of the inferences that may be drawn as to the nature 
of bulbs, the work they do, and their appropriate 
treatment. Speaking generally, they consist of a 
number of leaf-scales, enclosing or wrapping round 
a central growing point ; and so far they exactly 
correspond with the buds. Like many buds, they 
contain not only the rudiments of leaves, but the 
beginnings of the flowers ; like many buds also, they 
often contain the germ, not only of the next season's 
growth, but of that of subsequent ones also ; or, at 
least, they contain growing points of difiterent gene- 
rations, just as was pointed out in the case of the 
Ash (Fig. 18, p. 195). The individuality or indepen- 
dence which has been already mentioned as one of 
the characteristics of ordinary buds, is much more 
marked in that modification of a bud which wo call 
a bulb. Indeed, a bulb, as a rule, constitutes the 
whole of the plant ; but it may be merel}^ the ter- 
minal bud of an underground stem or branch, and 
hence, though there is usually no difficulty in de- 
fining a bulb, there are sometimes cases in which it 
is difiicult or impossible to draw a line of demarca- 
tion between it and other structures like buds — 



296 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXIXG. 



tubers, . root-stocks, &c. Tlie differences between 
bulbs and buds depend on the fact tbat while the 
bud is usually one of many connected together by a 
common branch or stem, the bulb itself may, and 
often does, constitute the entii'e plant, and for the 
most part, though not exclusively, it is subterranean 
in its mode of growth. 

From our present point of view, however, the 
great distinction lies in the different nature of the 
scales. The bud-scales, as we have seen, serve to 
protect the young growing point 
within from undue cooling or ra- 
diation, and from drying up by 
loss of moistm^e from the interior ; 
but they do not serve as store - 
organs, and the growing point, as 
it lengthens into a shoot, derives 
little or none of its supplies of 
water or food from the scales. 
Theii' purpose fulfilled, they are 
cast off and are of no further use, 
unless it be to restore to the soil 
some of the earthy ingredients 
derived from it, and of which they 
contain considerable quantities. In 
the case of the bulb it is quite 
different — whether the scales wrap 
round the growing point, as in the 
Onion or the Hyacinth, or whether 
each individual scale only covers a 
portion of the bulb, as in the Lily 
(Fig. 26), just as a single tile or 
slate covers its portion of the roof. 
In both cases the scales are filled 
■with food accumulated in the past 
season and intended for use in a 
future one, after an interval of 
rest. When a Hyacinth or other 
bulb commences to grow, it uses the 
food stored up in its own tissues, 
and does not, for some time at least, 
derive much, if any, nomishment (save perhaps 
water) from the water or soil in which it is placed. 
A due supply of water may be necessary to help in 
the solution of the nutritive matter and insure its 
easy transport to the points where it is most needed. 
It is this necessity for an abundant supply of water 
which leads gardeners to recommend the bulbs in- 
tended to be grown in glasses to be put in a dark 
place and in a warm cupboard before they are ex- 
posed to the light. The object of this is to aid the 
development of the roots, and by their means to 
secure a supply of water to facilitate the subsequent 
steady, uninterrupted- growth of the leaves and of 
the flower-stalk. 

So far as the flowers are concerned, their growth 




Fig. 26.— The Bulb of the Common 
White Lily. 



depends more upon the amount of food stored up in 
the bulb the season pre\ious than it does upon any 
supplies obtained this present season. 

The production of flowers is, however, not the 
only work the bulb has to accomplish. Xew bulbs 
have to be formed and fresh stores accumulated in 
them, and to fulfil these ends aright, leaf -action 
must be proportionately vigorous. This subject of 
leaf-action will have to be treated of further on ; we 
allude to the subject now incidentally to protest 
against the barbarous practice of 
some "jobbing" gardeners igno- 
rant of their craft, and of amateurs 
exercising no thought, of cutting 
off the foliage from the bulbs, or 
what comes to the same thing, from 
the " coi-ms " of their Crocuses. 
Every leaf should be left on so 
long as it is capable of doing 
efficient work. AVTien its work is 
coming to an end — when the sere 
and yellow leaf appears — then is 
the time to remove it. TTiis is the 
indication that the bulb is going to 
rest, and that rest may effectually 
be secm-ed by "lifting," i.e., dig- 
ging up the bulbs, drpng them 
off, and keeping them as the Dutch 
bulb-growers do, in a diy place, 
under a imiform temperature, so 
that nothing shall stimulate growth 
till the desired time. It may be 
objected that in nature the bulbs 
are not dug up and treated in this 
way, and that is of course true. 
The same object is, however, at- 
tained in a different way. For the 
most part these bulbous plants are 
natives of hot dry climates, where, 
during the growing season, there 
is abundant rain and . genial 
warmth. Exposed to these conditions, the bulb 
grows, flowers, and makes pro^-ision for the future. 
Then comes a hot dry season ; the leaves shrivel, the 
surplus water evaporates, and the bulb goes to rest 
till reawakened in the following season by the rain. 
In colder climates the diminishing heat of autunm 
insures the gradual going to rest of the bulbs : fi'ost 
puts a stop to growth altogether, and the bulb re- 
mains dormant till spring rains or melting snow afford 
sufficient water, in combination with sufiiciently in- 
creased temperature, to start the buib once more 
into gTowth. 

There are other bulbs, however, in which the 
course of events is different ; such, for instance, are 
the evergreen bulbs, like those of Crinum or 



THE LIFE -HISTORY OF PLA^^TS. 



297 



Eucharis. Here there is no such, marked intermis- 
sion of growth ; the leaves do not wither periodi- 
cally-, and growth is relatively, at ■ least, continuous. 
Such hulbs are mostly natives of tropical or equa- 
torial climates, where throughout the year there are 
continuous moisture and continuous high tempera- 
ture, with comparatively little fluctuation of climatic 
conditions. It is clear that to dry up such bulbs 
^vould be to weaken, probably kiU them; hence 
theix roots should always be kept moist, and a 
period of comparative rest secured by lowering the 
temperature and diminishing, but 
not entirely withholding, the water- 
supply. 

The Bulb and the Flower. 

— The variations in bulb- conforma- 
tion are, as already stated, numer- 
ous, but in this place no further 
mention need be made of them, ex- 
cept it be to point out the different 
positions of the flowers. In some 
"bulbs, like those of the Onion or of 
the bulbous Irises, or Snowdrop, 
the primary growing point of the 
bulb ends in the production of a 
flower or a head of flowers ; con- 
sequently any further growth in 
that particular direction is put a 
stop to, and any subsequent growth, 
if it occur at all, must be from 
below the point. A Tulip affords 
another illustration of the same 
kind. If a bulb be taken up in 
summer after the flowering is over, 
^ind when the leaves are commenc- 
ing to wither, and it bo cut down 
through the centre, the following 
■appearances may be seen. In the 
centre is the lower part of the stalk which has borne 
the flowers. From the lower part of thz:: stalk emerge 
the roots. On either side of the central column may 
he seen one or more plump new buds, destined to con- 
tinue the growth next season. These buds originate 
from the base of the central column or stem, in the 
axil of one or other of the scales — in fact, in precisely 
the same way as before explained in the case of 
axillary buds. (See (i-w^e, p. 199.) Outside these new 
huds may be seen two or three scales now dry or 
rapidly shrivelling, which are the outer scales of 
the original bulb. 

In this case, then, the original bulb flowers, makes 
provision for the future, and then dies. The Tulip 
of the present year is, therefore, not the same bulb 
as that of the year preceding, but a direct descendant 
irom it. 




Fig. 27.— Section of Hyacinth. 



The Amaryllis, Hyacinth, and Narcissus have 
bulbs of a different character (Fig. 27). In them 
the primary growing point does not end in a flower, 
but remains as a vegetative structure. The illustra- 
tion at Fig. 27 does not clearly indicate the true 
nature of the flower- spike, which appears to be, 
but is not, terminal. The flower- stalks here are 
truly axillary structures, coming off from the sides 
of the bulb. As the older scales at the outside 
and base of the bulb dry up and die, new growth 
takes place in the terminal growing point, and so in 
this case the bulb of the present 
year is the direct continuation of 
that of the year preceding. Vege- 
tation is carried on by the renewed 
growth of the same original grow- 
ing point, but axillary growth also 
takes place, for in general, not only 
the flower-stalk, but numerous 
lateral " offsets," will be produced 
from such bulbs, and, indeed, it is 
by such means that bulb -growers 
multiply their stock. Mention has 
also pre^nously been made of ad- 
ventitious buds, and of buds whose 
dormant activity is called into life 
by injury to the main stem. Bulbs 
often supply illustrations of this 
phenomenon, and one means of 
multiplying bulbs of the Hyacintli 
is to scoop out the lower part of 
the bulb, or to cut it across in 
various directions. Along the 
edges of the wound a vast number 
of small bulbules are formed, at first 
consisting of scales only, but which 
after two or thi^ee years' growth 
produce flowers in the ordinary 
way. 

Another point may be alluded to as having a 
bearing on practical cultivation, and that is the dif- 
ference in the leaves of the bulbs and the alternation 
of form and oflace which they present. It is hardly 
necessary to say that the scales of a bulb and the 
true leaves are essentially the same, the one being 
merely a modification of the other. The position, 
origin, and arrangement of the organs in question 
would suffice to prove their identity, w^ere it not ren- 
dered even more obvious by the fact that the base of 
the leaf is often fleshy, the free end fohaceous, thus 
presenting both phases in one and the same organ. 
Ordinarily, however, there is an alternation of 
growth. First the bulb-scales are formed ; these 
are depots of food-stores derived and accumulated 
from the leaves of the parent bulb ; then the true 
leaves appear within the scales, they lengthen, and 



298 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GARDEXIXG. 



in theiz' turn acquire and elaborate food for the next 
generation of bulbs. In the Hyacinth and bulbs of 
that character there are, from what has been said, 
numerous generations of leaves, first scaly and acting 
as food-stores, next leafy and acting as food-getters 
and food-formers. In the Tulip, on the other hand, 
owing to its mode of growth, there are but two 
generations of leaves — the first scaly, the next leafy — 
and then there is an end to the growth of the plant, 
so far as that generation is concerned. The subse- 
quent alternations of scale and leaf 
manifest themselves not in the 
primary bulb, which wears itself 
out in the production of flowers 
and succession buds, but in those 
secondary buds. 

We have here illustrated two 
phenomena of plant-growth, which 
are repeated in other organs, but to 
which we desire to call attention 
here on account of the very marked 
manner in which they are mani- 
fested. These two phenomena are 
(1) the alternate production of 
modifications of the same organs, 
these modifications being adapted 
to serve distinct pur|)oses ; and (2) 
the " indefinite " and " definite " 
modes of growth respectively. "We 
shall see later on that where the 
main flower-stalk ends in a flower 
(as in the Tulip), there is no further 
growth at the end of that stalk; 
growth there is arrested or defined 
by the production of a flower ; but 
where the growing point at the 
extremity of a stem does not end in 
a flower, growth in length goes on 
" indefinitely." 

The remarks made as to the 
nature and mode of growth of bulbs apply, with 
slight modification, to other underground organs 
acting as store-houses of food or starting-points of 
growth, such as " corms," " tubers," " root-stocks," 
or "rhizomes," and the like. Indeed, although in 
most cases it is easy to give satisfactory definitions 
of these organs, yet they sometimes run one into 
another in such a way that accurate definition be- 
comes impossible. These are matters, however, 
which do not greatly concern us from the point of 
view of practical cultivation. If only the general 
principles of their growth and of the work they 
have to do be grasped, the varied details of their con- 
formation may be left to the botanist. We may, 
however, fitly allude to some of the commoner and 
best-known forms above mentioned. 




Fig. 28.— Corm of Crocus, with 
new growths issuing from 
the top of the old one. 



Corms. — As usually understood, corms or *' solid 
bulbs," as they are also called, differ from bulbs in 
this, that the scales on the outside are dry and few 
in number, while the base or lower part of the stem 
from which they spring is greatly dilated. The 
depot of nutriment in this case is therefore in the 
stem, not in the scales. 

The Crocus and the Gladiolus afford familiar 
examples of the corm. Their mode of growth is 
the same as to general principles as that of the biilbs. 

Tbe Gladiolus, for instance, aft'ords 
an illustration of a terminal corm ; 
the main stem ends in the inflo- 
rescence which, together with the 
old conn, withers after flowering, 
lea ring a lower bud of axillary 
origin to carry on the growth in 
the next season. A Gladiolus corm 
examined in the spring of the year 
shows the withered remnants of 
the old corm, surmounted by the 
new one, from the base of which 
proceed the roots. On remoring 
the base of the sheathing leaves, 
small buds may be seen in the axil, 
which will not flower this season, 
but in a subsequent one. 

In the Crocus the new corms 
formed in spring are developed 
from the top of the old corm, as 
shown in Figs. 28 and 29. They are 
for a longer time dependent on the 
old corm than in the case of the 
Gladiolus, as may be seen by the 
fact that roots proceed from the 
base of the new corm in spring, 
while at the same period, in the 
case of the Crocus, there are no 
roots yet produced from the new 
corm, the withering old corm still 
retaining its roots. " Every living part of a Crocus," 
says Mr. Maw, " is annually replaced. The corm 
tunic is the only permanent record of perennial 
existence, and even this in its living state lasts but a 
year." The general mode of growth is thus essen- 
tially similar to that already mentioned in the case of 
the Tulip. Considering, then, the short time that a 
Crocus has wherein to develop its flowers, its leaves, 
and its successional corms, the folly of cutting off 
the leaves prematurely becomes the more apparent. 

Tubers. — For our present purpose we may con- 
sider a tuber to be a thickened shoot, without any 
investing scales, but with one or more " eyes," that 
is, buds. In a bulb or a corm the central stem from 
which the scales and leaves proceed is short and 



THE LIFE-HISTOEY OF PLAXTS. 



299 



thick ; in a tuber it is usually more or less elon- 
gated. It is, however, rather in their production at 
the ends of longish thread-like branches that the 
difference mainly consists. Tubers are generally 
grouped by gardeners as forms of roots; but this 
arrangement by no means pleases the botanist, and 
is, indeed, fatal to clearness of conception, while the 
treatment that is appropriate to a tuber is by no 
means suitable to a root. The technical difference, 
not to mention differences of structure and mode of 
growth, consists in the fact that in 
a tuber there are eyes or buds, while 
a true root is destitute of these pro- 
ductions. Xevertheless, there are, 
as has been already mentioned, some 
awkward intei-mediate formations, 
the plague of the botanist, the des- 
pair of the devotee of exact science, 
which will not fit in comfortably 
A\-ith any definition that may be 
framed ; such are the tubers of the 
Dahlia, of terrestrial Orchids, the 
thick stem of the Cyclamen, or the 
pseudo - bulb of the epiphytal * 
Orchids, and many others. How- 
ever different morphologically — 
that is, structurally — they are 
but illustrations of nature's method 
of compassing the same ends by 
varied agents. They are very in- 
teresting to the morphologist and 
physiologist, but of little \a.hie to 
the systematic botanist, because 
they afford little or no indications 
of real affinity, plants of the most 
diverse lineage ha^TUg in this 
matter similar structure. The most 
useful course appears to be to allude 
to such of these formations as are 
most important to the cultivator, 
and to do so from his point of ^-iew and that of the 
physiologist. So considered, all these nondescript 
structures fall very naturally and conveniently 
under the head of Eeserve-organs, taking their place 
as such by the side of seeds, buds, bulbs, and other 
organs of storage, and illustrations of intermittent 
energy' or suspended animation. 

First and foremost in importance is the Potato, 
" the noble tuber." Great as is its importance to us, 
that importance is largely artificial. Of the seven 
or eight hundred species of SoJanum known in a 
wild state, only some half-dozen are known to pro- 
duce tubers, and only one, S. tuherosum, the Potato 

* Epipli}-tal, a term applied to plants which, grow upon 
other trees, hiit -n-hich, as they do not penetrate beneath 
their surface, do not derive any nourishment from them. 




par excellence, has been brought into cultivation. So 
far, all the numerous varieties of Potato in cultiva- 
tion are mere seedling or selected variations from 
this one species. The point we would here impress 
is that the formation of tubers so important to us 
is clearly of vastly less significance to the members 
of the genus Solanuin, in which, indeed, it can only 
be looked on as exceptional. The object of the 
cultivator should be directed, not so much to the 
conditions under which the members of the genus 
Solanum naturally grow, as to the 
peculiar conditions which have 
caused one particular species in an 
especial manner to develop tubers. 
It must never be forgotten by the 
thoughtful cultivator that particular 
plants— wild plants — do not as a rule- 
gTOw under the conditions which are 
the most favourable to them, but 
where they can hold their own in 
face of the severe competition to 
which they are exposed, and in spite- 
of the many adverse conditions by 
which they are handicapped. This 
truth was long ago insisted on by 
Dean Herbert, one of the foremost 
physiologists and cultivators of this 
coimtry, and it is a truth that 
should be full of encouragement to- 
the gardener, who often has it in his 
power to remove any given plant 
from the struggle Tsith competitors, 
and not only to banish adverse con- 
ditions, but to place the plant under 
the most favourable circumstances 
possible for its development. This- 
is what has been done partially for 
the Potato ; partially, because only 
with reference to the production of 
tubers, the tendency to the formation 
of which has been by the art of man, and the- 
plasticity of the plant, enormously increased. But 
this development of one organ has been obtained at 
the expense of some compensatory drawbacks, fore- 
most among which is an enhanced tendency to 
become diseased, or at any rate a diminished power 
of resistance when attacked. 

The tuber of the Potato is nothing but the 
thickened end of an under-ground branch. As it is 
destined to remain under-ground, no true leaves are 
formed, and therefore any food it may get is con- 
veyed to it, not formed by or in it. That it is a 
branch is shown by its origin from the stem or 
haulm, and this is further shown by the presence of 
the eyes or buds. The Fir-cone Potato, a variety 
occasionally met with, resembles a long Fir-cone 



Section of Corm of 
Crocus. 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



or an Asparagus-slioot, the nature of which, latter is 
obvious. It is, in fact, a terminal bud, such as 
before described, but one . in -^hich the central por- 
tion is enormously thickened, which ceases to grow 
at the tip (definite), but which is capable of lateral 
^'owth by development of shoots from the " eyes," 
-as may be seen when " sets " or so-called " seed- 



of propagating it. From the above-ground portion 
of the stem of the Strawberry issues a long slender 
branch, which terminates in a bud, in which true 
leaves are directly developed, and which becomes in 
time detached from the parent plant and serves to 
propagate it. In all essentials the resemblance is 
close ; the difference is associated with the circum- 





■potatoes" commence their growth (Fig. 30 ; see also 
Pig. 10, p. 24). Its essentially bud-like character is 
shown by the occasional formation of small tubers in 
the axils of the leaves. Any one who vrill compare 
a Strawberry "runner " with a Potato will see how 
close the correspondence really is. Prom the rmder- 
ground portion of the stem or haulm of the Potato 
slender branches are thrown out, which terminate 
in tuberous buds (Fig. 10), that do not directly de- 
velop true leaves, but become separated from the 
parent plant in course of time, and serve as a means 



stance that in the one case the growth takes place 
below-ground, where the leaves could not work if 
they were produced; in the other the growth is 
above-ground, and the leaves can effect their purpose 
so completely that the food stored up in the offset of 
the Strawbeny is actually largely obtained by its 
own leaves, and not conveyed thither from other 
sources. 

Practical Inferences. — The life-history of the 
Potato, as here sketched in outline, illustrates the 



THE YIXE AXD ITS FRUIT. 



301 



propriety of not allowing- the tubers to produce roots 
or to sprout till we are ready to plant, because aU 
such. groNvi;h. must be at the expense of the parent 
tuber. But if planted before such growth takes 
place, then as soon as new roots are formed they are 
at once available to supply the tuber with water, 
and not overstrain it in carrying on those wonderful 
changes which convert a dormant mass of cellular 
tissue into a focus of movement and chemical and 
physical change. 

So, too, we may see that the practice which some 
follow of rubbing off the " chits," or shoots that may 
have been produced, before planting is so much 
waste ; they will form again, it is true, but a wanton 
injury willhave been done and time will have been 
lost. It is the practice with some when planting to 
suppress all the eyes but one near one end of the 
tuber. The reason given for this is that the one 
left will be able to avail itself of the food provided 
for the rest. But if a good hauhn is to be made 
— and that, it must be admitted, is the necessary 
precursor to a good crop — it must be bad practice to 
suppress the many for the sake of the one — to have 
one group of leaves and roots only instead of many. 
But supposing growth goes on uninterruptedly, the 
roots which emerge from the base of the shoots grow, 
divide and subdi\dde, multiply exceedingly, accord- 
ing to the nature and quality of the soil. 

The value of the earthing-up process usually 
adopted consists in this : the earth drawn up round the 
collar increases the food-supplying surface, gives the 
roots more range, secures a greater supply of air to 
the roots through the loose soil, and, provided it be 
not raised too high, is of unmixed benefit to the plant. 
Moreover, under certain cii'cumstances, it may pre- 
vent the spores of the Potato fungus being washed 
down into the soil — an argument used by ]\Ir. Jensen 
in support of his practice of "high moulding." 
The first object of the cultivator is to encourage 
free, rapid, and healthy growth of root and haulm. 
The reason is obvious ; root and leaf are necessary 
to the growth of the plant, and essential to the for- 
mation of the tubers. Once pro\'ided with a good 
supply by means of the true roots and leaves, the 
plant sets itself to work to provide for the future. 
It may do this in two ways — by the formation of 
flowers, fruit, and seed, or by the production of 
tubers. We may here leave seed-production out of 
our calculations, because in most cases it is the 
tubers we want, not the seeds, save in exceiDtional 
cases. At the same time that the roots below-ground 
and the haulm above-ground are doing their work, 
collecting and preparing the food, the tubers are 
gradually developing below-ground on the subter- 
ranean portions of the stem. 

In its native country the Potato is exposed, after the 



growiag season, to a period of drought, and all above- 
ground vegetation dries up, where with us it/ots. In 
either case the destruction of the leafage is complete, 
and were it not for the tubers safely ensconced 
below-ground, the chance of perpetuating the plant 
would be small. True, it might be propagated by 
seed, but only a small proportion of seed is formed ; 
that is subject to depredations fi^om birds, and liable 
to other accidents ; and, moreover, reproduction by its- 
means is necessarily a slower process than that by 
the tubers buried safely beneath the gTOund, out of 
the reach of hungry animals or birds, and placed 
under more equable climatic conditions than they 
would be above-groimd, where cold nights, and even 
frost, succeed to torrid days. The question ob- 
viously arises whether in this country autumn 
planting might not be more beneficial than that in 
spring. But it must be remembered that the Potato 
in OUT fields and gardens is under very difierent con- 
ditions to what it is in the wild state. Our cold, 
wet soils are not at all well adapted to keep such 
succulent masses ; and, again, our spring frosts play 
havoc enough as it is with the young shoots, and 
would do still more in the case of autumn-planted 
tubers, unless protected. 



THE YINE AND ITS ERUIT. 

By William Coleman. 

mAXAGEMENT OF NEWLY-PLANTED VINES. 

First Year. — Assuming that yearling vines (refer 
again to Fig. 13) of home growth have been planted 
in a house by the first of March, the permanent vines 
from five to six feet apart, and the supernumeraries 
midway between them, the great object will now be the 
production of an abundance of healthy foliage, roots, 
and well-ripened wood. The gentle fermentation in 
the borders, aided and maintained by a ridge of 
warm leaves, will facilitate the formation of new 
roots, and the buds will break strong under the 
influence of a minimum of fire-heat. As soon as the 
buds have pushed half an inch or a little more, 
gradually remove them from the temporary vines 
down to a little below the top of the front sash, leave 
the remainder to grow for a time, and when two of 
the strongest breaks take the lead, allow them to 
grow on together until the best is considered safe 
fi'om accidents, then stop the weaker of the two. 

Next turn attention to the permanent vines, and 
after disbudding down to three of the best buds 
close to the base of the young cane, allow one to 
grow up as a leader, and train the other two, one on 
each side, midway between the permanent and tem- 
porary vines. If the greater distance (six feet) has 
been allowed, these canes will be exactly eighteen 



:302 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXIXG. 



inches apart, a space which, they will eventually 
cover with foliage. If the lesser distance has been 
decided upon, then one side shoot from each vine 
will be sufficient. The temperature from the time 
the vines are planted, until they are commencing 
free growth, should range fi'om 50° to 56" at night, 
and 10° to 15° higher by day, but as no rule can be 
laid down for forcing early growth, progress should be 
made under the influence of sunshine and light, and 
rest allowed when the days are dark and cold. By 
the middle of April all the canes will be progressing 
favourably, having got over the temporary check 
which always takes place after the young growths 
have exhausted the stored-up sap, and the new roots 
have commenced sending up a fresh supply from 
laelow. When this period, which often extends over 
ten dsijs, has been passed, raise the night tempera- 
ture to about 60°, give air in the morning as soon as 
the thermometer rises to 70°, and gradually increase 
the top ventilation under a bright sun until the 
mercui-y touches 80°. Eegularly sprinkle the floors 
through the day, keep the evaporating pans full, and 
also syringe every part of the house, including the 
ioliage, after closing on flne afternoons. 

In order to dispense with sharp firing as much as 
possible, early closing is an important point which 
should never be lost sight of. As days increase in 
length and brightness, the night temperature may be 
Taised to 65° for such kinds as Hambui'ghs, and 70° 
for Muscats; and the section which enjoys Muscat 
treatment may rise 10° to 15° by day, more or less, 
according to the state of the weather. If not 
mulched, the borders, as yet loose and porous, will 
be in a fit state to receive a moderate supply of 
water at the mean temperature of the house, and 
more atmospheric moisture will be needed to support 
the young vines and foliage, which must be grown 
in full exposure to the sun. This moist growing 
condition can always be secured by damping the 
borders on fine mornings, and again at closing time, 
when a slight sj-ringing will also be beneficial. But 
great care must be exercised in dull, cold weather, as 
anything approaching a sloppy state of the house, 
when air cannot be freely admitted, will produce 
excrescences on the lower sides of the leaves, usually 
the first ailment with which young beginners have 
to contend. 

^rhen the young canes begin to feel the full 
benefit of the new compost, they will grow with 
increasing ^-igour, and provided airing is properly 
attended to, the foliage will begin to assume a dense 
green colour with plentj'- of substance ; laterals will 
push freely, and the leaders will require tying with 
soft bass every alternate day. From this stage 
forward the treatment should in every way 1 e 
liberal ; plenty of water must be given to the roots. 



the syringe may be freely plied at closing time, and 
clear liquid may be used for damping the floors. 

The permanent ^•ines, from which no fruit is to bo 
taken the following year, must be encouraged to 
make all the gi'owth and foliage that can be fully 
exposed to the influence of light, as it is by this 
means that an abundance of roots will be formed, 
wliich in due course will send up ^'igorous f ruiting- 
canes the second year. Therefore the laterals should 
be regulated and laid in, but not stopped imtil they 
approach the temporary vines, which they must not 
however be allowed to encroach upon. As the tem- 
porary ^dnes progress, pinch the laterals at the first 
leaf, and stop the leaders at about nine feet from the 
starting-point. This will cause the yoxmg canes to 
strengthen, and plump up the fruiting-buds, from 
which a few bunches of grapes will be taken the 
following year, when the purpose for which they 
were planted will be accomplished. If, after 
stopping, one or two of the main buds at the top 
of the leaders break, allow them to grow on for 
a time, and give the sub-laterals a little more play 
as an outlet for the sap until such time as the canes 
become firm, and there is no longer an}- danger of 
the main buds breaking below that to which they 
will eventually be pruned. 

The night temperature during the summer months, 
when fire-heat is at the minimum, may range about 
70°, and it may run up to 80° or 85° on bright sunny 
days with a free circulation of air. With the increase 
of light and solar heat more atmospheric moisture as 
well as water to the roots should be given ; but at 
all times avoid a close stagnant atmosphere when the 
weather is unfavourable to liberal ventilation. In 
giving air to the house admit a little at the top very 
early in the morning to allow the condensed mois- 
ture to escape before the sun has time to catch the 
foliage ; then, as the heat increases, open the front 
ventilators ; close early in the afternoon, and give a 
chink at the apex every night. As soon as the wood 
begins to ripen, increase the air, and gradually 
reduce the supply of atmospheric moisture ; add a 
little more mulching to the roots to keep those near 
the surface moist, as vines should never be allowed 
to become dry, particularly at this stage, wlien spider 
is likely to put in an appearance, and the natural 
ripening of the foliage is of the greatest importance. 

When the wood turns to a dark brown colour, all 
the ventilators may be opened to let in sim and air, 
the great consolidators of the summer's growth : the 
laterals may be taken out of the temporary vines 
from the base up to the pruning-bud, provided the 
main leaves have not been injured or destroyed, 
when one leaf must be left on the laterals ; and the 
foliage may be occasionally syringed on fine evenings, 
to keep it clean and free from spider, until the wood 



THE VIXE AXD ITS FRUIT. 



and roots are thorougUy matured. Some grape- 
growers prefer allowing their young vines to break 
naturally before they plant ; but by planting early 
a march is stolen upon the summer, which may prove 
cold and unkind. The young canes have plenty 
of time to make and mature their growth before 
the end of August, when they have a good rest, 
and are in a smtable condition for early pruning, 
and an early start the following 
3'ear. 

The Second Year's Manage- 
ment. — Fruning. — If all has gone 
well and the foliage has fallen early 
in November, the vines will be fit 
for shortening back by the middle of 
December. As those intended to 
remain another year before they are 
allowed to carry fruit, have made 
two canes where they are five feet 
apart, and three canes where six feet 
has been allowed, pruning must be 
regulated by the space at command. 
In either case cut the main rod down 
to about nine inches below the top 
of the front light, and take off the 
side shoots as in Fig. 14, down to the 
lowest bud, a. If one rod only is to 
be allowed to grow up the second 
year, the bud, c, may be rubbed otf 
when all have started, and the shoots, 
a and h, are considered safe from 
accidents. If two rods have been 
decided upon, then allow b and e to 
grow on and stop the shoots a, when 
they have made five or six leaves. 
Shorten back the supernumeraries, 
from which some six bunches of 
grapes are to be taken, to within 
about six feet of the front sill, 
and pruning for the second year will be complete. 

Immediately after the vines are pruned, apply 
styptic to every cut to prevent bleeding when they 
are again started into growth, and at once proceed to 
cleanse the house as well as the rods, preparatory- to a 
fresh start early in the new year. As cleanliness is a 
very important item, let every part of the glass and 
woodwork be thoroughly washed with soap acd water ; 
also scrub the canes with a soft brush, and when dry, 
apply a solution of Grishurst compound, 8 oz. to a 
gallon of water, to destroy the larvse of red spider or 
other insects which may be lurking in the loose 
scales at the base of the buds. Wash the walls with 
quick-lime, to which a handful of sulphur has been 
added, and sling the rods out of the way for the pre- 
sent. 




Fig. 14. — Maiden Vine ready for 
Pruning, 



Only a moiety of the border having been made, 
examine the retaining walls, and if the roots have 
reached the outside, fork down a small portion 
of the turf, and add the first three feet of the exter- 
nal border when the weather is dry and favourable 
to the handling of the soil. As it is by no means 
desirable to let this new compost become saturated 
with rain or snow-water, cover it up with fresh 
horse-litter, place shutters or lights 
over all, and allow them to remain 
imtil wintry weather has jjassed 
away. Xext proceed to remove all 
old mulching and loose soil from the 
internal border ; prick up the surface 
with a hand-fork, and make up to 
the requisite height with new rich 
compost, free from animal manure. 
If severe weather sets in after the 
■\nnes are pruned, warm the pipes to 
keep out frost, otherwise keep the 
house cool and well ventilated until 
it is closed for forcing. 

"VMiere a set of houses has been 
planted for early, mid-season, and 
late grapes, it is the practice with 
some to start the earliest in February, 
and to allow the late ones to break 
naturally ; but it is questionable if 
it is not better to start all of them in 
February with gentle fire-heat, than 
to be obliged to fire such late kinds 
as Gros Colmar and Lady Downes, 
to ripen up the wood in the autunm. 
Therefore, assuming that the buds 
are plump and promising, and all the 
preliminaries have been completed, 
give each of the fruiting vines one 
tie to the wire nearest the top of the 
front sash, then gently bend or arch 
it over inwards until the point of 
the rod nearly touches the surface of the border, and 
the least prominent buds at the base are raised to the 
highest part of the arch ; secure it to a stick placed 
in the turf wall, and mulch with two inches of short 
horse-manure as prepared for a mushroom-bed. Shut 
up the house or houses, say on the 1 st of Februarv', 
apply fire-heat to prevent the temperature from 
falling below 45^ on cold nights, and 50® when 
mild during the first month. S^iinge thi'ee times a 
day to soften the buds, and if at hand fill in the un- 
occupied space intended for the next moiety of the 
border with fermenting leaves, or dung and leaves 
together. This will keep the house constantly moist, 
while it economises fire-heat, particularly if it is 
turned over occasionally and a few fresh leaves added 
when the fermentation beg-ins to decline. As soon as 



304 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GAEDEXIXG. 



the buds at the base have pushed half an inch, and 
there is no longer any fear of the point buds running 
away -with all the sa^D, raise them to a horizontal 
position, and when all are growing freelr, tie them 
up to the wires. 

A little extra attention to this matter of break- 
ing young canes is time well spent ; as buds that 
do not start foim unsightly gaps, which can- 
not by any future management be filled up; or if 
they break weakly, the fii'st set of spurs is ever 
afterwards weakly. In the management of tempo- 
rary vines, like these now in question, a few dor- 
mant buds do not make much difference, as six feet 
of cane will always give as many grapes as super- 
numeraries ought to carry ; but when we come to 
permanent vines, this matter should receive most 
diligent attention. 

After tying up the vines, raise the temperature 
from 50^ to oS*^' by night, and 10° to 15« higher 
by day, until the foliage begins to expand and 
the leaders are well on the move, then gi'adually 
increase the day and night heats, in exactly the 
same way as was advised for the management of the 
first year's gTOwth. It must, however, be borne in 
mind that a night heat of 65°- for Hambui-ghs, and 5" 
more for Muscats, is quite enough until suromer heat 
favours a higher range with a minimum of tire-heat. 
Asa rule the temperature by day ranges fi'om 10*^ to 
lo'^ higher ; but there is no rule so mischievous as a 
hard and fast line in the regulation of heat, irrespec- 
tive of the external condition of our uncertain climate. 
Therefore, it is always safe to rest when days are 
dark and nights are cold, and force with plenty of 
bottled-up solar heat and biilliant sunlight when 
favourable conditions prevail. The atmosphere of 
the house should be kept sufiiciently moist bv 
sprinkling the borders and paths, by turning the 
fermenting leaves, and by keeping the evaporating 
pans full of water ; but on no account must the 
pipes be syi-inged when they are very hot, as steam 
so raised is always injurious and sometimes fatal to 
the tender foliage. 

As days increase in length, and the -vines grow 
very fast, give them plenty of water at the mean 
temperature of the house. It is impossible for any 
one to say how often -rines should be watered ; but 
there is not much danger of over- watering them 
when growing in well-drained borders ; indeed, -rines 
ha-ving nearly all their roots in internal borders fre- 
quently suffer from the opposite exti-eme. 

As gro-wth proceeds, stop all the laterals that 
form on the young canes at the second leaf, -and 
stop the leaders as soon as they reach half-way 
uj) the south side of the house. As this stopprag 
of the leading shoots will cause the main buds on the 
lower part of the stem that are to produce fruit next 



year to fill up, and the rods to become much stouter, 
see that the latter have plenty of play in the early 
ties, and give them more room where there is danger 
of the sap being impeded in its descent to the base. 
"When the top buds break, again allow them to con- 
tinue their course to the top of the house, and en- 
courage a free growth of laterals, pro\ided there is 
plenty of room for the full development and expo- 
sui-e of the foliage to the action of light ; but on no 
account allow the laterals to become a tangled mass, 
as they do not benefit the roots, and often become 
the breeding-places of troublesome insects. 

As the temporary vines, fi'om which some six 
or eight bunches are to be taken during this — the 
second year — will require precisely the treatment 
that will be laid do-vm for the permanent ^ines in 
the next or fruiting year, it -will not be necessary 
to describe that here ; suffice it to say they must be 
gi-o-wn under restricted management, so as to pre- 
vent their growths from interfering -with the fullest 
possible development of the permanent -vines. 

By the middle of August "vines shut up ia Peb- 
ruaiy -wlU. be fast taking on their ripening garb, a 
condition which -will justify the removal of aU the 
laterals fi'om the base up to the pruning-bud. These 
should be taken out close to the bud, at the base of 
the main leaves, pro-vided none of the latter have 
been in any way injured or destroyed. Should this 
be the case, these particular laterals may be short- 
ened back to one leaf, as they -will be of service in 
stoiing up sap to perfect the buds from which next 
year's crop of bunches -will preceed. The hotise 
must now have an abimdance of air by night and 
day, and the foliage may have an occasional wash 
-with the syringe, for keeping spider in check, until 
it becomes of a bright nankeen colour and falls 
nattrrally. 

It is needless to say that the grapes from the 
temporary vines should be used at the earliest con- 
venience after they are fit for table, as late hanging 
-will interfere -with the autumn management ; but if 
they are not wanted they can be cut and bottled, 
when they -will keep for many weeks in an ordinary 
grape-room. "When all the bunches have been 
cleared, these -vines, hard as it may appear to the 
amateur, must be taken out bodily, to make room 
for the proper training of the laterals from the per- 
manent -vines in the fruiting year. 

As the next year's management of the -vineries 
-will commence early in January, it may be well 
to conclude our remarks on this stage by saying 
that the -vines intended for early starting should 
be pruned by the end of September or early 
in October, the strongest rods to six feet, and 
the weakest to five feet — lengths which -will give 
quite as many grapes as they should be allowed to 



THE YIXE AST) ITS FRUIT. 



305 



carry. AU lateral shoots formed on the previoiis 
year's "wood should he pinched oil to a single bnd, as 
iaFig. 15 at a, and any loose hark removed, when they 
may be well washed with soap and water, and 
dressed with Gishurst compound, as in the preceding 
season — that is, if spider has put in an appearance ; 
otherwise, the Gishurst may he dispensed ^-ith. as 
insecticides are of no use where there are no insects 
to kill. As the Tines have as yet only three feet of 
internal, and a like ^vidth of external border, an ad- 
ditional two feet may be added to each side while 
there is yet time for the points of the roots to make 
fresh spongioles. If the di-ainage. as well as the 
border, is made piecemeal, add suitable widths of 
broken brick, then cover ^dth turf, grass side do^^Ti- 
wards ; use turf for retaining walls, and make up 
with good turfy loam, to which the usual quantity 
of bones, lime rubble, and other materials, which 
•^"ill sustain the roots after the fibre has gone, must 




Fig-. 15. — Stopping. 



"be added. Before making the addition, pick a little 
of the old tuxf walls away with a hand-fork ; take 
the points off any strong protruding roots, to make 
them throw out more hard fibres ; make up the new 
compost in a way that it will adhere to the old 
border, and cover the outside portion with plenty of 
fresh stable litter. Ha \ing cleansed the house tho- 
roughly, wash the walls with quicklime and a little 
sulphur, top-dress the border, but defer mulching. 

Third and Fruiting Year. — Having decided 
upon the period at which the "sines under treatment 
shall give ripe fruit, the house should bo shut up 
nearly, if not quite, six months in advance of that 
time — say on the 1st of January, to have grapes fit 
to cut in June— and so on for successional crops of 
early and mid-season grapes. The latest house 
should not. however, be allowed to remain inactive 
20 



after the first week in March, as all winter grapes 
should be thoroughly ripe by the first week in Sep- 
tember, otherwise much fire-heat will be needed to 
ripen up the fruit and wood, and even then it is very 
doubtful if the grapes will not begin to shrivel as 
soon as the leaves fall from the "s-ines. Xow, as this 
condition is fatal to the successful bottling of late 
grapes, and time, both at the beginning and end 
of forcing, is a most important consideration in 
la^TJig on colour and finish, young maiden vines, 
which do not respond so readily as old ones, should 
always have plenty of time allowed to commence 
aud finish their growth. Moreover, it is a well- 
known fact that three-fourths of the early grapes 
used in this country are cut as soon as they are 
black, or as black as they ever would be ; but they 
are not ripe, and the first bunches bear no compari- 
son to the last, a fair proof that time is of much con- 
sequence, at least where quality is the test of merit. 

Therefore, assuming that the vigorous young canes 
which have been resting since the middle of October, 
^ith their points dra"«-n down to the surface of the 
border, to equalise the sap and so help the lowest 
and least prominent buds forward, were shut up at 
the time mentioned, the first fortnight may be de- 
voted to preliminaries, but no fire-heat will be 
needed unless the temperature falls below 4:5®, 
neither Avill ventilation be required. After that 
period, a minimum of 50®, with a rise of 5® by 
day, will suffice, with regular syringing, until the 
buds begin to break, when it may be graduaUv 
raised to 60® at night, v,-ith a rise of 10® 
from solar and fire-heat by day. At these tem- 
peratures, the house containing Hamburghs and 
varieties requiring Hamburgh treatment may remaiu 
imtil the shoots have run out three or four inches, 
when a further rise of 5° will sufiice, until the 
gTapes come into flower. Many people give Ham- 
burghs a minimum heat of 70®, and Muscats 75®, 
when they are setting, but the roots being right, 
they will set just as weU at 65® and 70® respec- 
tively, with a rise of 10® to 15® by day. 

As bottom heat is of great importance, both in 
starting the vines and setting the fruit, some kind 
of material should be applied as soon as the buds 
begin to swell, to raise the temperature of the roots 
to about 60® or 65®. In wooded districts, where 
oak or beech leaves can be obtained, a good bodv of 
these placed along the front of the internal and ex- 
ternal borders, and a few on the surface, will bo 
found invaluable, as they give off a continuous mild 
moist heat, favourable to the swelling and breaking 
of the buds, and so reduce the necessity of constant' 
firing and incessant syringing. "Where borders are 
made piecemeal, as has been suggested, the areas 
left for the reception of future additions of compost 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXIXG. 



Qffsr f avoura'ble positions for the f ennenting mate- 
rial, from which, warmth and ammonia soon find 
their way into the drainage, and produce more genial 
conditions than can he obtained from dry fire-heat, 
no matter how carefully the pipes may have heeii 
arranged. 

Disbudding. — As soon as the young shoots get 
fairly on the move, disbudding must be commenced 
by the removal of all the weak side growths from 
each eye, leaving only one to furnish the fruit ; and 
as more than one bunch must not be left on each 
break, all but that which appears to be the best may 
be^ removed as the work of disbudding and regulating 
the growths is proceeded with. By the removal of 
alLthe bunches that show on a lateral except one, and 
that the most compact and s}Tnmetrical, the strength 
qi the vines is husbanded for a period when all 
their energies are brought into action through the 
stoning and later stages of growth. Having dis- 
budded to a single shoot from each eye, the next 
question will be the removal of a certain number 
of breaks altogether, as overcrowding the spurs is 
quite as bad as overcrowding the young rods. Some 
defer this part of this very important operation until 
they can see the bunches ; but as young canes five 
feet in length will always give plenty of fruit, it is 
better to rub oti all that are not wanted before thcy 
attain much size. Therefore the first important 
point is the selection of a good leader, from which 
the bunches should always be pinched as soon as 
they can be seen ; then will follow the removal of 
the side shoots, so as to leave those intended for 
permanent spurs about twelve inches apart all the 
way down the vinQ. It may be well to remark that 
great caution should be brought to bear upon the 
filial disbudding or tiiinning, as any accident to one 
of the shoots left to form a permanent spur will 
tanse a disfigurement which no after-management 
c^ remove. 

Stopping. — The vines being five feet apart, a 
distance of two feet six inches each way may be 
allowed for the lateral growths ; but as these will 
thrqw out sub-laterals, to be again stopped in their 
turn, the first stopping should be made at the 
second or perhaps the third leaf beyond the bunch. 
^?oon after they are tied down, sub-laterals will 
begip. to push. These, as well as the laterals on the 
gTOTving leaders, must as a rule be pinched at the 
first leaf, and afterwards re -pinched unless there is 
a vacancy which requires covering ; as every part of 
^he, trellis should be evenly covered with foliage, 
when the first sub-laterals may be laid into any con- 
venient length. The leaders should be loosely tied 
^yery other day until they reach the top of the 



rafter, when they also must be pinched to ts'trensrthen 
the back buds from which the next year s laterals 
will proceed. 



GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF VINES. 
Setting tlie Fruit. — Preparations must be 
made for fertilising the bunches as the flowers open. 
A temperature ranging from 65° for Hamburghs. to 
70" for Muscats, is quite sufficient early in the season: 
later on, when tire-heat is at the lowest, a few degrees 
higher may be advantageous, but this is doubtful. 
Recently scientists have pointed out that the pollen 
and '.he stigma in some varieties do not ripen at the 
sjTtne time, so that fertilisation cannot take place, and 
the action of foreign pollen becomes necessar}". In 
some cases also the pollen is found to be inert. Herr 
Stefan Molnor, director of the School of Vine Cultui-e 
at Buda-Pesth, has observed that "free setting" 
varieties of Grapes have the stamens erect, forming a 
cluster roxmd the stigma, whilst " bad setting" varie- 
ties have the stamens deflected from the pistil. The 
kinds of grapes which require daily attention are !Mus- 
cat of Alexandria and its allies, all the Sweet- waters, 
Black ^lorocco. Alnwick Seedling, Mrs. Pince's Mus- 
cat, and Lady Do^vnes Seedhug. "WTien they com- 
mence flowering, the highest temperature given 
should be maintained, with a free circulation of air 
and atmospheric moisture in moderation on bright 
fine days. When the weather is dull and cold this 
may be reduced, but not entirely suspended. Some 
grape-growers fertilise with the sj-ringe ; but gi-apes 
which set with the syringe set equally well, if not 
better, with the camel-hair pencil. The middle of 
the day, when maximum heat prevails, is the best 
time to fertilise, and foreign pollen should always be 
used, of which there is none better than that from 
the Hamburgh. If a Hamburgh house is not likely 
to be in bloom when the kinds named are ready, a 
good supply should be secured in advance by shaking 
the Hamburgh bunches over a sheet of paper or into 
a small box, which can be put away in a dry place 
for future use. 

One of the most difficult grapes to fertilise is 
Black Morocco, and as it is one of our best winter 
grapes, it should receive a little extra attention. 
If the flowers are closely examined, a viscid kind 
of substance will be found adhering to the pistil 
and the anthers, and so completely clogging those 
organs as to render natui'al fertilisation almost 
impossible. This should be removed by passing a 
camel-hair pencil over the bunches, then follow- 
ing with the pollen, when every berry will set 
as freely as a Hamburgh. Fig. 16 represents a 
neglected bunch of this variety, upon which nearly 
all the berries are seedless, and although they would 
ripen, the bunch would be worthless. In order to 



THE yiXE AXD ITS FEUIT. 



307 



prevent the condensation of moisture, a chink of air 
lit the back and front of the house should be kept on 
all night, unless the weather is frosty, and the proper 
temperature cannot be maintained. 

Some gTape-growers fertilise their grapes by 
giving the vines a sharp rap with the hand to set 
the pollen at Hberty; others trust to the natui-al 
energy of their vines and a brisk buoyant atmo- 
rphere ; while others draw the 
hand Hghtly down the bunches 
when they are in fiower, but 
this is a bad practice, as the 
pressure and moisture, how- 
ever slight, often injure the 
embryo berries, notably of 
Muscats, which show a small 
brown spot at the points when 
they are ripe. 

TMrming. — The art of 
thinning gi'apes well cannot 
be properly acquired without 
practice and a thorough ac- 
quaintance, not only with the 
different sections, but also 
with particular xvaes of the 
same variety. Take as an 
example the numerous vaiie- 
ties grown under the name of 
Hamburgh. Some produce 
loose bunches of medium-sized 
berries which require mode- 
rate thinning ; others produce 
heavy - shouldered bunches, 
which set thickly, and pro- 
duce large, short - stalked, 
hammered hemes, half as 
large again as the fu'st. Both 
are called Hamburghs, but 
directions for thinning the 
first would not apply to the 
second, and vice versa. Lady 
Downes, Alicante, and Gros 

Colmar are three late kinds, which require totally 
distinct thinning to insure perfect clusters when 
they - are ripe. "When thoroughly acquainted with 
the peculiarities and capabilities of different houses 
of vines, a good practical hand can thin to a beny ; 
but as no amoxmt of writing can convey that ex- 
perience, the subject must be here confined to general 
principles. 

ITie best time to thin is as soon as ail fi-ee-setting 
kinds are out of fiower. and the beriies approach the 
size of Xo. 1 shot. !>ruscats and shy-setting kinds 
should be allowed to get a little more advanced, and 
when those which are properly fertilised begin to 




take the lead, those left behind in point of size 
shoiild, as far as possible, be removed, as stoneless 
berries never take the second swelling, and no 
matter how s}-mmelTical a bunch may be, uneven 
berries greatly detract from its appearance. 

When properly thinned, a bunch of grapes should 
contain as many even-sized berries as will foini a 
compact cluster, weU berried up to the stalk, and 
close enough to retain its per- 
fect form when cut and Liid 
on the dish. If the beiiies 
fall about and expose the 
stalks it is over-thinned : if 
they bind and foi ;-e each other 
out of place it is under- 
thinned. Eaiiy and mid- 
season grapes that are in- 
sufficiently thinned do not 
suffer so much as late ones, 
wlrich have to hang through 
the dead months, when a free 
circulation of air to prevent 
the berries fi-om rotting is 
indispensable. As gi-apes 
should never be touched by 
the flesh or hair, either of 
which produces rust and de- 
stroys the bloom, the operator 
should begin at the point and 
work upwards, holding and 
tmning the bunch with a 
small hooked peg. All the 
smallest and plenty of the in- 
side berries should be taken 
at the first thinning, and the 
woik should be carried on 
early in the morning and late 
in the evening, when the body 
is cool and the fingers fi-ec- 
fi'om perspiration. Fig. 17 
on the next page is a fair 
representation of a bunch of 
Hamburghs after the first 
thimiing. It is possible that a few of the benies 
left at the fii'st thinning may not be perfectly 
fertilised ; if so. they will be weak in the foot-stalk, 
smaU, and sUghtly transparent. These ai-e the 
berries wliich should be taken out at the second 
thinning. 

Lady Downes and all the late kinds, including 
Gros Colmar, the largest of all grapes, should Ix* 
thinned until there is no danger of binding ; other- 
wise, all other points being satisfactory, their keep- 
ing for any length of time after the leaves fall will 
be very doubtful. The inexperienced, who have to 
feel their way, should make a point of going over 



Black iTorocco Badlr Set. 



308 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENINa. 



the "bundles three times, the first time immediately 
after they are set, again after they are stoned, and 
finally to remove any badly-placed berries before 
they commence the last swelling. 

As yet nothing has been said about the weight of 
grapes which a vine may be allowed to carry. If 
over-cropped the grapes often shrink or fail to put on 
perfect colour and bloom, without which they can- 
not be considered first-rate. Badly-coloured grapes 
never attain their proper flavour, and, notwithstand- 
ing the fact that a great number of bunches may 
have been left on the 
vine, while being 
second-rate in quality, 
will not in the aggre- 
gate weigh more than 
a reasonable number of 
bunches ; when the 
e[uality, and, as a mat- 
ter of course, the value, 
will be on the side of 
the smaller number of 
bunches. On the other 
hand, too light crop- 
ping, particularly in 
the case of vigorous 
young vines, is not 
recommended, as they 
are apt to get too 
strong and gross, when 
the proper maturation 
of the wood and buds 
becomes difficult and 
expensive. If the canes 
in question have made 
an abundance of 
healthy foliage, with- 
out which good grapes 
cannot be expected, 

one and a haK pounds to every foot of rod will be 
a good crop the first year. If it is found that they 
make plenty of laterals throughout the stoning 
period, it may be taken for granted that they are 
not overloaded, when the crop may be repeated the 
second year, and so on, allowing one and a half 
pounds to a foot of rod so long as they make plenty 
>f lateral growth during the time they are stoning. 

Moisture and Watering. — As soon as fire- 
heat is applied to the house, sjo-inge the vines with 
tepid water three times a day. Keep the evapo- 
rating pans constantly full, and damp the floors' and 
walls to prevent the atmosphere from becoming dry. 
Where fermenting material is used and frequently 
turned and sprinkled, it will be found a powerful 
aid ; but alone it is not sufficient, as direct sja-inging 




Fig. 17. — Young Buncli Properly Thinned 



is necessary to keep the bark on the stems, as well 
as the buds moist, until the most persistent break 
into growth. Early vines should be well syringed 
until the bunches begin to draw out, when, pro- 
vided they can be kept free from spider, it may be 
discontinued until after the grapes are cut. Later 
houses, to which more air can be given, may be 
syringed until the bunches approach the flowering 
stage, and the damping of the old wood and foliage, 
where it can be done without wetting the grapes, 
may be resumed after they are set. Syringing, 
however, should not be 
carried on to an extent 
that will prevent the 
foliage from becoming 
thoroughly dry once in 
every twenty - four 
hours, otherwise it will 
be soft and flabby, 
small excrescences -^-ill 
form on the lower sides 
of the leaves, and a 
super - abundance of 
moisture, particularly 
through the night, will 
render them liable to 
scalding before it can 
pass off on bright 
mornings. It is need- 
less to say the grapes 
should never be touched 
wdth water from the 
time they are formed, 
as the pm-est water con- 
tains matter in solution 
which invariably mars 
the appearance of the 
fruit, and in calcareous 
districts renders it imfit 
for table. When the grapes begin to colour, mois- 
ture must be gi-adually, but not suddenly reduced, 
and never entirely discontinued, at least in early 
and mid-season vineries. In late houses, where the 
grapes have to hang for some time after the leaves 
fall, a perfectly dry atmosphere is necessary, not 
only for the preservation, but also for the proper 
finish of the fruit. 

Although watering has been previously touched 
upon, so important is this element that a few words 
here may not be out of place. It is very difficult to 
give precise directions for supplying water to the 
roots of vines. One thing, however, is certain — a pro- 
perly made and drained border cannot easily be over- 
watered. Therefore, a liberal supply of water at a 
temperature of should be given at the time the 
house is closed ; another before the grapes come into 



THE VINE AND ITS FRUIT. 



300 



flower ; a third, after they are thinned ; a fourth, 
when they are taking their second swelling ; and 
another when they begin to coloiu-. All vines 
should be mulched — old vines at the outset, young 
ones after the fruit is set, for the twofold pur- 
pose of feeding the roots and securing an equal 
supply of water to every part of the border. Each 
watering after the grapes are set should be with 
diluted liquid, and the quantities should be sufficient 
to pass through the soil and drainage. In hot, dry 
summers, the external borders will also require 
attention. Many growers never think of watering 
the outside roots ; but when it is borne in mind that 
they are confined in a porous compost, resting on 
liberal drainage, and that a broad expanse of foliage 
in a high temperature, and within a few inches of a 
glass roof, is constantly drawing up and giving off 
moisture, it may be readily imagined that a gross 
feeder like the vine will be none the worse, if it is 
not a great deal the better, for an occasional drench- 
ing with the hose. When vines are heavily cropx^ed 
and perfect finish is doubtful, a good external water- 
ing through a liberal mulch of rotten manure very 
often turns the scale in favour, of the grapes. The 
benefit does not, however, end in the production of 
jet-black grapes only, of which every grower is 
proud ; it very often wards off attacks of red spider, 
which spreads rapidly and leaves its mark in years 
to come. The same rule aj)plies to internal borders 
when colouring is doubtful. Often, very often, the 
old and pernicious practice of withholding water 
from colouring grapes ends in disappointment, when 
four inches of good diluted liquid, at a temperature 
of 80*^ to 90«, would stimulate the roots and produce 
the desired efi^ect. 

Immediately after the grapes are cut, the vines 
should have a good syringing with pure water to 
cleanse the foliage from dust and red spider, which 
may have made some progress. The inside border 
should have a good watering with tepid liquid to 
keep the roots moist and active until the foliage 
begins to ripen ; and external borders, but too often 
neglected, will derive great benefit from another 
mulching of short manure to keep the surface moist 
during the autumn months. 

During the time the grapes are hanging ripe, they 
should have a good canopy of stout, healthy foliage, 
evenly spread over every part of the trellis to pro- 
tect them from the sun, otherwise black kinds will 
soon begin to lose their colour ; while, on the other 
hand, white ones will be improved by exposure to 
light and solar heat, which can be admitted by the 
partial removal or turning aside of some of the 
laterals. After the grapes are cut, all laterals must 
be removed down to the main leaves on the fruit- 
tearing shoots, to plump up the buds to which they 



will eventually be pruned. It too often happens 
that these laterals are allowed to go on for a time ; 
the vines, relieved of their crop, make a sort of sup- 
j)lementary growth when they ought to be going to 
rest, and persist in resting when they ought to be 
starting into another year's growth. 

Ventilation. — Air should be admitted daily from 
the time fire-heat is first applied until the vines go 
to rest. In the case of vines started in January, it 
often happens that the weather is unfavourable to 
the admission of more than a chink at the apex ; but 
be it much or little, a change of air should be se- 
cured every day by admitting it at as many of the 
ventilators as possible, in preference to causing cold 
currents from fewer places. As days increase in 
length, and the tender foliage begins to expand, ad- 
mit a Httle air early in the morning to favour the 
escape of impure gases and condensed moisture, 
before the sun strikes fully upon the roof. As the 
sun gains power, increase it until the maximum is 
reached, then as gradually reduce and finall}" close 
in time for the atmosphere of the house to run up a 
few degrees in the afternoon. The temperature for 
vines in the difilerent stages of their growth has 
been given in a x^i'eceding paper. The admission of 
air should always be so regulated as to favour a 
steady rise until the meridian is reached, and then, 
if necessar}', it should be increased to j)revent the 
house from getting too hot, but on no account should 
it be admitted in quantity that will cause a depres- 
sion. Neglect of this rule is often very disastrous 
in early vineries — in fact, in late ones too ; as the 
sudden admission of cold chilling air which lowers 
the temperature, checks the growth, produces rust 
on the berries, and so lays the foundation of a con- 
dition favourable to the attacks and ravages of 
insects to which the vine is subject. 

During the stoning process, a period most trying to 
the vines, sufficient fire-heat should be given to secure 
a constant supply of air both by night and by day ; 
and such kinds as Lady Downes and Muscats, liable 
to scalding, should have a steady circulation, if 
possible, passed over the hot -water pipes to prevent 
condensation of moisture on the berries. For some 
considerable time during this process, the grapes 
will not make any external progress ; but when once 
this exhausting stage is passed, they will swell very 
fast, when more air through the early part of the 
day must be succeeded by early closing in time to 
run up some ten degrees above the maximum heat. 
After the house has been closed for a few hours to 
swell the berries, a little night air will secure that 
rest which is so necessary where vines arc cariied 
forward under high solar influence. When the 
berries begin to colour, a still further increase will 



810- 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



be necessarj^, as a free circulation of warm air is one 
of the main factors in laying on colour, and time 
is equally important in producing bloom and 
finish. But this must be so managed as to pre- 
clude all chance of a check or chill, and closing for 
a short time on fine afternoons must be indulged in 
to swell the berries. If the weather through the 
latter part of May is fine and warm, liberal ventila- 
tion will finish up the grapes in a satisfactory 
manner, when a lower temperature will be necessary. 



PRUNING AND TRAINING. 
Pruning. — The vine being a vigorous-growing 
plant, it is necessary to prune away the greater 
portion of the wood of the cur- 
rent year, not only to keep it 
within bounds and to carry out 
any particular kind of training, 
but also to concentrate its 
vigour in the buds which are 
left for producing- new fruit- 
bearing wood the following- 
year. As pruning and training 
may be said to go hand in 
hand, the mode of the one is 
governed by the other, the great 
object being the maintenance 
of a healthy condition of the 
vine under glass, and the pro- 
duction of the greatest weight 
of fruit which it is capable of 
bringing to maturity through a 
long succession of years. For- 
merly, the long-rod system was 
practised in every vinery, and it 
is siill resorted to where shy 
kinds, such as Buckland Sweet- 
water, Barbarossa, and a few others, fruit best on 
rods of one year's growth. The method is that of 
lajdng in a number of young canes and pruning- them 
to various lengths, so as to obtain fruit from the buds 
which they contain. During the time these rods are 
carrying- a crop of grapes, others are being trained 
up to take their places after they are cut out at the 
autumn pruning. Fortunately for the amateur, this 
unsatisfactory system has given way to the close- 
spur system, which is as simple as it is successful, 
and may be performed by the uninitiated with the 
greatest certainty of a satisfactory result. But, -in 
order to remove all doubt, it may be well to direct 
attention to the annexed figures, which will illus- 
trate at a glance the method which ought to be fol- 
lowed, from the planting-rod to the fully-established 
fruiting-cane, when spur-pruning becomes simply a 
repetition of the system of cutting back to a single 
bud. 




Fig. 18. — Spur 
One Year. 



of 



It may be well first to refer back to Fig. 13, page 
235, showing the yearling cut back ready for plant- 
ing; also to Fig. 14, showing the young vine at the 
end of its first year's growth. Fig. 18 is a vine- 
stem showing spur of one year's growth. Here the 
lower spur (1) is properly pruned ; the upper spur 
(2) is badly pruned. Fig. 19 shows a badly-pruned 
spur of the second year ; while Fig. 20 shows a spur- 
of the same age which has been properly pruned. 

The great secret of success consists in pruning 
every year to a single bud, as in Fig. 18, No. 1, 
which keeps the young growths near home, while 
No. 2 in the same figure results in long ungainly 
spurs, which soon become unsightly and have to be 
removed, as shown by the lines in the figures. 

]\Iany good grape-growers are afraid of losing 
or damaging their crop by pruning back to a 
single bud, but if the wood is properly ripened 
there need be no fear of their not showing fi-uit, and 
that of the best quality, as the bujiches from the 
lowest buds are generally more compact and produce 
finer berries than those from more prominent eyes 
farther away from the main rod. When two or 
three eyes are left, the most prominent invariably 
starts first (see Figs. 19 and 20), and the lower buds 
break weakly or not at all. The strong break shows 
plenty of bunches, the weaker breaks are rubbed 
off ; and so the mischief goes on, until the unsightly 
spurs are obliged to be cut away, when the adventi- 
tious buds at the base break and form new spurs, 
but, it must be remembered, at the expense of a 
crop, as the buds from these breaks rarely show fruit 
the first year. 

Fig. 21 shows the properly pruned spur when it is 
three years old, an age at which it will throw out 
one, two, or thi^ee shoots. The strongest and best- 
placed is selected for fruiting; the others may be 
rubbed off, or sometimes one may be pinched to form 
the base of a new spin-, when eventually the old one 
can be removed. 

Shortening the Hods. — If the fiaiiting- canes 
were left five feet in length the fii-st year, from 
three to four feet of young wood will be sufficient 
for the second year, and so on, until the rod is 
formed and properly furnished ^ith spurs up to the 
top of the rafter. If, as was directed, all the sum- 
mer laterals were taken off in the autumn, from the 
base up to the pruning-bud, the leader will simply 
require shortening back to the required length, ac- 
cording to the strength of the vines. Some leave 
more than the three or four feet here recommended, 
but bold shortening is always sife, as it throws 
strength into the lower spurs, and every bud on the 
leader breaks with vigour ; whereas a greater length 
of rod very often breaks weakly at the base, and so 



THE VINE AND ITS FRUIT. 



811 



leaves a defective piece of stem in the middle of the 
house, which no after-management can rectify. 
When the fii'st cane is regularly furnished with 
spui'S from the base to the apox of the house, a 
second rod should be started from the base ; and 
when it also approaches the top, a third may be 
stai'ted from the opposite side of the original cane, 
where any particular vine or favourite variety, by its 
vigour or superior quality, shows that it is worthy of 
extension. But as the space allotted to each vine 



as soon as the leaves fall, and the late houses which 
shed their leaves before the fruit is cut, should be 
pruned as soon as the grapes are removed. The 
vines in late houses do not often bleed when the sap 
begins to rise ; those in early houses do ; hence the 
importance of dressing every cut with styptic as the 
work proceeds, as bleeding weakens the vines ; an'd 
so powerful is the vital force, that the most stringent 
styptic fails to arrest it, if dressing is neglected until 
the sap is ajrain on the move. ■ 






Fig. 19.— Badly Pruned Spur of 
the Second Year. 



Fig. 21. — Three-year-old Spur 
Properly Pruned. 



Fig. 20.— Spur of the Second 
Year Properly Pruned. 



will not admit of laying in these canes without over- 
crowding, one or more of the least satisfactory vines 
can be cut away altogether, to make room for carry- 
ing on this modified system of extension training. 
In this way a house may be gradually filled with a 
few of the best vines, without at any time having 
any part of the trellis bare of fruit or foliage. 

The time to prune must be regulated by the time 
the houses are to be started. The house that was 
started on the 1st of January the first year, if in- 
tended for early work, may be started on the 1st of 
December in the following season, and the house in- 
vended for succession that was started in February 
the first year, may be shut up on the 1st of January 
in the second year. These houses should be primed 



Extension Training is a combination of the 
long rod and spur systems, and consists of allowing 
one vine to grow on from year to year until it occu ■ 
pies a large portion, or perhaps the whole of a 
house. Many good growers, who do not altogether 
approve of the principle, admit tbat extension is 
favourable to longevity, as many of the oldest and 
finest vines in the country have been trained in this 
way ; and all must admit that, as regards quantity 
and quality of the fruit, the system has many points 
in its favour. Some go so far as to say extension 
training should not be practised where the natural 
soil is unfavourable to the roots when they get out 
of the prepared borders, and are no longer under 
control ; but this is a mistake, as the yearly spread 



312 



CASSELL'S POPULAK GARDENING. 



of the new wood and foliage forms one of the test 
safe-guards against shanking, while the crop from 
vines so trained is greater than that produced by a 
series of vines occupying the same space. The ex- 
tension system is well adapted to large, lofty span- 
roofed houses running from south to north, as the 
vines can be planted at either end, and trained hori- 
zontally under the ridge. Those leaders should be 
shortened back at each pruning to four feet for one 
pair of arms or rods, which will run down to the 
eaves, and to eight feet for two pairs of rods where 
rapid growth is desirable. These rods, in their turn, 
should be shortened back to any given length, when 
the buds left on the young wood must be thinned 
out, and the fruit-bearing laterals cut back to a 
single eye, exactly the same as advised in close spur 
pruning. So long as the vine has room to extend, 
the bunches from the young wood run to a very 
large size, and the berries of the Hamburgh swell up 
much better than they do on vines under repression. 
Moreover, all the arms being taken from the main 
horizontal rod, which occupies the highest part of 
the house, to the eaves, the sap is checked in its 
downward course, and the strength of the growths is 
equalised. It is scarcely necessary to say that exten- 
sion training is not favourable to early forcing, as 
the roots cannot be so readily warmed and protected 
through the winter months ; but for mid-season and 
autumn crops, it offers one of the most simple 
methods of growing first-class grapes. There is, 
however, no rule without exception ; as the famous 
old vines at Cole-Orton, which kept the veteran 
grower and exhibitor, Mr. Henderson, so many 
years to the front, were grown upon the extension 
principle; but instead of cutting back to a single 
eye, he always pruned to a prominent bud, and laid 
in as much wood as would keep every part of the 
trellis furnished with foliage. A vine which fills 
the early house at Eastnor Castle is trained and 
pruned upon the Cole-Orton principle. It has been 
forced for early grapes without intermission for 
thirty-five years, and still produces excellent fruit. 
The vines at Cole-Orton are on the coal measures ; 
the roots of the vine at Eastnor have the run of 
external and internal borders, and are under con- 
trol. 



THE FLOWER GAEDEN. 

By William Wildsmith. 



SUCCULENT BEDDING. 

UNDER the heading of Succulent Beds we class 
not only the cultivation in beds of all kinds ci' 
plants having thick fleshy leaves and stems, such as 
Agaves and Echeverias, but also the many varieties 



of Sedums and other mossy or "tufty" growing 
plants, which harmonise with the quaintness of ap- 
pearance of the great bulk of succulents when ar- 
ranged in conjunction with them. That these are a 
very desirable class of plants to cultivate for summer 
bedding, may be gathered from the admiration and 
praise they excite among the crowds that surround 
arrangements of them in the London parks. This 
class of admirers may not always be the best judges 
as to taste ; but still arrangements that afford such 
pleasure to the multitude are worthy of adoption on 
that gTound alone. But there are other reasons for 
the extended culture of this class of plants as summer 
bedders, not the least being their immunity from 
injury by storms and rain. They are also effective 
immediately after they are planted, and their quiet 
beauty greatly enhances the general effect of every 
other style of planting in the same garden. They 
also do well under the shade of trees or hedges, 
w^here other plants would dwindle and die, and yet 
they will bear the full sunshine with impunit}'. 
All these are surely good reasons why they deserve 
to bo used more largely than they are. Such ob- 
jections as formal, artificial, " cockle- shell-like," 
have been urged against their use; but tliis is a 
matter that rests entirely in the hands of those who 
arrange them, for they are just as amenable to the 
producing of informal and hai^monious mixtures as 
are any other class of bedding plants. 

Having named reasons why they should be used, 
we must, however, add that on no account should 
ordinary bedding-out plants, such as Pelargoniums 
and Ageratums, be mixed up in the same bed with 
them. Altemantheras are about the nearest approach 
as to mixtures that should be made. These look 
fairly well as ground- works for the taller succulents, 
but there are so many dwarf hardy plants so much 
more suitable, that there is no necessity to use even 
these. 

Arrangements. — The most pleasing way of 
arrangement is that of a large circular bed, begin- 
ning from the centre, with a tall plant of Yucca 
aloefolia variegata ; then three plants of the tree 
Sempervivum arhoreum ; then six plants of the tree 
Sempervivum phylloides : then six plants of Sem- 
pervivum arboreum variegatam, alternated with six 
plants of Sempervivum Canariense ; the next circle 
being nine plants of Echeieria metallica, and nine 
of Sempervivum Haworthii, also alternated ; the 
outer line next the edging being twelve plants of 
Echeveria glauca metallica, and the same number of 
Echeveria farinosa ; the outer edging being ^Semjo^;- 
vivum calcareum and Echeveria secunda glauca ; the 
central portion of the bed being clothed wdth the 
flowering mauve- coloured Mesemhryanthemum con- 



THE FLOWER GARDEN. 



313 



spkuum, and the outer portion with Mesembryanthe- 
mum cordifoUum varieyatuin. This arrangement we 
have proved to be in all respects most pleasing and 
lasting. 

A more formal arrangement, which, under certain 
conditions as to place and surroundings, is some- 
times desirable, is as follows : — A circular bed of 
medium size, and at the outer edge divided into six 
parts or points, from each of which draw a semi- 
circle, the six recesses thus formed being edged with 
Kleinia repens, and the outer circular edge with 



planted in regular mixture the smaller class of 
succulents, such as Echeveria Peacockii, E. farinoHH, 
Kleinia tomentosa, and as standards the variegated 
Sempervivum arboreum variegatum, the carpet of margin 
being Sedum corsicum, gTey. From this flat margin 
the soil is gradually raised in the mound-shape 
shown in the illustration, and at regular intervals 
are planted standard succulents, the centre being 
Yucca aloefolia variegata, and the other large ones 
Sempervivum arboreum, S. Hendersonii, S. urbicum, 
S. canariense, Echeveria metallica, and Agave anieri- 




SuccuLENT Bed at Heckfield Place, Winchfield. 



Echeveria secunda and Sedum glaucum. In the 
centre of each recess put a large plant of Echeveria 
glauca metallica and Agave americana variegata, alter- 
nate, surrounding the Echeverias with Pachyphytum 
bracteosum., and the Agaves with Echeveria Peacockii, 
filling out the recesses in which are the Agaves with 
Sedum corsicum-, and the others with Sedum acre 
elegans variegatum ; the points formed by making the 
recesses to be filled out with Kleinia repens, and the 
central part of the bed with tall succulents, after the 
manner advised in the first arrangement, the under- 
growth to be cither Sedum Lydiutn or Serniaria 
glabra. 

An arrangement for a large bed is that shown in 
the illustration. This bed is fifteen feet in diameter, 
and has a raised edging of Herniaria glabra ; then a 
Hat margin fifteen inches in width, on which are 



cana variegata ; the intermediate spaces being filled 
in with any kinds, after no particular order, except 
to fill out the space evenly. The undergrowth of the 
inner portion of the bed is the small mauve- colour- 
flowered Mesembryanthemum cordifoUum, and the outer 
the variegated foi-m of the same plant. The some- 
what formal arrangement of the outer portion of 
this bed is due to the fact that the surrounding beds 
are of a geometrical description ; therefore, a very 
gradual departure from that mode of design was 
necessary to make the two styles harmonise. 

Though we have never been able to recognise the 
practice of mixing up succulents with ordinary kinds 
of bedding plants, such as Geraniums aud other 
flowering kinds, as consistent with good taste, yet 
we have used them with good effect in carpet bed- 
ding patterns, as central and marginal plants for the 



314 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



designs — -the small-gTowing Idnds being every way 
excellent for this pm-pose, and harmonising well 
with Alternantheras, green, gxey, and golden Sedums 
and Saxifragas, Anttnuaria fomcidosa, and raoderately 
so with Gold Feather Pyrethrum. Occasionally 
we have arranged the outer portion of a succulent 
hed in carpet bedding stjde, using the brightest 
Alternantheras, kc, but dotting, in the carpeting 
plants, more than the usual number of small succu- 
lents, thus, as it were, leading gently up to the 
.-^ombre succulent mixture. This marginal bright 
band arrangement to succulent beds, meets with the 
approval of the majority of ^-isitors ; but personally 
we prefer the more lasting beauty produced by using 
succulents only in the same bed. 

These examples will sufficiently illustrate modes of 
arrangement. Of course the style is only adaptable 
to large gardens, where every description of bedding 
out is required to be done, and that have convenience 
for raising and wintering the plants. Flowers will 
be, and ought ever to be, preferred for small gardens, 
but those having large gardens should certainly 
have some portion of them planted in succulent 
style. 

List of Plants available for succulent bed- 
ding, together with, those that make appropriate 
ground- works for the same. These last we place 
first ; they are — Anteunaria toimntoHa, Ccrastuon ar- 
ve)isc, Echevcria, all the small-growing kinds; Her- 
niaria glabra, Kleinla rcpens, Leptinella scariosa, Jlesem- 
hr)jant]ici)U()n cordifoIia/)i rariegatioiu ^J^. coitspicuiou, 
SedH/u gJancum, S. Lydiurn, S. corsic/on, S. acre eJega)is 
rarkgatum, Sempervicion mo)tta)uim , S. Itlrti'.m, S. taha- 
liforme, Saxifraga Aizoon, S. rosularis, S. hirta, 8. 
pectinata, and Veronica rupestris. 

The best tall and large-foliaged kinds are — Agave 
americnna and A. americana variegata, Cotyledon 
pulveridenta, C. tomentosa, Echeveria mctaUica, B. 
gJauca metaUica, E. agarcoides, Xhinia tomentosa. 
Fachyphytnm hracteosnm, P. Hool-eril. St/nperrino// 
arhoreum, S. arhoreum variegatum, S. sanguineun}, S. 
canariense, S. Hendersonii, S. phylloides, S. Haicortliii, 
Yvcca aloefolla variegata, Y. filamentosa, Y. reciirva, 
and Y. gloriosa. 

Propagation and General Culture. — 

Nearly all the kinds enumerated throw offsets freely 
from the base of the plants during the summer: 
these may be taken off at any time, and be inserted 
in pots or cutting-pans in an open sandy soil, and if 
put on a shelf in an intermediate temperatui'e, with 
full exposure to the sun, they wiU quickly make 
root. Kinds that do not throw offsets freely are 
represented by Echererla rnctaHica and Sempcrrivum 
arborewn varicgatura ; the latter strikes fi'eely from 



cuttings, and the Ethcvcria from leaves. The cut- 
tings require exactly the same treatment and tempe- 
rature to strike as do the offsets, but the leaves of 
Echeveria should have a stronger heat. The mode 
of layering these on the pans of open soil is as 
follows : — The midrib of the leaf having been par- 
tially cut in several places, the bottom part should 
be put in the soil, then the whole leaf be pegged on 
the soil, especially taking care that the midrib is 
bedded in it, as it is from this that the plant will be 
formed. Keep nicely moist, but not saturated. 
This mode of striking is rather a slow one, 
but sure, and one leaf will frequently throw as 
many as nine plants. Fachyphytnm hracteosnm and 
Echeveria Feacockii may also be increased in the same 
way. 

All the small kinds throw offsets freely, and the 
hardier ones winter safely on a dry stmny bank, 
in which position they may be planted when first 
taken off. If large plants are desired, the old ones 
should be lifted before severe frost occurs, though, 
as a rule, early-propagated young stock will be 
foimd to get sufficiently large by the following 
season's planting-time, and the extra healthy ap- 
pearance of such yovmg stock will far outweigh 
any advantage to be derived from the larger old 
plants. 

But few words are necessary as to culture. Succu- 
lents all prefer a light, open, and sandy soil, and 
abundance of di\ainage, and to be kept on the dry 
side as to watering at all times, but particidarly 
duiing the winter. The beds in which they are to 
be planted should have the soil prepared on the same 
principle — that is, plenty of drainage, and if at aU 
heavy, charcoal, brick, and mortar rubble may be 
intermixed with it. The only labour required after 
the plants are put out, is the keeping of the groimd- 
work plants in position, and the flowers picked off' 
those kinds that produce them, which is virtually no 
labour at all. The attention required by succulents 
is thus in singular contrast to that needed by every 
other branch of bedding-out. 



THE EOSE A]S"D ITS CULTURE. 

By D. T. Fish. 



THE FLAIsTIXG OF ROSES. 

THE process of planting naturally divides itself 
into the time, place, and mode of planting. 
The question of what Eoses to plant will receive 
separate treatment. That every one having a yard 
of gi'ound to spare will desire to plant one or more 
roses in it is talren for granted, for a garden without 



THE EOSE AXD ITS CULTURE. 



315 



Eoses is like a sky ^\-ithout a sun, or the midniglit 
heavens with all the stars gone out. As Leigh Hunt 
sweetly sings : 

" We are blush^'iig Eoses, 
Bending with, oiu- fulness 
Midst our close-capped sister buds, 
"Warming the green coolness. 

" Whatsoe'er of beauty 
Yearns and yet reposes, 
Elush, and bosom, and sweet breath, 
Took a shape in Eoses." 

The Time to Plant.— This is without con- 
troversy the six weeks included between the middle 
of October and the end of Xovember. "Within that 
period of grey mists and yellow fogs, when aK 
nature as well as so many men seem about to fall 
into a state of semi-sleep, the roots of plants seem 
unseasonably active and ready to stai't into new 
ground with headlong alacrity and despatch. Hence 
the common saj-ing, "Move a Eose in Xovember, it 
must grow; transplant it afterwards, it may,'''' is 
verified by the widest experience of practical results. 

There are also several reasons more or less obvious 
for this more safe and satisfactory result of early 
planting : the earth is warmer than it is at a later 
period, and the descending saj) has not yet ceased to 
descend. Either of these is most favonrable to the 
emission of roots, while the two combined are the 
most powerful factors in their rapid production. 

As the season declines the heat of the earth 
becomes of more cultural importance. During 
summer hardy plants like Eoses are more likely to 
suffer from an excess than any deficiency of terres- 
trial heat. But in the late autumn or winter it is 
widely different, and it not unfrequently happens 
that Eoses are killed through their roots, by extreme 
cold that their tops have withstood with impunity. 
Freshly- distiu-bed roots are more apt to be injured 
by frost than such as have not been moved. They 
are mostly nearer to the surface, and are more or 
less weakened for the time being by being detached 
from the soil. In cold soil the isolated wounded 
root Kes almost dormant for a considerable time. 
But warmth is not only a heater but a quickener, 
and with a siifiiciency of heat in the soil, the root- 
rest is of the shortest duration. Once fairly started, 
the Eose or other plant may be said to be safe, pro- 
vided the new growths can be protected from 
destruction. The two most destructive agents being 
cold and motion, the plants must be rendered im- 
movable, and the roots covered thickly enough either 
-with soil or litter, or both, to prevent their being 
frozen. 

Influence of the Descending Sap on 
the Formation of Roots.— This is more potent 



than that of the latent heat of the ground, for it is 
one among the many chief functions of such sap to 
strengthen old and form new roots. "V\Tiether the sap 
falls through a lack of \itdl or solar energy, by the 
operation of the law of compensation or of graAitation, 
matters not to our present contention ; that it does 
descend in the late autumn or early winter is all 
that concerns us here. The period of its fall lasts 
from the moment the leaves and stems have reached 
full maturity, and for practical piu-poses it may be 
assumed that it continues to descend until the last 
leaf falls thi'ough over-ripeness or a notice to quit 
from the expanding growing bud in its axil, and 
possibly for some time afterwards. 

AVithout going into the philosophical or scientific 
differences and functions of the ascending and 
descending sap, it may be broadly affii-med that the 
former is but little thicker than water, and the latter 
is little less than the Eose-plant in a state of fluid. 
The descending sap is the great builder, up or dovm, 
and solidifier of vegetable tissue. Its heahng and 
stimulating properties are marvellous. Hardly does 
it reach or touch a wounded root than it heals it, and 
before it is fairly healed the descending sap forces it 
into new gTOwth. Hence the descending sap is the 
tide in the affairs of the newly-planted Eose-tree, 
which taken at the flood leads on to fortune, fame, and 
a higher life of beauty and fragi-ance than before. All 
this has been so often verified by experience that it may 
be accepted and acted upon as a specific for the safe 
planting of Eoses. In all respects November is better 
than any later month or day for the planting of 
Eoses ; and probably for many species of Eose, Octo- 
ber is better than November. The days are longer, 
the earth warmer, the air, as a rule, more moist, 
and the plants themselves are endowed with greater 
recuperative forces. 

Special Times for Special Varieties. — The 

above remarks apply with most force to Provence, Da- 
mask, Moss, Climbing, Briar, and Hybrid Peipetual 
Eoses. Tea Eoses, and Eoses in pots, may be planted 
at almost any time and season. But in forming fresh 
beds or borders of Tea, Noisette, Boiu-bon, China, or 
other such tender Eoses, the best season for planting 
is the end of May, or in cold localities even the first 
week in June. The Eoses have thus all the fostering 
wai-mth and moisture of a long summer before them, 
and long before the end of the growing season will 
have grown strong, and if fair plants when put out, 
blossomed freely. So rapid is the growth of such 
Eoses, and so freely do they bloom, that some have 
recommended planting them out annually in May, 
and lifting them at the end of October. They may 
be successfully grown in this way, though still 
better by being properly protected out of doors. 



:316 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXIXG. 



Could one insui'c a week's dripping weather 
towards the end of June, the majority of Hybrid 
Perpetual Eoses might he safely re-planted, if 
necessary, so soon as their first flowering season was 
over. The Eoses have thus a sort of breathing -time 
or raterregnum between the finish of one set of flowers 
and the start for a second. At this stage there is a 
mixture of autumnal and vernal conditions. Some of 
the sap seems descending, while another portion is 
preparing to ascend, and it is found by dii-ect experi- 
ment that Eoses transplanted at midsummer re-root 
with exceptional celerity. 

Eoses will also grow, and sometimes thiive well, 
planted at any season from October to May. 

Some Eose-growers even profess to prefer spring 
to autumn planting, their favourite months being 
February and March ; the latter being, as a rule, the 
most unsuitable month in all the twelve for any 
planting whatsoever. But should genial weather 
•ensue, and a little extra care be given, spring 
planting often proves fairly successful. It has this 
advantage, that in forming new Eose-beds or rosaries, 
the ground may be prej)ared easily in the autimm, 
be trenched up, and mellowed thi'oughout the winter, 
and prove tolerably sweet as well as fine by the end 
•of March, when the planting may take place. 

What is called the sunmier planting of Eoses 
mostly applies to those in pots, and may be con- 
tinued throughout May and June. Exceptional 
circumstances may also compel the rosarian to plant 
at these or still more risk^^ times. But all these 
seasons may be looked upon as exceptional times for 
planting, and the success that has attended them in 
no way lessens the force of all that has been urged in 
favour of planting Eoses in general in the last weeks 
of October and aU through Xovember. 

Place to Plant. — This resolves itself into the 
two questions of site and soil. Fortunately Eoses are 
not very particular as to either, or rather it would be 
more correct to say, that in the rich variety of Eoses 
there are those that will thrive on any site and in 
any soil. On the other hand, it is equally true that 
no site nor soil can be too good or too fostering for 
the best Eoses. "V\Tiere individual excellency of 
bloom only is desired, there is no better place than a 
portion of the kitchen garden or farm-yard, where 
the rich manuj'ings, surface mulchings, heav\' flood- 
ings vnih sewage, all so needful or useful to the 
•development of perfect Eoses, may be given ad 
libitum, without interfering in any way with the 
■daintiness of the flower garden, or the charms of the 
well-kept lawn. 

Southern, south-eastern or south-western, and 
western sites or waUs will be found the best for the 
-more tender Tea, Noisette, and Banksian Eoses. By 



planting some of the hardier of these classes in 
colder sites, the succession of bloom may be greatly 
prolonged, and the chai-acter of the flowers of se\-erai 
varieties so altered, enlarged, and improved, as 
hardly to be recognised. For it is qmte a mistake 
to assume that Eoses cannot have too much heat or 
sunlight. Xot a few of our finest Eoses may be 
speedily burnt out of all true character and con- 
dition. For example, very few of our dark Hybrid 
Perpetuals can maintain their high condition on a 
south wall. Even a southern site in many localities, 
especially if on a slope, is far from being the best for 
Eoses ; and some of the finest ever seen have been 
grown on northern and eastern aspects. Of course, 
when gro-^Ti in fields, Eoses have to take their chance 
as other crops ; but in such cases a considerable 
choice of sites is often possible, and many artificial 
expedients, such as shelters and shading, ai'e used to 
preserve or more fully develop the qualities of the 
flowers. 

The most perfect site or situation for a bed, border, 
or garden of Eoses shotdd marry the three S's — sim, 
shade, shelter — to air. 

Sunlight and heat must be ample without being 
excessive. From da^vn to noon, or from noon to 
dark, is as much direct sunshine as any Eose or class 
of Eoses know what to do with. Even considerably 
less than this will prove ample for all sorts and con- 
ditions of Eoses under the cloudless skies and baking- 
heats of June. The morning sunlight is, on the 
whole, the best and least exhausting for Eoses; 
though if they are so placed that little direct sun- 
shine touches them till noon, the channs of dew- 
diademed roses may be much longer enjoyed. 

Shade is almost as needful as sunshine. It pre- 
serves the colour and prolongs the existence of the 
blooms, and enables them to be better seen and more 
delightfully enjoyed. The brilliancy of masses of 
Eoses in the full glitter and glare of unclouded sunlight 
is more overpowering than satisfying. Hence the true 
lovers of Eoses are found lingering among them at 
dewy mom and quiet eveningtide. It is at such 
times only that the full beauty and fi-agrance of 
Eoses can be revealed. Deep refreshing shade brings 
with it witching times among the Eoses, whence the 
many attempts, by the skilful choice of natural sites, 
and by building walls and j)lanting screens, to pro- 
duce or prolong the season of shade among them. 
In all these artificial attempts to produce shade, 
nothing must on any account be permitted to 
approach too closely to or overhang the Eoses, so as 
to infiinge upon o\xr last condition of a good site — 
a fi'ee circulation of air. In addition to the pro- 
\iding of shade for Eoses in the mass, and for the 
purpose of the higher development of their beaut^', 
and the more pleasm-able enjo^-ment of the same, 



THE KOSE AND ITS CULTURE. 



317 



individual flowers are often provided with local 
shading of a denser character for show and other 
purposes. 

Shelters. — These are so closely related to shade 
that one contrivance mostly serves for both. Some 
amount of shelter, either natural or artificial, is 
almost essential for Eoses. Neither their leaves 
nor flowers are moulded in such forms, nor cast of 
such hard materials, as to fit them to withstand the 
battle of the breeze frequently repeated. Hence it 
is downright cruelty to Roses to plant them in the 
teeth of the wind, blow from what quarter it may. 



It is a painful sight to mark the distressed, bruised, 
ruined appearance of the ragged regiments of Rose- 
trees after such ill-matched encounters. Shelters 
must be posted round our sites to prevent such 
wreck and ruin. 

In many places naturally sheltered spots may be 
found for Roses. In all, some may be formed. 
INIounds of earth, crowned with shrubs or trees, or 
with dwarfer gi-owths, are among the cheapest, most 
ornamental, and natural-looking of all shelters. 
Walls or fences from six to ten feet high are the 
next best. WaUs are expensive, but then the sur- 
face may be clothed with Roses or fruit-trees, both of 
which have an economical as well as an artistic and 
aesthetic value. 

Fences, or hedges, are not so expensive. These 
may be formed of Roses, Beech, Maple, Hornbeam, 
Holly, Laurel, Yew, Evergreen Oak, Arborvitae, 
Cupressus, Scotch or Spruce Fir, or other quick- 



growing dense evergreens, or rapid-growing shrubs 
or trees ; Box, where it grows rapidly, being 
one of the best, as well as the more robust and 
choicer species and varieties of Rhododendrons. 
Any of these placed at proper distances, and planted 
in or grown into considerable mass, would provide 
sufficient shelter without an atom of overhanging 
shadow. It is by no means necessary that these 
shelters should take the form of straight lines, or 
formal hedges. On the contrary, their efficacy, as 
well as their beauty, would be greatly augmented 
were the outside, at least, to swell out into bold 
projections here, and recede there, and so on all 



9 



round, thus fringing the rosary about vdth. a band, 
of verdure and warmth, the shelter being made 
thickest where the prevailing winds were the most 
fierce and frequent. Such living shelters would 
break or sift out the force from the fiercest winds 
on their passage through, so that by the time they 
reached the Roses, they would be unable to bruise 
a leaf, or tarnish the most delicate flower. 

As the tops of our living shelters must on no 
account overshadow the Rose-trees, and rob them of 
their due quota of light, dew, or rain, so neither 
must their roots be allowed to burrow under the 
beds, and thus empty their larders of food. The 
old saying that roots and tops run a neck-and-neck 
race, each keeping abreast, and both covering the 
same distance, has much truth in it. But in the 
near proximity of the many rich and good things 
put into Rose-beds, the roots will be found far to 
outstrip the tops of many trees, and to have stolen 




rig'. 25.— EosE Garden for a Kising Slope. 



-318 



CASSELL'S POPULAB GAPDEXIXG. 



much Rose-food by stealth, ^vhile the tops are coyly 
moving their houghs many clear yards away. 

The Best Soil. — AVithout controversy this is a 
strong holding argillaceous loam, so tenacious as to 
almost touch clay in some of its more inviting forms. 
To imderstand this more fulh* it may be added that 
not a few soils that are called plastic clay when 
wet, grow into strong loam when dry. Though 
such loams are, on the whole, the most favourable 
for the perfect cultivation of Roses, it must not be 
hastily asserted that they cannot be grown on others. 
The writer has seen prize Roses grown on loam so 
light that it could be driven and drifted like sand 
in times of protracted di'ought, and also on sheer 
peat. The mere natural quality of Rose soils is 
often of less vital importance than might at first 
sight appear, inasmuch as in very many cases the soil 
is the mere shell, dish, or basin to hold the savoury 
materials which are so freely given to Roses to feed 
upon. By such expedients not a few very poor and 
indifferent soils have been made to produce Roses 
«qual to those grown on soils so good that expert 
rosarians have said of them that they seemed made for 
Roses. It may also be affirmed in geneml terms that 
land which will yield good wheat, beans, and mangold, 
will grow first-rate Roses. This has been proved 
over wide areas of late years, as the insatiable 
demand for Roses has impressed many of these into 
Rose nurseries, which have in some cases been 
l^lanted with Roses without further preparation, and 
in others after heavy manuring and double-digging. 
The results have been satisfactory in both cases, 
though not equally so. 

AMiile saying this much, so that few may de- 
spair of growing fair Roses with soils such as 
they have, or can make with the materials 
within reach, it should be added that no loam 
can be too good nor too rich for the well-doing 
of Roses, Were it not for the expense involved, 
wherever a rosaiy or a Rose-bed is required on light 
gravel or sandy soil, such soil should be bodily 
removed to the depth of between two and three feet, 
and the space filled up with the top spit of strong 
fibrous loam from the nearest fat pasture or meadow. 
If the pasture is not fat, then the lean may be 
enriched, in the filling up, with a liberal sprinkling 
of smashed bones, night-soil, or manure; the two 
latter partially decomposed by age, or separated and 
weakened by an admixture of earth, are thus con- 
verted into specially rich and friable composts. 

But it is seldom that such radical and expensive 
transpositions of soil are needful. 

The Rose, whilst preferring these holding loams, 
manifests no reluctance to run freely and far into 
mixtures ; and strength as well as friabihty and 



porosity seem often to be bom of these admix- 
tures. Two bad soils compounded skilfully will 
not unf requently result in a good one. To give an 
extreme example, neither pure clay nor silver sand 
will grow Roses to any good i)urpose. Convert these 
two into one, by compounding a half-and-half of 
each, and the compound will at times almost rival 
the model loam ah-eady described ; and so of many 
other soils and subsoils. Separated they are com- 
paratively useless for Roses ; combined, and further 
enriched by manures, they furnish all that is needed 
to glow Roses successfully. Thus heavy di-essings 
of clay or marl on peat or sand ; chalk or lime, or 
sea or other sands on clay ; a few loads of ditch- 
mud and strong loams on gravel, of additions of 
subsoil to sm'face, and vice versa, have all been 
fruitful in such transformation of texture and feed- 
ing qualities of soils, as to force those which were 
hopelessly inert or ban-en before to grow a garden of 
Roses ever afterwards. 

Most of those admixtures of earth were accom- 
panied by liberal dressings of manure. Xot a few 
of these have been so liberal as to justify the 
comparison of the soil to a mere shell for holding 
the kernel, and in not a few cases the mere me- 
chanical effect of so much manure on the textures 
of the soil has probabh* been of as much or even 
more benefit than theii' chemical constituents or 
feeding properties. For their mechanical influence in 
the amelioration of soils, few manures equal that 
from the farm-yard. It is a sort of omnium gatherum 
of most of the more valuable animal and vege- 
table manures. Any excess of it, however, on light 
soils might tend to make them get lighter, and 
consequently more unfit for Roses. But on heavy 
soils no manure can match it, and the heavier the 
son, the heavier the di-essing may be. 

The Ameliorating and Enriching of Rose 
Soils, — Among other alterative, ameliorative, and 
enriching appUances of Rose soils, the following 
are the best : burnt chalk, clay, loam, or other 
earths, charred refuse of all sorts, charcoal, and Hme 
or builders' rubbish, smashed bricks, bones, ashes, 
town refuse, road-scrapings, street-sweepings, spent 
tan, spent hops, malt, malt-combs, night-soU, and 
the dimg of cows, pigs, fowls. 

Few things afford stronger proofs of the onmi- 
vorous character of Roses, and the painstaking care 
of rosarians in suj)plying their wants, than this list 
of food, whioh might indeed be considerably ex- 
tended, so as to include the whole of our natural 
and artificial maniu'es. 

The mechanical effects of several of these sub- 
stances are almost permanent, those of others more 
or less temporary. Of the first class are burnt earth 



THE ROSE AN 13 ITS CULTURE. 



and charred refuse of all sorts, including- the earth, 
which should be rather charred than burnt for such 
purpose. In the former ease the tiame, when any, 
is smothered in by constant additions of fresh soil ; 
in the latter it is allowed free course. The en- 
richment may, to a great extent, be measured 
by the thoroughness of the admixture. One ingre- 
dient provides what the original soil might be 
wholly deficient of; another sets free what was so 
secirrely locked up in the close-grained texture 
that even the subtle searching roots of plants 
could not get at it. The effect of the manures 
is more transitory, but often almost immediate in 
their action. So much is this the case with some of 
them, that literally the wilderness of yesterday or 
of last year is made to rejoice and blossom with 
Roses only a few months after planting. The 
Rose is what is termed a gross feeder, and it well 
deserves the character. Hence, however rich or 
varied the materials of its root-runs, it speedily 
emj^ties and exhausts them. While the neces- 
sity of replenishment, and the means of accomplish- 
ing it, will be considered under cultural heads, it 
may be well to state here, to prevent disappoint- 
ment, that the frequent transplanting of Roses seems 
needful to maintain them in the highest health, and 
to keep the individual bloom up to tirst-prize stan- 
dards of excellency. 

Depth of Rose Soils. — Here the mere truism 
must be duly noted, that the deeper these are the 
longer the Roses will last. Two feet is a good average 
depth for Roses, but three is better, and even four, 
where attainable, is to be preferred to three. The 
roots of Roses naturally run deep ; they may be 
termed borers, not spreaders, to invent two root- 
phrases that will hardly be found in any treatise, 
though their equivalents, tap and fibrous roots, will. 
There are also not a few advantages in running 
deep. If they do not find gold, as the deep plougher 
is said in the song to do, they find those inorganic 
constituents of the soil, such as the oxides of iron, 
and other mineral matters, which are thought to 
impart more solidity of substance, and yet brighter 
colouring, to Roses. Besides, the deep roots are hold- 
fasts in storms, and enable Roses to hold out long 
against severe spells of drought, the latter being 
amongst the most destructively injurious trials to 
which they are subject. Finally, the depth adds 
vastly to the area of the Rose larders, being in fact 
our only practicable method of doubling or trebling 
its extent and contents, without any addition to 
either its length or breadth. Hence, the deeper 
the beds or borders for Roses, the longer they 
may be expected to thrive in it without renewal or 
^addition. 



Drainage. — The richer, better, deeper the Rose 
soil, the more urgent and pressing the necessity 
that no stagnant water shall lodge in or immediately 
under it. Water in excess at the roots has slain its 
tens of thousands of Roses, as against the thousands 
killed by atmospheric severities and sudden changes. 

Stagnant water breaks down and utterly de- 
stroys the texture, and that is very much the air- 
holding capacity of soils. Most of the admixtui-es 
recommended here have been for the main purpose 
of improving texture. The pi-esence of stagnant 
water for only a short time renders most of all this 
labour lost, and will convert the best and most skil- 
fully compounded soils into something very nearly 
allied to a muddy pond or stagnant ditch. 

The remedy is simple as it is oT^vious. All na- 
turally rich ground should be thoroughly drained at 
least a foot below the level of the soil provided 
for the Rose-roots. Should this be thi^ee feet, the 
di'ains should be four at least, and so in proj)ortion 
for deep or fleet root-runs. As to the distance of 
drains, that will be determined very much by the 
retentiveness of the soil, the amount of fall, the 
materials used, &c. From ten to twenty feet will 
generally prove efficient distances on .Rose soils. (See 
chapters on Drainage.) 

Plans. — Roses are so sweet and charming that 
they must be largely used in forming and enriching 
flower gardens, and also for forming and furnishing 
gardens devoted entirely to themselves. In planning 
Rose gardens, the chief points to bear in mind 
are to choose simj)le figures, and avoid angles as far 
as may be, as Roses can hardly be trained so as to 
furnish sharp corners or angles. 

Fig. 25 is a group of figures that look remarkably 
well on a rising bank, the lowest part being at the 
semi-circle in the middle. It also looks well on 
level ground, with a gravel walk led across near the 
semi-circle. Where room is plentiful, the other 
half could be added, thus converting the group of 
Rose beds into a Rose garden, surrounded, if need be, 
say nine or twelve feet from the circle, with a tall 
Rose hedge from six to ten feet in height. But, 
as it is, Fig. 25 could be planted thus : No. 1 could 
be cleared away for a seat, or expanded into a Rose 
arbour or temple, or planted with any pale-coloured 
or white Rose, such as Boule de Neige. No. 5 
should then be planted with Duke of Edinburgh. 
No. 4, Celine Forestier. No, 6, Triomphe des 
Rennes. No. 3, Marie Bauman. No. 7, AKred 
Colomb. No. 2, La France. No. 8, Lady Mary 
Fitzwilliam. The circular beds could bo furnished 
with dwarf standards, three or five in a bed, or with 
strong-growing dwarfs. No. 9, Gloire de Dijon. 
No. 10, Charles Lefebvre. No. 11, Baroness Roth- 



320 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXIXG. 



scliild. No. 12, Madame Therese Levet. Xo. 1 3,^Vhite 
Baroness. No. 14, Salrano, or Belle Lyonnaise. 
But these are mere samples of many other methods 
of furnishing that might he adopted, or the heds 
might he furnished with mixed dwarf and standard 
Roses in the usual way. The circles could also he 
filled with large standard or weeping Poses, only one 
plant in each. 

Fig. 26 looks well on a long narrowish piece 
of turf, such as may often he met with in gar- 
dens, and may he fm-nished in the usual mixed 
style, either with standard or dwarf Poses. If 
looked down upon from a higher terrace or window, 
it would, however, look hest furnished with dwarf 
Poses, each hed of one sort. No. 1 could he filled 
with Souvenir de la Malmaison, one of the hest 



have a narrow edging of Persian Yellow and Copper 
Poses. The whole is ahout forty-five yards long 
and ahout twenty wide. The turf paths hetween 
the heds are three yards wide, and the line of outer 
circles are six yards from the heds, and carried round 
one end of the rosary. These are furnished ^ith 
single large standard Rose each — a white and a pink 
alternating, the sorts used heing Madame Plantier 
and Charles Lawson. The form and style of the 
heds are well adapted for Poses, and when the plants 
escape the spring frosts, few sights are more rich and 
satisfying than this large garden full of Poses of all 
sorts and shades of colour. 

The Actual Planting. — Ha^•ing thoroughly 
prepared the root -rims, and if possihle left the soil 






J^ ic. 26.— Plan foe Beds of Eoses on Turf. 



of all Poses for forming continuous floriferous 
groups. No. 2, Charles Lefehvi-e. No. 3, Marie 
Bauman. No. 4, INIarie Rady. No. 5, Duke of 
Edinhurgh. No. 6, Marie van Houtte. No. 7, 
Gloire de Dijon. No. 8, La France. No. 9. 
Marshal Niel, or Madame Trifle; or the four 
S-shaped heds could each he divided into three, the 
centre furnished with one sort, and the two comers 
each with a dilterent and distinct variety, thus con- 
verting each for furnishing purposes into three heds. 
In that case the centre might he furnished with 
some of the more hrilliant-coloured perpetuals, such 
as Duke of Edinhurgh, Madame Yictor Yerdier, 
^Maurice Bei^nardm, Senateur Yaisse : and the ends 
vdth. such Teas and Noisettes as Madame Levet, 
Cheshunt Hyhrid, Madame Maurin, Niphetos, Ce- 
line Forestier, Lamarque, President, Souvenir d'un 
Ami, &c. 

Fig. 27 is a sketch of the largest rosary at Hard- 
■wicke, designed and funiished hy the writer some 
twenty years ago. It is chiefly furnished with a 
mixed collection of standard Poses of different 
heights, each of the larger heds containing over a 
hundi-ed plants a-piece. The cm-ved heds at the end 



with a surface as rough as possihle, to he amelio- 
rated and sweetened hy sun and air, wind and rain, 
frost and snow, and the whole mass to he partially 
consolidated hy time, the preparations for planting 
should he proceeded with and completed. Questions 
of distance, stakes, kc, should also he determined in 
advance. The old practice of making the hole?, 
several months hefore planting is also of great use, 
though now generally set aside in these times of ex- 
press trains and telegrams and telephones. By some 
of these means our Poses are ordered in the morning, 
and sometimes delivered and planted in the after- 
noon. This is no douht almost heroic in its sud- 
denness ; hut, in the end, not seldom illustrates the 
truth of the old axiom. "The more haste the less 
speed ; " not that the speed itself is dangerous pro- 
^■ided the work is well done and due preparation 
made for it. The mellowing and pulverising of the 
sides and hottom of the holes for Roses hy exposure, 
was a cheap and easy way of starting the roots in soil 
of the very hest and most root-tempting quality. 

To make the whole art of planting Poses more 
plain, it may he hest to treat of it under the following 
distinct suh-headings : Distance, Depth, Disposition 



THE ROSE AND ITS CULTURE. 



321 



and Covering of the Roots, Solidit}-, Stability, 
Mulching-, and Arrangement of the Plants. 

Distance. — The distance may range from two feet 
to thirty, according to soil, site and situation. The 
first is a fair distance for dwarfs, or very low 
standards in line, or mass in heds or borders; the 
latter not excessive for fine finished standards, 
furnishing the sides of a ten or fifteen feet walk. 
Pyramidal or Pillar Roses need almost equally 
great distances to render them effective, whereas 
AVeeping Roses look best so far asunder as to be seen all 



such as Marshal Niel, and Gloire de Dijon, would 
speedily cover ten times the area thus allowed 
them. But as the stronger growers spread far and 
wide, tlie weaker and less valuable ones may be 
cleared away ; and as rose plants are cheap, and 
roses and wall space valuable, thick planting pays 
best. Besides, not a few of our finest Tea Roses grow 
rather slowly, and planted a yard apart on a six feet 
wall, it will be several years before they cover it. 

Climbing and Trailing Roses are generally 
planted at distances of from five to twenty or more 



o o o o o 

Grass 




Grass 



o o o o 



Fig-. 27.— EosE Garden at Hardwicke. 



round without compression or contact with other 
plants or forms. But all these may be treated here 
as exceptional, and the general principle determining 
distances apart in reference to effect may be 
determined chiefly by their breadth and height, and the 
purposes and positions for and in which they are 
planted. The majority of rose plants come under the 
general designation of standards and dwarfs. For 
the first the range of distance may reach from two 
feet to four, three feet being a good average. For 
tall and strong-growing standards, however, five will 
not be excessive, and two or two-and-a-half feet will 
be found ample for the dwarf er and weaker standards. 

For Dwarf Roses the distance may range from one 
foot to three ; from eighteen inches to two-and- 
a-half feet being the more usual distance. 

Roses on walls may average a yard apart. Many, 
21 



feet apart, as some of these will run so many feet in 
a single season. 

Depth. — Most Roses are planted too deeply. This 
is often done thoughtlessly, more frequently in the 
hope of saving the labour and cost of staking and 
tj^ng. It is very injurious, and proves In fact one 
of the most fruitful sources of disease and death. 
Besides, the roots of roses mostly run rather too 
deeply, plant them as we may, and it is not worth 
while to intensify this tendency by starting them too 
low in the soil at planting. Deep planting also 
makes the roots to multiply suckers, a provoking 
tendency, sure to be sufiiciently developed without 
the planter's help. If the surface roots have a cover- 
ing of three inches, and the lower ones of eight at 
the most, it will be found amply sufficient. Thus 
the root-plane of lioses should be found at starting 



322 



CASSELL'S POPULAfl GAEDEXIXG. 



in the space of five inch.es, heginning at three under 
the surface. There is yet another reason for the 
shallow planting of Eoses, and that is found in the 
fact that the roots hardly ever rise afterwards. 
Do-^sTi, do'tt'D, yet lower and lower do^Ti, runs their 
motto and their work through life. Hence the 
surface soil hecomes more of a mere coverer, and less 
and less of a feeder, and consequently the roses 
should he planted fleetly, and the hest food for them 
should proceed from the upper layer of roots to the 
bottom of their feeding quarters. 

Disposition and Corerinrj of tlic lioota. — Xatu- 
rally the roots of Roses are more like under- 
gTOund sparsely-hranched stems, than the fibrous 
bundles of recticulated tissue, each terminating in an 
open mouth, that we instinctively associate with the 
name and character of roots. Perhaps nothing dis- 
appoints the novice in Rose-growing more than his 
first practical acquaintance with their roots. It even 
tempers the enthusiasm so admirably expressed by 
my friend Canon Holtc — Canon and Bishop among^ 
oiu' Roses, in his charming book about Roses, " How it 
cheers the Rosarian's heart amid those dreary days 
(November), to welcome that package from the nur- 
series, long and heavy, so cleanly swathed in the new 
Russian mat, so closely secured w^th the clean white 
cord. His eyes glisten, like the schoolboy's when the 
hamper comes from home; and hardly, though he 
has read the story of * waste not want not,' can he 
keep his knife froni the string." But his pang of 
disappointment is great as he turns from the tops of 
fishing-rod length and suppleness to the roots, which 
are too often like a whipcord, broken off short in the 
middle. In almost every instance their size, form, 
and number, are grievously disappointing. 

But as every minute's exposure to the air is 
dangerous, the sooner the roots are dressed and dis- 
posed of under ground the better. The dressing 
consists in cutting off all wounded and bruised 
portions with a sharp knife, and at as an acute an 
angle as is possible. This done, and assuming that 
the holes are ready made, fill in to within three or 
five inches of the surface, levelling the bottom and 
treading it quite firmly. If not made before, or the 
bed or border thoroughly prepared, the holes may be 
dug out to a depth of eighteen inches or two feet, 
and of a similar or greater breadth, and then filled in 
witli a mixture of turf \' loam and manure, or such as 
that already recommended. Fill in, tread in, and 
for standards chive a firm stake into the centre of 
the hole before planting. All this, however, should 
be done before uncovering or dressing the roots,"" as the 
air if it is frosty proves most injurious. Then place 
the plant against the stake, and give it a single loose 
lie. Then proceed to give a horizontal direction to 
the root or roots, and if there are several let them be 



equally distributed over the area of the hole ; cover 
these with some of the finest and best soil ; and if this 
is not good enough a few spadefuls of a lighter soil 
into which a liberal addition of leaf mould has been 
added, is one of the best coverings for the roots of 
Roses. FiU in \\ith the soil until the root-run is 
rather above the level of the ground, and the actual 
planting is finished. 

By placing the stake first one person may plant 
Roses well ; but, as a rule, tim-e is saved by two being 




Fig. 28.— Ii-ou Stakes. 

engaged in the process. And this is one of those 
operations which cannot be done too rapidly. 

Solidity. — This must be attended to before and 
in the planting as well as afterwards. The base of 
the hole, if the soil is in good condition, can hardly 
be made too solid before planting. Then sprinkle it 
over with good soil or compost, place the roots on 
this, cover over and tread down carefully, when quite 
filled in tread again. Rose-roots and briars are 
accustomed to have a solid root-run, and a certain 
firmness of the soil imder and over the roots seems 
necessary to enable them to bite or run freely into it. 

Stability. — This is as essential to success as 
sohdity. These are, in fact, correlated throughout. 
Deep and hard planting were both adopted to give 
to roses and other plants sohdity, as it was found 
that they could not possibly root while their tops 
were endowed with the power of levers to snap the 
fresh fibres by every passing breeze. Prompt staking 
the moment they are planted, or even before, is, 
however, by far the best method for rendeiing the 
tops and roots alike immovable. In. the first tring 



THE EOSE AND ITS CULTURE. 



323 



:;f newly -planted Roses, the string should be first tied 
firmly rouud the stake, and sufficient room left to tie 
round the stem to enable it to slip down with it as it 
subsides with the earth. If both are tied together 
in the usual way, the stake having reached to the 
solid earth under, the compost will not sink with the 
Rose, and the latter will be suspended to the stake 
to the straining and breaking of its roots. 

The fragility of wooden stakes is, neverthe- 
less, a great cbawback to the stability of Roses. 
When in full beauty of leaf and flower, and con- 
sequently affording most purchase for the wind, the 
stake snaps, and too often the stem of the Rose-tree 
with it— and all is wrecked in a moment. To avoid 




Fig. 29.— Stake witli Svays. 



■such risks, iron stakes, like those shown in Fig. 28, 
are largely employed in many gardens in lieu of 
wooden stakes. In Fig. 28, a is a very simple and 
useful stake, the peculiar narrowing twist a few 
inches from its base adding much to its stability. 
Another capital stake of similar character, with a 
small knob at top and a prong or fork at bottom, is 
shown in b. c is a plain iron stake, with three 
prongs, set in a triangle that renders it immo- 
vable under any ordinary pressure. The stake 
lettered cl is, however, the most ornamental and 
the best. The mass and weight of its base, as 
well as triangular or square form — for they may be 
made of either shape — give it a firm grip of the 
earth, while the endless-screw appearance is not 
only highly ornamental, but adds to the practical 
usefulness of the stake by providing a complete anti- 
dote to tie-slipping. The chief di-awback to this 
stake arises from one of its merits. The considerable 
mass of iron so near to the root-stock often causes 
a sort of rust among the roots, that proves injurious 



to them. The simplest antidote to the rust is an 
annual or biennial cleaning of the stakes, and the 
dipping of the earth portion in boiling pitch. 

In Fig. 29 a stronger rose-stake is introduced. 
This is an enlarged edition of c, Fig. 28, with the 
important addition of three detached holdfasts, a a, 
connected to the centre stake by wire, yarn, or chain, 
6-, fastened to a knob or ring in the stake at k. Pro- 
perly secured, this stake is for all practical purposes 
immovable, and the largest rose may be tied to or 
trained up such with a perfect sense of security. 

Mulching the Surface of the Roots. — Finally, 
after planting and making all firm and staljle, 
cover the surface with four inches of litter, 
to make all frost-proof dming the first winter, 
and to conserve the moisture in summer. This is 
the more needful as the roots will be nearer to the 
surface than usual, and will also be found to bo 
abnormally active, and therefoi'e unusually sensitive 
to extremes of heat, or cold, or drought. 

Arrangement of the Plants. — This is more 
determined by taste than oy any necessary rules of 
planting. For, however plants may be placed in 
relation to each other, the mode of planting should bo 
the same. Still, much of the final effect of planting- 
turns on matters of arrangement. For example, in 
forming a group of Roses, one would almost natui-ally 
place the tallest plants in the centre, dropping a foot 
or eighteen inches in each row, and finishing with 
dwarfs to meet the lowest standards on one side, and 
stoop to kiss the turf on the other. The effect would 
be far more pleasing than if the plants had been 
placed higgledy-piggledy without any special regard 
to height or distance. 

Many of the charms of a bank of Roses may also 
be obtained on level ground by the simple expedient 
of selecting tall standard or pillar roses, for the 
back row. By having these say seven feet high, the 
next say five, the next three and a-half, the next 
two and a-half, the next eighteen inches, and the last 
Dwarf or Fauy Roses, will be formed a bi'oad rising 
bank of the most telling character. Again, by plant- 
ing standards rather thinly, dwarfs may be planted 
between them, and thus cover the gi'ound, and make 
the bed or garden of roses still more biiglit and 
beautiful, with a j)erfect prodigality of buds and 
blossom. Pillar, Pyramidal, or Creeping Roses 
might also be chosen for centres of groups, skilfully 
distributed among Dwarf Roses, or so disposed as to 
rise up naturally, into a hedge or a bank of roses. 

But these hints only suggest rather than exhaust 
the infinity of arrangements and combinations with 
themselves and other plants, surli ,is Honeysuckle, 
Clematis, (S:c., that may be thonglil out and carried 
into effect by the skilful planter of roses. 



324 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



SUBUEBAK GAEDENTNGT. 

By jAiiES Hudson. 

THE GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. 

THIS addition to small suburban and villa gar- 
dens can be made very enjoyable, and thus 
afford the means of recreation and amusement when 
the weather is unpropitious for out-of-door occupa- 
tions. It often happens, however, that the struc- 
ture is erected in some out-of-the-way corner of the 
garden, with an unsuitable aspect, or overshadowed 
with trees ; or else, when attached to the house itself, 
it is so arranged as to be of little use for successful 
plant culture, either by reason of its indifferent con- 
struction to attain these ends, or by the position in 
which it has been erected. No thought in the latter 
case is often exercised in respect to the beneficial in- 
fluence of the sun's rays upon indoor plant life. 

Position. — As regards the aspect in which a 
house for plant gi'owth is to be erected, it is neces- 
sary to say that south, south-west, or west are in 
every respect far better than any other point of the 
compass. East or south-east would possibly be more 
exposed to cold piercing winds, as well as catching 
the early sun in the morning, before, in some cases 
perhaps, any attention could be conveniently given 
to ventilation or the more immediate requirements of 
the plants themselves. Should the temperature 
have declined too low, the first-named aspects would 
be much better during the winter months. Then 
the plants would not be so likely to suffer by expo- 
sure to the sun's rays after having been in danger- 
ous proximity to the freezing-point. We therefore 
advise both the noi'therly and easterly aspects to be 
avoided in every possible case. 

In the event of span-roofed houses being chosen 
in preference to the lean-to, we would still prefer 
the same aspect in all small erections, but we do not 
advise this class of house to be erected in such gar- 
dens. They are more liable to sudden variations in 
temperature than the lean-to ; especially is this the 
case in small erections. The lean-to has the advan- 
tage of shelter, and will in most cases be found to 
maintain a higher temperature, and withstand the 
inroad of frost without so much artificial heat- 
ing. 

Small houses for the culture of plants are also fre- 
quently built too high, causing the plants to become 
imduly drawn up or attenuated in their growth. 
Height oftentimes has to do duty for more superfi- 
cial space, and shelves for the plants, tier above 
tier, are arranged as a compensation thereto. These 
positions, however, are not desirable places for the 
successful growth of plants, the drip from one row 
of plants falling on to those beneath them. In 



order to remedy this as much as possiljle, the shelves 
should graduate in width ; each of them should also 
be fixed a short distance away f lom the wall when 
arranged for in such a position, keeping the nar- 
rowest one as a matter of course at the tO}). This- 
would be a very good plan to follow when any wall- 
space has to be covered, but a better way still would 
be to plant climbing plants to attain these ends, 
with one fairly wide shelf only within easy access 
for the use of the water-pot. The endeavour 
thi'oughout should be to secure the maximum of 
light for the growth and healthy de^-elopment of the 
plants, and yet contrive to cultivate as great a 
variety as possible. 

Shade. — We strongly advise climbing plants also 
for the roof, and if one is named in preference to- 
any other it is Passifora cceruUa^ the Blue Passion 
Flower. It is one of the easiest plants to manage, 
and would afford an excellent means of shading for 
ihe roof during the summer months. Care must, 
however, be taken to keep the shoots from becoming 
entangled with each other to any extent, thus 
causing a dense shade to be imparted to the plants 
beneath it. As the autumn advances the shoots 
should be carefully thinned out to let in more light, 
and those that are left can be tied into bunches of 
three or four each, and opened out equally over the 
roof again in the spring, when signs of active growth 
are apparent. Several other climbing plants could be 
used with every hope of successful culture. Lapa- 
geria rosea and L. alba ; Tacsonia Van Volxemii, a 
species of Passion Flower ; Solanum jasminoides ; 
Habrothamnus elegans and Cobcea scandens, with its 
variegated-leaved form, would either of them prove 
well worthy of cultivation. The two last-named 
genera would be of somewhat robust growth, and 
therefore excellent subjects to cover a wall of more- 
than usual dimensions. The natural means thus 
advised to be employed as a means of shading the 
roof woTild be far preferable to either a blind to roll 
up and down the roof, or that disagreeable and un- 
sightly method of besmearing the glass with whiten- 
ing to attain the desired end. Unless any objection- 
able outlook on either side has to be studied, clear 
glass is far preferable to emplopng any kind that 
would obstruct the light. If any medium to break 
the view is needed, we would prefer glass of a pale 
green tint in lieu of either ground or rolled plate 
glass. 

The floor of the interior of the structure should be 
so arranged as to allow sufficient space for soil 
wherein to plant the climbing plants. The re- 
mainder of the surface might be advantageously 
paved, according to taste, and thus be easier kept 
sweet and clean. If the house is elevated above the 



SUBURBAN GARDENING. 



S25 



ground-line, paving- throughout had better he re- 
sorted to, and the climbers be planted in slate tubs. 

Heat. — The artificial heating of the structure 
itself, as pre\uously hinted at in a foregoing chapter, 
might with ease be effected by connection with the 
kitchen boiler, when that article of daily use is of 
sufficient power ; if otherwise, a small gas boiler 
outside of the building would answer the purpose. 
Three-inch hot-water pipes would be sutficiently 
large for all purposes in a small building, provided 
the quantity used is liberal in proportion to the size 
of the house. These should be arranged against the 
exterior walls, if possible, not carried along the back 
wall, as is oftentimes done in small structures. In 
the former manner the heated air will be better dis- 
seminated into the surrounding atmosphere, and 
likewise keep out more cold frosty air from the 
most exposed j)ositions. A self -registering ther- 
mometer is strongly advised, as affording reliable 
data to work upon in regulating the heating power 
during the night. For this purpose a minimum in- 
strument, i.e., one that records the lowest tempera- 
ture, is the one to use; whilst for recording the 
highest range of the glass during the day, a maximum 
would be tbe one to select. We advise both to be 
used, but more especially the former. They are 
made in combination, but the proper working of this 
kind is very liable to get out of order and mislead 
even those who are well experienced in such matters. 
These thermometers should be prevented from being 
unduly run up, and thus recording a higher tempe- 
rature than is really existing. This is caused by the 
sun shining direct on to the tube containing the 
mercury or spirit, as the case may be. To prevent 
the occurrence of this, a thin casing of wood to 
screen the instrument from the direct action of the 
sun would be effectual. 

Ventilation. — It is necessary to remark that 
some discretion is required in the management of 
this, one of the most particular points of detail in 
successful culture. During cold weather, with a 
prevalence of either north or easterly winds, but 
little ventilation will be required, and the air then 
admitted should be given in such a way as to avoid 
the possible injury that might accrue during this 
state of the weather. Do not admit any air where 
the full force of the wind will be likely to enter the 
house and exhaust the vitality of the plants by the 
sudden lowering of the temperature. During warm 
summer weather, a little air should be left on all 
night, and arranged so that a free circulation is 
secured. The plants will thus recoup themselves, 
and their vitality will be strengthened against the 
possible strain they may have to endure thi-ough a 



period of hot weather. During both spring anrl 
autumn, when there is no danger apprehended oi 
any morning frost, a littie chink of air will be bene- 
ficial to the occupants of the house at night. 

The ventilation should be arranged for at the top 
of the house, by means of flap-lights to lift up, or, 
in case of a span-roof structure, by lighoi that are 
hung on a pivot in a lantern roof. This latter, how- 
ever, is a more expensive mode of procedure, whilst 
the former can be adapted to either style. Sliding 
lights are not to be recommended at all, although 
they are much used. During rainy weather more 
attention is needed in drawing them up, and the 
working gear is more liable to get deranged. Tne 
arrangement for the admission of air in the front 
should be by lights hung on hinges to the lower side 
of the plate that carries the ruof. A few air-bricks 
also will allow for a considerable amount of air to 
pass into the house, and, when possible, these should 
be fixed on a level with the hot- water pipes. The 
staging on which to stand the plants should be 
arranged to suit taste and convenience, provided it is 
not at an inordinate distance from the glass. 

In the event of no greenhouse having been built, 
and provided the possession is by lease or yearly 
tenancy, what is termed a " tenant's fixture " would 
afford an excellent substitute for a more permanent 
structure, with bricks and mortar for the foundation. 
The "tenant's fixture" is entirely composed of wood 
and glass, resting on a solid bottom, and thus re- 
movable at pleasure. This kind of house is fre- 
quently seen advex'tised, and the price at which they 
are produced is astonishingly low for the work there 
is in them. There would be in such a house an 
abundant source of pleasure, to be derived in the 
cultivation of at least a few plants of comparatively 
easy growth. One precaution, however, would need 
to be taken when dealing with this kind of building, 
and that is, to look well after the painting of the 
lower portions that are within close proximity to the 
ground ; else decay will in all probability soon sot 
in, all the sooner if in contact with the ground itself. 

Vine Culture. — We have previously reverted 
to the cultivation of climbing plants as affording a 
means of shading, and in our last article we also 
hinted at vine culture. Should the latter be 
chosen, the climbing plants would not be required. 
If any one can devote a fair amount of time — not 
necessarily to any great extent — we would certainly 
advise vine culture to be attempted. We do not by 
this mean to go to any considerable expense with all 
the accessories of first-class culture, but to endeavour 
to produce a few grapes in a'? simple a manner as 
possible, and with the least possible expense too. It 
is astonishing how well vines do thrive at times 



326 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



when no prepai\ation scarcely has heen made for 
theii' culture. The greatest evil is that of over- 
cropj)ing-, and even what might be thought only a 
good average crop should not be allowed till the 
vines are thoroughly established. The vine is of 
such a fruitful nature that it would soon exhaust 
it-self were not the crop greatly reduced, and the 
bunches themselves considerably thinned of a good 
number of their berries, when fine -looking grapes 
are desired. For an amateur in vine-growing, wo 
would ad\dse only the Black Hambro' and the Sweet- 
water (common) to be planted. These are two of 
the best sorts that could be chosen for such a house. 
Both of these kinds can be grown in a cool house, 
and ripened xcitJiont any fire-heat, although a trifle of 
heat in the pipes would be beneficial during damp 
cloudy weather, and thus be the means of dispelling 
any excessive amount of atmospheric moistui-e. In 
a cold house, without any artificial heat, the greatest 
evil to be apprehended is an attack of mildow, which 
if not checked at once, will soon disfigure the entire 
crop. To avoid this drawback the house should be 
kept as dry as possible during dull, damp weather, 
;ind if any symptoms of this fungoid growth arc 
seen., either paint the pipes with sul]3hur or dust a 
little very slightly into each bunch. In the event 
of the former remedy being used, the pij^es should 
Ite fairly wann at the time of application, and then 
with the house closed the fumes of the sulphur will 
be readily discernible, and the mildew forthwith 
killed. Minute details of culture are not required 
from us, as the reader will obtain this practical in- 
formation from the exhaustive articles by Mr. Cole- 
man. 

Plants.— The culture of all the best suited plants 
to make the house gay, at least for a few months of 
the year, will also be found under their respective 
lieadings. If we named any one genus in particular 
it would be that of the Pelargonium or Geranium — 
more particularly the greatly improved t^-pes of 
single and double Geraniums belonging to the 
scarlet or zonale class. The beautiful shades of 
colour in many of the newer kinds, both single and 
double varieties, cause them to be very attractive. 
Being also of easy culture, they should be much 
grown. A few plants also of the scented leaf 
varieties would no doubt be appreciated. The 
Geranium will bear being dry at the root better than 
many kinds of plants, and occasionally no doubt an 
omission in the watering might occur. On the .other 
hand, be careful to avoid over-watering. This is a 
gi-eat mistake, very common in small gardens, and 
one from which the plants do not in many cases so 
quickly recover as in the case of the other extreme. 
Chrysanthemums should be grown, not only for the 



sake of making a display dming the last months or 
the year, but for the choice and varied character of 
their flowers. Fuchsias, again, should have con- 
sideration, being of the easiest culture. Several 
species of Cactus would prove very interesting, not 
requiring such close attention as many plants. 
Xcrlum Oleander, a well-known old jjlant, is also of 
easy culture. Of bulbous plants that are kept on 
from year to year, there are the Agapanthus, the 
Yallota, the Liliums, the Calla or Richardia — all of 
these are valuable in their season; whilst for the 
spring months the Hyacinths, the Tulips, the Xar- 
cissus, with the Crocus and other bulbs in pots, 
would make the house gay for weeks. Astilhr 
japonica (also called Spircca japonica), now so much 
grown for its feathery plumes, should not be 
omitted. The imported plants generally flower the 
best. Besides the Cactus already named, there are 
many succulent plants that are extremely interesting 
and curious in a collection, even in a small way. 

Of plants grown for the beauty of their foliage, 
there are the hardier types of Palms, many kinds 
of tolerably hardy Ferns, Flcus elastica, or the 
Indian-rubber plant, and the Aspidistra, the last- 
named being very hardy. In conclusion, be 
careful not to accumulate more plants than can be 
grown without injury to each other by reason of 
overcrowding, as in that case not only will the 
jjlants suifer, but the general effect will not be so 
good. 

It may perhaps be thought that we should have 
included Azaleas, Camellias, and some few other 
hard- wooded plants in the enumerations just given; 
but some considerable amount of practice and expe- 
rience is required before such plants are grown ^xiih. 
success. By the time any one becomes well 
grounded in such matters, other portions of this 
work will abundantly afford the information essen- 
tial to their successful culture, combined with the 
practice already attained in dealing with the plants 
first recommended. Again, we may be thought to 
have overlooked the Chinese Primula, the Cineraria, 
and the Cyclamen ; but these, with some few other 
kinds of flowering plants, can now be purchased so 
cheaply, and in far better condition than they can be 
grown among the other plants, that we advise their 
purchase ; this, however, just before they come into 
bloom, and not as they are seen when offered for sale 
by the market growers, when they are in their best 
condition of bloom, and cannot reasonably be ex- 
pected to last so long as in the other case. 

Pots and Potting.— Such purchases will not 
be altogether lost afterwards, for the pots and even 
the soil can be used again for the general stock. 
^Ye do not, however, advise the latter plan to be 



SUBURBAN GARDENINa. 



327 



followed unless fresh soil is not readily obtainable ; 
but the pots are always available, not omitting that 
most necessary item of cleanliness, well scrubbing 
the outside and inside of each pot before being again 
used. Always preserve sufficient of the broken pots 
to act as di-amage to me plants wnen being re- 
potted, but see that these even are well cleansed 
before use. After plants have been fresh potted bo 
cautious in the use of the water-pot for some little 
time, until signs are seen in the growth of the plant 
that it is assimilating to itself the properties con- 
tained in the new soil. 

SUITABLE SUBJECTS. 
As a guide for those who are selecting material 
wherewith to furnish their gardens, we purpose now 
to give a selection of some of the best, hardiest, and 
most suitable subjects to be employed. 

Shrubs and Trees — Of evergreen shrubs that 
are valuable for their foliage alone, or combined 
with the ornamental character of their flowers or 
fruit, there are several genera from which to choose. 
Some that we quote may be well-known kinds, but 
in order to make the list more complete it is necessary 
to mention them. Arbutus Unedo, the Strawberry 
tree, in some few varieties, requires a rather shel- 
tered position to attain to a fruit-bearing state. 
Aucuba japonica maculata, the well-known old variety; 
A.j'aponica vera nana, the green form of the same, 
and both female varieties ; A. japonica maculata mas- 
cnla, the male form of the old kind ; and A. japonica 
riridis — ^both of these should be grown, but one plant 
of each would be sufficient in a small garden in order 
to fertilise the female varieties. Azara microphyUa, 
somewhat like the old Cotoneastcr microphyUa, but 
both are well worth growing as a foreground to 
other shrubs. Berberis Darwinii, beautiful when in 
flower; B. Aquifolium, also called Mahonia Agui- 
folium, one of the best shrubs for a small garden, the 
l)ronzy points of the young growths and leaves being 
very useful in floral arrangements; £. stenophylla, 
free-flowering. Buxus sempervirens, or the Box, is well 
known, both the variegated and green forms being- 
useful, whilst the dwarf kind, especially the varie- 
gated form, is a very pretty shrub. Cerasus Lauro- 
cerasHs, or the Common Laurel, needs no description, 
but the Colchic or C. L. colchica should be chosen ; 
the Portugal Laurel, Cerasus lusitanica, is, however, 
the best in a small garden, aud the myrtle-leaved 
kind of this, C. lusitanica myrtifolia, is even better 
still. Daphne Lanreola^ the Spurge Laurel, and B. 
dneorum., the Garlaud Flower, are capital additions to 
the list. Euonymus japonicus in several varieties, but 
the green-leaved and oldest variety is still one of the 
most reliable. As to Hollies, there are several useful 



kinds of this valuable shrub. The common Green or 
Ilex Aquifolium is one of the most serviceable ; 
another kind with larger leaves is Ilex Hodginsii, 
also very good ; the variegated kinds are more to l)e 
recommended, not presenting such a sombre appear- 
ance ; of these Ilex Aquifolium "Golden Queen" 
and "Silver Queen" are two of the best to select. 
Laurus nobilis, or the Sweet Bay, ought to be included 
if only for the sake of the perfume of its leaves. 
Ligustrum japonicum and L. coriaceum, the latter of 
dense habit, are two of the best kinds of evergreen 
Privet. Ruscus aculeatus, or Butcher's Broom, is 
useful for planting in the worst of positions. Spar- 
tium juncemn and Cytisus albus, the yellow and white 
Spanish Brooms, are fast-growing and free-flowering 
shrubs. Veronica Andersonii and other species are 
well suited for the seaside, and in conjunction with 
the Euonymus should be freely planted. 

Of the plants classified as " American," the 
Rhododendron is in the front rank, and needs no 
recommendation. Belonging to this section are also 
found the Kalmia latifolia and the Pieris floribunda 
(generally met with under the name of Andromeda 
floribunda), both being beautiful additions in the 
pure air of the country, but not satisfactory in 
either case when brought into the vicinity of 
fog and smoke. The hardy Azaleas may, how- 
ever, be planted with prospects of satisfactory 
progress being made. The varieties of Azalea 
pontica are the hardiest, and therefore the most 
to be recommended ; these will succeed where 
others fail. Azalea mollis and its varieties should 
not be chosen, being disposed to flower too early 
in the season. 

Of deciduous trees and shrubs, i.e., those that an- 
nually shed all their leaves, several kinds may be 
enumerated. The variegated Maple, yegundofraxini- 
folium, or Acer Kegundo, is a beautiful shrub, and 
presents a first-rate appearance as a standard. "With 
a slight protection afforded them there are several 
recent introductions from Jai^an that are of a most 
beautiful foliation. Their leaves are much laciniated, 
and vary in the tints from pale green to a deep 
bronze purple ; these species will without doubt 
become most popular. Of the Birch, one at least 
might be chosen if the grounds are of fair dimen- 
sions ; one of the pendulous kinds would have a good 
appearance. Catalpa syringa^folia could be used 
instead of the Birch, its bold massive foliage and 
beautiful spikes of flowers being very effective ; not 
suited for a very small garden. The double-blossom 
Cherry ; the scarlet and pink, with the white variet\' 
of Hawthorn or May, are all most floriferous ; the 
double kinds are preferable. The common Laburnum 
and a few improved varieties are all useful in their 
season. The Copper Beach should have a place, im- 



328 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXIXG-. 



parting quite a distinct appearance by the hue of its 
leaves. 

Among the deciduous MagnoL'as there are some 
most showy flowers for the early spring. JI. conspicua 
and M. Soulangeana are two free-flowering kinds, hut 
require a sheltered spot. The Mock Orange or 
Syringa, otherwise Philadelphus, is well known for 
its fragrance when in bloom ; F. coronarius and 
P. grandifioras are two of the best to plant. The 
Siberian and Chinese varieties of the Crab, Pyrm 
prujufoUa and F. sinensis, are most beautiful when in 
flower, and oftentimes well loaded with their fi'uits 
in the autumn. Bibes sangidneum, R. aureian, and 
F. album, three foims of the flowering Currant, are 
very distinct and handsome. The Locust Tree, 
Fobinia pseudo-acacia, is most distinct and handsome 
in its foHage, with graceful spikes of flower during 
the summer months ; the standards of this tree are 
preferable, and commonly called "Mop-headed" 
Acacias. 

If either of the Willows are chosen, one of the 
small-leaved kinds of drooping or weeping habit 
would be the best, selecting a standard with a clean 
stout stem. Of the shrubby Spirceas there are a few 
kinds that are a valuable addition to a garden even 
of moderate dimensions ; Spircea Lindleyana and 
S. aricefolia are two of the best. The Snowberry 
Tree, or Symphoricarpus racemosv.s. is useful in shaded 
or other indifferent positions. The common Lilac, or 
Syringa vulgaris, shculd not be overlooked in either 
of its colours. Viburnum Opuhis, or Guelder Rose, is 
another most floriferous subject, lasting a long time 
in flower. Another good plant of bush habit is the 
Weigelia, of which there are several kinds, but TT. 
rosea is one of the best. 

Climbers. — Amongst the climbing plants, which 
we have prcNdously laid considerable stress upon, 
there is an abundant choice. Of evergreen kinds, 
we can select them with bold and massive foliage, as 
in the case of the Magnolia, or with the minute 
leaves and graceful habit of the Cotonea^ter. Some 
of the best are Titis striata, frequently grown under 
the name of Ampelvpsis sempery\rcns. the evergreen 
Virginian creeper: Berheris liaririuil : Jarmvnuyn 
revolutum, a yellow kind; Az'-(ra mlcrovhyUa ; 
Ceanothus in variety: C. azureus and C Veitchianus 
are both good kinds ; their pleasing spikes of flower 
and the freedom with which they grow when 
sheltered from the cold quarter, would soon cause 
them to be favourites; Cotoneaster rnicrophylla ; 
Crat(egus pyracantha, which makes a splendid sh.ow 
in the autumn with its brilliant-coloured benies : 
Escallonia macrantha and E. marrantlia sanguinea are 
splendid plants for coveiin^- a wall : their beautiful 
glossy foKage and compact trusses of bloom at once 



stamp them as first-class subjects; Eurmytrnts Japi- 
iiiCHs in vai-iety make an excellent covering mediu;.- 
for the wall of a house; Garry a eliiptica, with iis 
catkin-like appendages, in the early spring is mobi 
welcome and very distinct : strongly reconmiended. 
Magnolia grandijlora, ''Exmouth" variety, is one 
of the most noble plants that we possess for planting 
against a high wall or building. 

Myrtus communis and M. auyusti/oliai the commop 
and the box-leaved Myrtles, will succeed in the soutli 
of England against a warm wall, and flower abun 
dantly. Funica Gi'anatum Jlore-pleno, or the Pome- 
granate, should have a warm comer, but neither 
this nor the M].Ttles had better be tried near towns 
where the air is much contaminated. 

Besides these that we have namci, we have a 
whole host of Ivies, than which it is hardly possible 
to name anything better for planting in imfavoui- 
able positions and localities. The Irish Iw [Redtru 
canariensis) and the English I\y [Htdera Helix) are 
well-known kinds. Others with distinct foliage 
could with advantage be chosen, such as Seder a 
dtntata and H. Foegneriana, two kinds with line 
massive foliage of a shining green coloinr. On the 
other extreme, in variety of their leaves, we have 
H. H. dig it at a and other kinds, with very small 
leaves. There are also the variegated-leaved varie- 
ties, with silvery and golden markings, several of 
which are most interesting and distinct. 

Amongst the deciduous section of climbing plants 
there are several kinds that amply make amends for 
the loss of their leaves during a portion of the year-, 
by the abundant display of bloom which they pro- 
duce in their season. The foliage is hardly otr 
Jasminum nudiflorum before its adventitious blossoms 
begin to make a gay display, unless a more than 
usuallv severe frost intervenes to destroy their beauty. 
As a contrast to this species, we have Jasminum 
oMcinale, that flowers a great portion of the summer. 
The Blue Passion Flower, Fassijlora ceerulea, already 
named in this article, should be included in the list 
of those for the open wall or verandah. There" arc 
also the large family of the Clematis, in various 
shades, from deep blue and pm-ple down to almost 
jDui'e white. Clematis Jackmanii is a well-known 
kind, of good constitution, and \ev\ free-flowering, 
with deep purple flowers. There are also many 
others that vary in their colours somewhat from 
C. JacJcmanii. and of the same t>-pe and habit. CYt- 
matis Flammula, the Tirgin's Bower : C. ritalba, the 
Traveller's Joy : and C. iuo 'tana, are all worthy of a 
place, being well-tried kinds. 

The well-known A'irginian Creeper hardly need be 
mentioned, but another species, Ampetopsis tricmpi- 
data. with smaller foliage and beautiful markings, is 
strongly recommended ; Ampelopsis Veitchii 



SUBUEBAN GARDEXING. 



o29 



of catalogues. It has the property of clinging most 
securely against the wall to which it has been 
trained. Aristolochia Sipho, with large and striking 
leaves and curiously-formed pipe-like flowers in the 
spring, is another desirable creeper. The Honey- 
suckles are well known for their fragrance, but 
besides these varieties there is the golden form from 
Japan, with its beautifully- veined leaves {Lonlccra 
aureo-reticidata) . 

For a strong-growing climber with handsome 
flowers, there is nothing to surpass TFisfaria [Glycuw) 
sinensis. In a sheltered corner the delicious perfume 
of the flowers of Chimonanthus fragrans and its 
varieties would be extremely grateful in the early 
months of spring. Against a low wall, two forms of 
the Hydrangea are very useful, producing tine trusses 
of flowers; they are S. horteiisis, "Thomas Hogg," 
and H. paniculata grandljlora. Indigofera Jiorihunda 
should also prove a good climbing plant ; its w^hite 
pea-like flowers are freely produced, and its foliage 
is handsome as well. Suitable kinds of Climbing 
Eoses will be found under their own special list. 
There are also several rapid-growing annuals that, 
for the season of their growth, will make a good 
display ; the Nasturtimns, or Tropasolums, Cobcea 
scandensy and Convolvulus major are among the best 
of these. 

Coniferae. — Amongst those of the Fir-tree tribe 
and their near allies, there are some few species in 
the several genera which will be suitable in the sub- 
urban garden. Eespecting Fir-trees in particular, 
the perusal of our pre\ious article will give more 
immediate information. We there stated what were 
the best among the Firs, &c., and now only repeat 
their names, with a few additions thereto, viz., 
Pinus austriaca, F. excelsa, P. Cembra, T^uga cana- 
densis (the Hemlock Spruce), Araucaria imbricata 
(the Chili Pi.ie), Cedrus Deodar a (the Deodar). Wel- 
lingtonia gigantea, the INIammoth Tree of California, 
should not be planted in the smaller gardens, nor 
in any that are in close proximity to the smoke. 
Amongst the Ai-bor-vitaj class of the Conifers, Biota 
orientalis anrea (Golden Arbor-^dt8e) , Cupressus Laiv- 
soniana, and its varied forms, are among the most 
handsome of any, and well suited for a small 
garden; C. nutkaensis {Thuiopsis borealis) is another 
hardy and distinct kind ; Juniperus chinensis (the 
Chinese Juniper) is also a useful plant of erect 
habit; Pet'mosp)ora obtusa, and its varieties, R. plu- 
mosa and E. Jilifera, are all compact shrubs of neat 
and handsome growth ; Taxus baccaia {the common 
Yew), and its variegated forms, chiefly the golden 
kind and the Irish Yew {Taxus baccata fafttigiata), 
are all most hardy and enduring trees. Taxodium 
distichum (the Deciduous Cj^ress) is a handsome, 



close-growing tree, and will thrive when fairly 
away from tUe smoke. 

Roses. — The list of these that one sees published 
by the large firms in the country has need to be con- 
densed somewhat largely for subm-ban gardens. 
There are a few well-known kinds, as Gloire de 
Dijon, Cheshunt Hybrid, ]Madame Berard, Devon- 
iensis, and Madame Falcot (beautiful in the bud), 
from among the tea-scented class, that will in almost 
every case give satisfaction. Marshal Niel might 
be included, but although its flowers are gorgeous, 
yet in a subui'ban garden it can hardly be recom- 
mended by reason of its fickle character and apti- 
tude to canker. Of the Hybrid Perpetual class, I.a 
France is one of the very best, if not the best of all ; 
its lovely pink flowers are produced in constant suc- 
cession the summer through ; Alfred Colomb is a 
good bright red ; A. R. Williams and Dr. Andry, 
both shades of red, have fine flowers ; Duke of Edin- 
bm-gh, very hardy habit and of most xixid colour, is 
one of the best of all the high-coloured varieties ; 
John Hopper, with rosy-crimson flowers ; Edouard 
Morren, a beautiful bright pink ; Baroness Eoths- 
child, pale delicate rose ; Urich Brunner, rosy-lilac . 
Francois Michelon, deep rose; Marie Baumann, 
light crimson-red ; and Boule de Neige, one of the 
best whites, are a good reliable dozen to start upon. 
Charles Lawson, a hybrid China, is good for walls . 
so also are all of the Teas at the head of this li&t ; 
and the following also are excellent climbii.g 
varieties, viz., the Ayrshire, with the Banksian, the 
Boursault, and the Evergreen Eoses, to which may 
be added Aimee Vibert, from among the Noisette: : 
Celine Forestier, belonging to the same class, is also 
a beautiful pale yellow Eose, but should have a 
sheltered position. One or two of the best Moss 
Eoses might be added, but as they flower but 
sparsely in the autumn, they can hardly be recom- 
mended. 

Herbaceous Plants. — This is a numerous 
class, but we shall only mention a few of the best of 
each. Of tall growth, the Delphiniums (Larkspurs) 
are very showy ; Kdianthus multijlorus, both 
single and double kinds, are two fine tj-pes of the 
Sunflow-er, with medium-sized flowers; the herba- 
ceous Phloxes (P. decussafa and P. suffruticosa) 
afford a great variety; Lathyrus latifolias (the 
Everlasting Pea), in varieties, and Spircea Aruncu.s. 
Of medium growth, the Aquilegias or Columbines ; 
the Asters or Starworts ; the taller of the Campa- 
nulas or Bell-flowers ; the Clielones ; the Linums 
or Flaxes ; Ix udbeckia speciosa ; the Statices oi- 
Thrifts; Ane)i/o)ii' Japonica, or the Windflower ; 
Trade.scantiu l irginica, or the Spiderwort ; and 



830 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEXlXa. 



the Veronicas or Speedwells, are all good selections. 
Of dwarf growth, and suitable for the front row, are 
the Alyssums or INIad worts ; the Arahis or Wall- 
cress; the Armeria or-dwarf Thrifts ; Bellis perenmn^ 
or the Daisies ; the dwarf kinds of Campanulas ; the 
Pink and Carnation; the Rcllehorus niger or Christ- 
mas Rose; the Iheris or Candytufts; Myosoiis 
azoriea and M. ^;ffZ?/s^;-;'s, the summer-flowering 
Forget-me-nots, and M. dissitijlora, the spring 
variety, which require a moist comer ; the Primroses 
and Polyanthus ; the Saxifrages, among which is 
the London Pride, and the Violas or Pansies. These 
will all do good service. 

Bulbous or Liliaceous Plants. — Of these 
several are well worthy a place in the smallest gar- 
den. The Lily of the Valley, which needs a damp 
spot ; Dielytra spectabilis ; the Funkias, having hand- 
some foliage as well as flowers ; the Iris or Fleur-de- 
Lis ; the Liliums, a numerous class ; the Xarcissus or 
Daffodils ; Solomon's Seal, handsome in growth ; the 
Scillas or Squills, of which S. sibirica and S. campnnu- 
Inta are two of the best ; Tritoma itraria, the Red-hot 
Poker ; the Hyacinths, Tulips, Crocuses, Snowdrops, 
and Gladiolus or Sword Lily, are some of the best of 
a valued family of plants. 

Of plants suited for Vases, a few only need 
enumerating among hardy genera. The Creeping- 
Jenny, or Zysimachia nummularia, is well known and 
one of the best ; Convolvulus mauritanicus. perhaps a 
doubtful plant to choose as being hardy, otherwise a 
very pretty thing ; Campanula fragilis and C. (jar- 
(lavlca ; Glechoma or 2\epcta hederacea or G-round 
Iv^- ; the smaller-leaved and slender growing Ivies. 
The Tropaeolums, the I^y-leaved Geraniums, the 
single Petunias and dwarf Lobelias, are all good for 
the summer season only. As a central plant for vases, 
either Yucca recurva or Y. gloriosa is an excellent 
hardy plant ; the Agaves fui-nish us with material of 
1 )old habit for the summer season, and the protection 
of a green -house during the winter months. 

Annuals supply the suburban garden with a very 
useful section of plants. The list of these in the 
seedsmen's catalogues is of considerable length, but 
we will note only a few of the best. H.h.a. denotes 
half-hardy annuals ; such require a slight protection 
in the earlier stages of growth: h.a. denotes those 
that are hardy or comparatively so. Asters, h.h.a. : 
Balsams, h.h.a. ; Calliopsis, h.a. : CandAi:uft, h.a. : 
CoUinsia, h.a. ; Convolvulus, h.a. ; Centaurea Cyanus, 
or Blue and other shades of Corn-flower, h.a. ; Esch- 
scholtzia, h.a. ; Myosotis or Forget-me-nots, h.a. ; 
Godetia, h.a. ; Jacobtea or Senecio, h.a. : Love-lies- 
bieeding, or Amaranthns caudafus, h.a. ; Lupinus. 
h.a. ; Marigold, h.h.a. ; Mignonette, h.a. ; Nastur- 



tium, h.a. ; Xemophila, h.a. ; Pansies (if sown early 
in the spring, flower as an annual) ; Sweet Peas, h.a. ; 
Rhodanthe, h.h.a. ; Scabious, h.a.; F/ilox Drutnmondii, 
h.h.a. : Silene, h.a. ; Stocks, except the Brompton, 
h.a. ; Sunflower, h.a. ; I'agctcs signata pumila, h.a. : 
Portulaca (beautiful for dry, sunny spots), h.h.a. Wc- 
have not in most cases given more than the generic- 
name, but reference to a descriptive catalogue will 
f ui'nish more fully the inf omiation required. 

Of Hardy Biennials or Perennials — i.e., 
plants that flower the year after being raised from 
seed — we have a few that should be included, viz.. 
Antirrhinums, Sweet Williams, Wallflowers, Colum- 
bines (Aquilegias), Canterbury Bells (Campanulas). 
Carnations and Pinks, Primroses and Polyanthus. 
These are all easily-cultivated subjects. 

Of Rock Plants we will enumerate a few of 
the hardiest only. The Sedums or Stonecrops ; the 
Sempervivums or House-leeks ; . the Saxifrages, 
among which is the London Pride ; the dwarf Cam- 
panulas, as C. cccspltosa and C. muralis ; Cerastium 
tomentositni ; Yeroniea prostata ; Yinca Jterhacea, Y. 
7)!aJor a.ni Y. minor ; GysopJiilamnralis and G.2irostata^ 
(beautiful for working up into button-hole bouquets), 
and the dwarf Phloxes, as P. reptans and F. suhulata, 
are all well-tried selections. Of stronger growth 
and more suitable in the background are the cut- 
leaved Bramble {Hubus laci?iiatus), the small-leaved 
Ivies, and numbers of the hardy Ferns from the 
following genera — Asplevium, Blechnum, Lastrea, ()s- 
munda, Folypodium, Folystic/ium, and Scolopendrinm. 

Of Fruits we recommend only well-tried kinds. 
Among Apples : Keswick Codlin, Irish Peach, Wor- 
cester Pearmain, Cox's Orange Pippin, Cox's Pomona,. 
Hawthomden (both Old and Xew' , Ecklin^-ille Seed- 
ling, Gravenstein, King of the Pippins, Wellington, 
Winter Queening, Waltham Abbey Seedling, Blen- 
heim Orange (not for a very limited garden, being 
too robust) , and Annie Elizabeth : the latter variety 
fine for keeping. 

Cherries : May Duke, Florence, Bigarreau Xapo- 
leon. Black Tartarian, and Morello. 

Apricots : Hemskirk and Moorpark. 

Currants : Black Xaples and Lee's Prolific Black 
are the best of the black kinds ; Red Dutch and Raby 
Castle, of the red sorts ; and '\Miite Dutch, of the 
white or yellow kinds. 

Gooseberries : Pitmaston Greengage, green ; Crown 
Bob and Red Warrington, reds ; ^ATiite Champagne 
and Early Wliite, whites ; Rumbullion and Yellow 
Champagne, yellows. 

Royal Mxiscadine Grape for a verandah or warm 
wall. ' 

Kectariues : Lord Xapier, Humboldt, and Elruge. 



FLOEISTS' FLOWERS. 



331 



Teaches : Alexander, Grosse Mignoime, Barrington, 
Sea Eagle, and Walburton Admirable. 

Fears : Jargonelle, Williams's Bonchretien, Beurre 
d'Amanlis, Louis Bonne of Jersey, Marie Louise, 
Beurre Hardy, Beurre Superfin, Crassane, Thomp- 
son's, Winter Nelis, Knight's Monarch, Glout 
Morceau, and Josephine de Malines, all dessert 
kinds ; and Catillac, as a stewing kind. 

Flums : Greengage, Jefferson's, Kirke's, and 
Coe's Golden Drop for the dessert ; Victoria, Early 
Orleans, Winesour, and Washington for the kitchen. 

Faspberries : Carter's Prolific and Fastolf . 

Fhuharb : Linnaeus and Victoria. 

Strawberries : Vicomtesse Hericart de Thury and 
Keen's Seedhng of the earlies, President and Sir 
Joseph Paxton for mid-season, British Queen and 
Myatt's Eliza of the later sorts. 

Vegetables. — Asparagus : Giant Battersea. 
Broad Beans : Beck's Dwarf Green Gem and Green 
Windsor. French Beans : Osbom's Forcing and 
Canadian Wonder. Funncr Beans : Scarlet (Old) and 
Painted Lady. Beet-root : Dell's Crimson or Egyptian 
Turnip-rooted, the latter for early use. Kale : Dwarf 
Green Curled. Broccoli : Veitch's Self-protecting 
Autumn, Penzance White, Purple Sprouting, Leam- 
ington, and Model. Brussels Sprouts : Veitch"s 
Paragon and the Albert Sprout. Cabbage: Ellam's 
Early, Little Pixie, and the Rosette colewort. Savoy 
Cabbage : Tom Thumb. Carrots : Early French 
Nantes and James's Intermediate. Cauliflower : 
Early London and Veitch's Autumn Giant. Celery : 
Major Clarke's Red, Sandringham Dwarf "VSHiite. 
Cress : American or Land Cress and the Common 
Watercress, both coming freely from seed in a damp 
comer. Cucumber : Stockwood. Endive : Round- 
leaved Batavian. Lettuce : " All the Year Round " 
Cabbage, and Hicks' Hardy ^Tiite and Brown Sugar- 
loaf among the Cos kinds. Mustard and Cress. 
Onion : Silver- skinned and the " Queen." Farsley : 
Extra- curled. Feas : American Wonder, Little 
Gem, and William I. of the earlier ; Criterion, 
Stratagem, and Veitch's Perfection for the main crop : 
and Ne-plus-ultra, with Omega, its dwarf variety, for 
the late crops. Radishes : French Breakfast, Red 
and WTiite Turnip. Spinach : Prickly or Winter. 
Tomato : Orangefield Dwarf and Vick's Criterion. 
Turnip : Early Snowball, Veitch's Red Globe, and 
Chirk Castle (late). Vegetable Marroiv : Moore's 
Cream. Fotatoes : Ash-leaf Kidney (Veitch's) and 
Covent Garden Perfection, both being kinds with 
short tops, and very reliable in quality ; the latter kind 
is a good succession to the former ; if a later kind still 
is needed, Reading Russet is highly recommended. 

The catalogues of respectable firms will furnish 
more complete information with reference to each 
list of suitable subjects that we have quoted. 



FLOEISTS' FLOWEES. 

By Eichard Dean. 



The Cineraria. — It has been remarked in 
reference to this flower, with much truth, that " the 
comparative ease with which the Cineraria can be 
well grown, together with the exceeding beauty and 
variety of its flowers, will always ensure for it a 
high position in public favom\" That it can be 
easily grown is shown by the fact that a gardener of 
oui" acquaintance, with limited glass accommodation 
at his command, adopts this rough and ready plan of 
raising seedlings : — He stands by themselves in a 
cold frame with an ash bottom, a few plants of his 
best varieties ; here they shed their seeds, and pre- 
sently the little seedlings come up in plenty. Still 
it is best, as a matter of precaution, to raise seedlings 
under glass, as an accident might cause the loss of the 
plants raised in tbe open air. 

Time was when seedling Cinerarias of high-class 
quality were named, as varieties of Begonias and other 
plants are named now-a-days. These varieties were 
increased by means of cuttings taken from growths sent 
up from the roots at the end of the summer, put into 
small pots of light sandy soil, and rooted in a gentle 
bottom heat. In this way a favourite variety can be 
propagated, for no Cineraria can be depended upon 
to reproduce itself exactly from seed. The Cineraria 
has, however, become so improved of recent years 
that the naming of particular varieties is now seldom 
followed; and if it is done, only sparingly; for 
strains are so fine generally that seedlings are in- 
variably found of high-class quality. 

The Cineraria is a plant of rapid growth, ver^- 
succulent, thirsty, requires generous feeding, and 
will not endure imharmed extremes of heat and cold. 
A cool treatment is necessary in almost all stages of 
its gro^-th, but if frost seizes on the plants they are 
materially damaged. 

The best time to sow seed is during the months of 
May and J une ; and, as a rule, the plants raised in 
May will be found most valuable. The time when 
the plants will flower depends much on the manner 
in which they are grown on, whether rapidly or not ; 
but, as a rule, a June sowing must not be expected 
to produce flowers imtil the following iNIarch or 
April. It is quite possible to have Cinerarias in 
bloom in iSTovember and December, and those who 
care for a display at that early peiiod should sow in 
April." In sowing it is simply necessary to sow 
thinly in pans or pots of light sandy soil, and place 
them in a cool frame, or on a shelf on the shady side 
of a greenhouse. The seeds quickly germinate, and 
as soon as the plants show their second leaves, they 
should be potted singly into thumb pots — pots of 



332 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



the smallest size — using a rather coarse soil, but 
taking- care not to cover the hearts of the plants, 
Avhich is an injurious practice. These plants need 
to he placed in a close frame ; they should be shaded, 
and sprinkled overhead with soft water morning and 
evening until well established. 

From the first the cultivator should aim to have 
his plants as robust as possible ; and so when they 
have been kept close for a couple of weeks, the heat 
should be diminished and more air given. A tem- 
perature too high, or too much shading, will produce 
a weakly growth, which is fatal to the well-being of 
the plants. Nor must the plants be too much 
crowded, and so it is much better to grow a few 
specimens well than to have a larger number over- 
crowded, and in an unsatisfactory condition in con- 
sequence. A cold frame suits the plants, but it 
should be in a full exposirre, but shading will be 
necessary from the sun : plenty of air must be given 
day and night when the weather is suitable, and the 
plants be frequently sprinkled over-head in warm 
drying weather. Immediately the pots are filled 
with roots another shift should be given. It is im- 
portant that this operation be not delayed a day too 
long, as starvation at the roots soon shows itself by 
the leaves becoming of a pale green colour. It is a 
custom with some growers to shift from thumb-pots 
into the pots in which the plants are to flower, and 
this may be done with safety generally, though we 
have seen plants suffering from overpotting, but this 
because the soil appeared unsuitable, and the roots 
did not move freely in it. We have found that the 
best way to ensure good specimens is to shift from 
thumb-pots into four-and-a-half -inch pots, and then 
into eight or even ten-inch pots for the largest speci- 
mens. The last shift should be made by the end of 
October. 

Some growers place their plants in the open air 
during August and September, giving them a posi- 
tion on a north border — under the shelter of a wall, 
or any building, is the most suitable spot ; but a 
hedge should be avoided. There is, however, 
danger of the leaves being spoiled by hail or heavy 
rains. The grower should be watchful for any 
suckers that are thrown up from the roots. And 
when the plants are coming into flower, and there 
appears to be a superfluity of buds, a few of them 
may be removed with great advantage. The 
quality of the flowers and the brilliancy of 
their colours, will be greatly heightened by giving 
the plants a little manure- water twice or thrice^ a 
week. 

It is well known that insect enemies prey upon the 
Cineraria. Mildew is more common at some seasons 
than others ; and as a rule, it appears during July 
and August, especially after insufiicient ventilation. 



in damp, dull weather, or where the plants have 
been left too long in one place, or too near each other. 
Weakness invites attacks of mildew also. On the first 
appearance of an affected leaf, the under-side and the 
soil should be dusted with sulphur, and no water 
should be given overhead until the malady has dis- 
appeared. Aphis is very apt to attack the Cineraria, 
and fumigation in the tobacco-smoke soon kills 
them. But the fumes of the tobacco should be ap- 
plied only when the leaves of the plants are dry, 
and when the weather is still. 

A few of the fine named varieties of Cinerarir.s 
can still be had. such as 



Metis. 
Miranda. 

Miss Burdett Coutts. 
Miss Eyles. 
Purple King. 
Queen Victoria. 
Eegina. 
Snowflake. 
Uncle Toby. 

A few of these would form an excellent collection to 
take seed from. 



Admiration. 
Bridesmaid. 
Crimson Beauty. 
Eclipse. 
Great Eastern. 
Lady T. Grosvenor. 
Lord Amberley. 
Lord Falmerston. 
Meteor. 



Cockscombs. — The Cockscomb of the florist is 
Celosia cristata, and it is a native of Asia, and, as may 
be readily surmised, it derives its name from the 
peculiar inflorescence it produces — really an oddity in 
its way, but with a very imposing appearance. We 
have seen plants that were quite small in comparison 
with the inflorescence, the latter being of prodigious 
size, fifteen inches or more in length, and eight or 
nine inches in width. One looks on such an example 
in sheer surprise, and wonders how so small a plant 
could produce this huge mass of fleshy colour. Two 
things conduce to this end — first, a fine strain 
of seed ; and secondly, high-class cultivation. The 
development of a fine head on a Cockscomb is a 
matter of good culture. The strain may be ever so 
good, but unless the plants are well grown, good 
heads cannot possibly result. Therefore, those who 
make a point of growing Cockscombs should start 
with a good strain, and they should not hesitate to 
pay a good price for what they would have in the 
shape of seed. 

There are two sections of the Cockscomb, the 
taU and the dwarf, and the latter is the one 
mostly grown. There are several colours — orange, 
scarlet, crimson, and purple, the last two being 
the varieties most frequently seen. The best 
time to sow is in February, March, or April, accord- 
ing to the earliness or lateness of the season when 
the cultivator wishes to have his plants in flower. It 
is best to sow thinly in shallow pans of light rich soil, 
and place them in a newly-made sweet hot-bed, or on 
any gentle bottom heat, this being essential to the 



FLOEISTS' FLOWERS. 



33a 



successful germination of the seeds. As soon as the 
plants are large enough to handle they should be 
l^laced singly in very small pots, and shifted on into 
larger pots as required, so as to encourage growth 
w ithout a check ; and it is a good practice to keep the 



the effect of throwing them into flower. When the 
combs show themselves, the plants — selecting the 
best-formed combs — should be potted into good- 
sized pots, using a compost made up of rich sandy 
loam and good manure in equal parts. It is well not 




The Cinekaria. 



plants in the hot-bed, or a fresh one, until the combs 
are formed. Many growers of Cockscombs spoil 
their plants at this stage by keeping thorn some 
distance from the glass in a brisk heat, where they 
become drawn, growing long and lanky, and really 
quite spoiled for decorative purposes. Some growers 
recommend that the young plants should be kept 
somewhat starved in respect of water, as it will have 



to exceed pots eight inches in diameter, and when 
the i^lants are pot-bound— that is, filled with roots— 
the combs soon develop theinsclvts. The plants 
should be kept near thv glass, but not allowing- 
their tops to touch it, and they need to be treated to 
liberal supplies of water. 

The routine of growing Cockscombs varies with the 
objects aimed at. Tall Cockscombs produce very fine 



534 



CASSELL'iS POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



combs, but the dwarfer the plants are, the more are 
they valued when they are placed on the exhibition 
table. Growers have hit upon the following plan to 
shorten their plants : — A\^hen the combs are fully 
developed, the stems are cut through four inches or 
so below the comb, put into smaller pots of soil, and 
struck as cuttings in a brisk bottom heat. They 
scon take root, and the combs are not in the least 
injured. The result is large, symmetrical, richly- 
coloured inflorescence, on a dwarf stem, with healthy 
leaves close down to the soil. 

Those who may hesitate to cut their plants through 
a few inches below the combs, may attain the same 
end, that of extreme dwarfness, by bending the 
plants down in the potting till the combs almost 
touch the ground. Subjected to a moist atmosphere 
and a high temperature, the stems emit roots which 
iidd greatly to the size and strengtli of the combs. 

Red spider is apt to attack the Cockscomb, and if 
it makes headway the leaves become disfigm-ed, tm-n 
rusty, and spoil the appearance of the specimen. A 
moist heat and requisite care wiU keep this pest at 
bay, and by keeping the plants near the glass they 
do not become drawn. 

Any seeds they produce appear in the form of tiny 
scales on the sides of the combs near their base. The 
•finer the quality of the strain the more sparingly, as 
a rule, do they produce seeds. 

There is a section of tall-growing Celosias termed 
C. pyraniidalis, that was introduced from Japanese 
gardens some years ago. They grow like upright 
rshrubs, producing side branches as well as main shoots, 
Avhich are surmounted by large feathery inflorescences 
partaking somewhat of the character of the Cocks- 
comb. There are various colours — crimson, scarlet, 
purple, yellow, golden, &c. The culture of these is 
similar to that of the Cockscomb, excepting that it is 
not necessary either to starve or dwarf the plants. 
The freer the growth, the more stately plants do they 
make — splendid tall pyramid bushes, their handsome 
feathery inflorescences being most useful In the con- 
servatory during the autumn season. 

Cyclamen. — A genus belonging to the natural 
order of Fri»udaccce, or Primroses. They are plants 
of great beauty and of very distinct characters. 
The root-stock is a corm (that is, the stem is reduced 
to a swollen bulb-like mass, but is entirely different 
from a bulb, which is made up of distinct layers 
of scales), and after flowering the leaves decay and 
die away, and the plants lie dormant for several 
months. 

There are several species of Cyclamen natives of 
the southern parts of Europe, which are extremely 
handsome border plants. Pigs are scarcely ever 
credited with having a love of the beautiful in their 



composition, and yet they are extremely fond 
Cyclamens. In Italy the plant is called " Pane 
Porcine," on account of the diligence whi(;h swine 
exhibit in the search after the roots, and in spite 
of their hot and bitter flavour they will devour them 
in great numbers. Italian pigs, it would seem, are 
not singular in their tastes, for their French relatives 
exhibit the same partiality for the roots of these 
beautiful plants, which in that country are known 
by the name of " Pain de Porceau," but in English 
they are called " Sow-bread." 

It is as long ago as 1731 that the beautiful C. 
JPersician was introduced to this country from 
Cyprus. This is the type fi-om which have been 
origiuated the charming varieties now so plentiful 
in autumn, winter, and early spring. We can 
quite imagine that for many years the new intro- 
duction was grown as an ordinary green-house 
plant, no one apparently caring much about it, and 
probably preference was given to the hardy types, 
such as C. £uropceum, which is a native of Britain, 
and othei-s introduced from abroad. C. Europmim 
grows also abundantly in the South of Europe, in 
elevated positions, and particularly in Sicily, where 
the swine eat the root- stalks with great relish, hence 
its common name, Sow-brcad. Eor beauty C. Feraicum 
is far ahead of any other species ; and between thirty 
and forty years ago, or even longer, florists turned 
their attention to this charming plant, and began to 
improve it by obtaining seed, which it produces with 
some fi-eedom; end they gradually laid the founda- 
tion of the splendid large-flowering varieties w^e see 
in the present day. And not only have the varieties 
greatly improved, but a much better system of culture 
has been originated ; and now, instead of, as in the 
old times, having somewhat spare plants bearing a 
few flowers in March, April, and May, our florists 
have plants of robust, healthy gTOwth, in bloom in 
November and December, and they continue to 
flow^er until April and May. It is remarkable, not 
only how man}- flowers a bulb of Cyclamen, of an 
age that will produce bloom, will furnish, but that it 
flowers successively, and for a long time, while the 
individual blooms are lasting. 

The old system of growing the Cyclamen did not 
develop its beauties, and the plant did not find 
much favour with gardeners or amateurs. Latterly, 
however, their requirements have become better 
imderstood, and the size and colour of their flowers 
have been so much improved by cross-breeding, that 
they have become extremely popular. 

So imperfectly did the past generation of gardeners 
understand the culture of the Cyclamen, that when 
these plants went out of flower they frequently stood 
them out in the open, in the full blaze of the summer 
sun and exposed to the action of all drying in- 



FLOEISTS' FLOWERS. 



335 



iluences, and gave them, but little water, and less 
attention; or they turned them out of pots and 
planted them in the open ground for the summer and 
autumn. The last-named was the most merciful 
process ; but one or the other of these methods was 
adopted to give the plants a rest, and induce them 
to flower the following season. We have changed 
all this, as will appear when present cultural direc- 
tions are set forth in detail. 

Many valuable properties can be claimed for our 
beautiful Persian Cyclamen. It is one of the most 
easily grown of our winter and spring favourites. It 
has a compact habit of growth, handsomely-marked 
leaves that are particularly attractive in autumn and 
winter ; some of its varieties are remarkable for the 
fragrance of their flowers ; it is persistent in bloom, 
and of all flowering plants it is one of the best for 
indoor decoration. We have known a specimen 
Cyclamen remain fresh and nice in a sitting-room for 
the space of five months, throwing up, as a matter of 
course, a succession of flowers. The only attention 
it demands is to have its leaves" brushed over every 
morning with a soft camel-hair brush dipped in a 
little lukewarm water. 

There is little difiiculty experienced in raising 
Cyclamens from seed, but the seeds germinate slowly, 
and somewhat irregularly. Sometimes a plant comes 
up long after others have made a good start. The 
best time to sow seed, in order to secure as quick and 
regular germination as possible, is as soon as possible 
after it is ripe. Our market growers, who grow 
Cyclamens by the thousand for the market, generally 
make a practice of sowing their seeds in August. 
This gives a good start. Seed-pans are best for the 
purpose, and they should be filled with a compost 
made up of rich loam, a liberal admixtui-e of leaf 
mould, and sufficient silver sand to keep it open and 
free. The seeds should then be dibbled in about an 
inch apart and a quarter of an inch deep imtil the 
pan is filled. It is a good plan to cover the sm-face 
with a thin layer of cocoa-fibre, as it serves to check 
rapid evaporation, and keeps the surface free from the 
growth of moss. The pans can be placed on a shelf 
of a green-house near the glass, but care must be 
taken to shade them from the sun. The solar 
warmth will be sufficient to cause the seeds to ger- 
minate ; but this is helped if they can be placed on a 
mild bottom heat. About November the little plants 
will be large enough to handle, and they should then 
be pricked off into pots of similar soil, placing a 
dozen or so plants in a 4^-inch or 48-sized pot; when 
large enough they should further be potted singly 
into small pots, taking care not to insert them too 
deeply in the soil. As the plants develop they should 
be placed in yet larger j)ots ; those of 48 size will be 
large enough for them to flower in. In the latter 



stages of growth less sand should be mingled with 
the soil, and at the time of potting the crown of tlie 
corm or tuber should always appear a little above the 
soil. The plants need to be kept as near the glass 
as possible ; in the summer months they do best in 
a cold frame. Close attention must be paid to the 
plants at all stages of their development. 

Messrs. Sutton and Sons, in their "Amateur's 
Gruide," say: " Never allow the seedlings to suffer from 
want of water, or become a prey to aphis. To avoid the 
latter, occasional, or it may be frequent, fumigations 
must be resorted to. Give all the air possible 
to promote a sturdy growth, bearing in mind that 
fine healthy foliage is the precursor of a grand 
bloom. In doing this, however, avoid draughts of 
cold air. About the end of May should find the most 
forward plants ready for shifting into 60-sized pots. 
Fi'om the end of June to the middle of July the 
finest plants should be ready for their final shift into 
48 pots, in which they will flower admii-ably. The 
growth dui'ing August and September will be vei'y 
free, and then occasional assistance with weak manm-e- 
water will add to the size and colour of the flowers. 
As the evenings shorten save the plants from chills, 
which result in deformed blossoms." 

A well-managed Cyclamen bulb at flfteen months' 
growth from seed ought to be at least one foot in dia- 
meter, ha\ing a dense mass of thick variegated leaves 
standing almost erect, and the flowers not more than 
two or three inches above the foliage. Well-deve- 
loped flowers should be broad in the petals, about two 
inches in length, nearly round at the ends, and having 
a slight regular twist in each segment of the corolla. 
Towards the production of such plants and flowers, 
let those of our readers who may contemplate 
growing Cyclamen persicum devote theii" best 
energies. 

The Cyclamen is a perennial, and with due care 
bulbs will last for ten or twelve years, and even 
longer ; and the second and third years, with propei- 
attention, they make splendid specimens. Probably 
many would prefer to raise plants fx'om seed every 
year, especially such as have little glass accommoda- 
tion ; those who grow Cyclamens for show piu'poses, 
or who wish to preserve certain varieties, grow their 
plants for two, three, or more years into qtiite large 
specimens. 

It will be observed from the foregoing remarks, 
that from the time of sowing the seed until the time 
of flowering, the Cyclamen is kept constantly growing 
on. Now we have to deal with plants that have 
flowered, and to lay down directions for treating these 
in a proper manner. The Cyclamen is a somewhat 
free-seeding plant ; the peculiar position of th(> 
flowers is favourable to the most complete self-fertili- 
sation, and the seed-pods are pretty well certain to 



336 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



set readily. Unless the cultivator wishes to ohtain seed 
rrom particular varieties, he should remove these ; 
hut if he will have seed he should not leave more than 
two or three pods on the strongest plants, lest he ex- 
haust them too much ; and he must look well after 
it that the stems of the seed pods do not rot, which 
they will do, being very susceptible of damp. The 
plants must be kept fairly dry, but not so dry as that 
they will be hindered in maturing their seed. A cold 
frame where the Cyclamens can be placed by them- 
selves is the best place at this stage ; it should face 
the south or west, and if the pots can be raised above 
the surface of the ground, so much the better. When 
the seed is gathered, the plants may be kept rather 
dry until they begin to show signs of making fresh 
growths ; they should then be turned out of pots, the 
soil shaken from the roots, re-potted in clean pots and 
a good soil, returned to the cold frame and kept a 
little close for a few days. At this stage the bulbs 
should never be over-potted, i.e., placed in too large 
pots. A half to three-quarters of an inch space be- 
tween the circumference of the bulb and the pot will 
be found quite sufficient ; it may be necessary to give 
another shift later on, but the general rule is to place 
the bulbs at once in the pots in which they are to 
flower. As soon as the plants begin to throw up 
strong leaves they should be encouraged to grow 
vigorously, by watering as required, by giving plenty 
of air, and keeping them clear of green-fly, which is 
very injurious to the leaves when it is allowed to in- 
fest them. If the weather is hot during the months 
of June, July, August, and September, and the grow- 
ing plants occupy a cold frame, besides watering the 
soil of such as are dry, sprinkle also freely overhead 
once in the forenoon, but it should be done with a 
watering pot having a very fine rose, otherwise the 
foliage will be bent down bj^the weight of the water, 
and eventually the leaves will not be erect and com- 
pact, which they ought to be. And in reference to 
watering over the foliage, this caution is necessary : 
never to close up the lights of the frame for the night 
until the leaves are quite dry, otherwise they will be- 
come drawn. Another important point is, that while 
the plants are in the cold frame they should never be 
too much crowded, but allowed some few inches be- 
tween the leaves, so that air may circulate among 
them, and a robust growth be maintained. 

A good soil for specimen Cyclamens can be made 
up of the following: — two-fifths coarse leaf -mould, 
the same quantity of very light, soft, yellow loam ; 
one-fifth dry cow-dung, and sufficient fine white sand 
to prevent it from running together. The dry cow^- 
dung should be collected in fine weather, and it would 
be advisable, after rubbing it small, to pour some 
nearly boiling water over it to kill all seeds, which 
are very troublesome if not destroyed in this way ; or 



it may be baked in an oven to secure the same end. 
The leaf-mould should also be well moistened, mixed 
with cow-dung and sand ; the loam should be rubbed 
quite fine in the hands in a dry state, mixed with the 
other ingredients, and then there is produced an ex- 
cellent compost to grow the Cyclamen in. 

The leading points in the culture of the Cyclamen 
may be summarised thus : — Constant and unvarying 
temperature, as far as it can be maintained ; a moist 
atmosphere ; abundant supplies of water, while 
avoiding anything like stagnation at the roots ; free 
cii'culation of air, avoiding cold draughts ; light in 
winter and shade in summer, with freedom from in- 
sect pests. These conditions well observed will keep 
the plants in vigorous growth from first to last, and 
will conduce to the production of specimens of which 
the cultivator may well be proud. 

Two things must be mentioned in connection with 
the Cyclamen : one is the marvellous development 
of colours in late years, from deep glowing shades of 
crimson and purple to the purest white, many of tbe 
pink and rose varieties being especially beautiful ; 
and the origination of a large-flowered section, known 
as C. persicum yiganteum. The flowers of these are 
very large and of the finest form, stout in texture, 
and rich in colour. It was at one time feared that if 
the flowers gained in size there would be a drawback 
in point of number, but it is found that the giant 
type is as free of bloom as the varieties with smaller 
flowers. Indeed, the large-flowered forms are fast 
taking the place of the smaller types. Thej' origi- 
nated by means of selection, and with more than one 
grower. Mr. Henry Little, Messrs. Sutton and Sons, 
Mr. Edmonds, Mr. Clark, and Mr. H. B. Smith, 
have been foremost in the work of impro^^ng the 
Cyclamen ; the last-named is an extensive grower at 
Ealing, and very often as many as 30,000 plants can 
be seen at his nursery. 

Growers of the Cyclamen find a tendency on its 
part to deteriorate in quality, and they therefore 
seek to maintain and improve upon it by means of 
artificial fertilisation. The best time to do this is as 
early in March as possible, but it may be done as late 
as April, although it is generally considered that the 
later it is done after the first week in March the less 
chance is there of obtaining the ■wished-for result, as 
insects at that period of the year often interfere with 
the work of the fertiliser. When the sun shines is 
the best time to do the crossing, and in the following 
manner: — Having selected a plant as the pollen 
parent (and it should have good-shaped flowers and 
be desirable in colour), take hold of the stalk between 
the left finger and thumb, just below the flower, and 
with the right thumb strike the side of it and the 
pollen will be found deposited on the left thumb-nail. 
Then apply this pollen by means of a dry and fine 



FLOEISTS' FLOWERS. 



337 



camel-hair brusli to th.e blooms of a plant of good 
habit and stiff well-marked foliage, which should in 
all cases be indispensable in the seed-bearing plants. 
In performing this some care is required, as the 
female organs are extremely delicate, and will not 
admit of any rough Tisage. The pollen should be 
gently applied to the stigma, and it will be found that 
at least a small portion has adhered, which is all that 
is required. Xot more than six flowers on a large 
plant should be allowed to seed, for if a greater num- 
ber be retained the seed will be small, and the plants 



will soon come up above the foliage, forming quite a 
coronet of turban-like blooms, which last a very 
long time in full beauty. 

It is well to grow a few fi'om seed eyery year, 
as the corms after they become three or four 
years of age are scarcely worth growing, as the 
flowers decrease xery much both in quality and 
quantity. 

In the process of potting, the soil should be 
pressed down firmly, and the centre of the corm 
should be slightly elevated above the soil, or the 




obtained from it, in all probability, be wanting in 
that vigour which is at all times so important in 
seedlings. After fertilising the six best blooms, all 
others should be at once removed, and the plants put 
by in a shady part of the green-house, but still having 
as much light as possible ; and no place can better 
suit them than a shelf protected from hot sun by 
wood-work about one foot or eighteen inches from the 
glass. The seeds ripen in about ten weeks, and they 
can be so^sm at once, as previously directed. There is 
a keen enjo}"ment in raising seedlings, the peculiar 
dohght of which is kno^m only to the enthusiastic 
and painstaking florist. 

If Cyclamen bloom is wanted early, and a good, 
succession kept, place a few at a time in a slightly 
warmer place, not forgetting that these plants cannot 
thrive in a close atmosphere. So treated, the flowers 
22 



young leaves and buds are apt to decay if too much 
moistui'e is about them. 

The compact habit of the Cyclamen, and the 
long foot-stalks on which the blooms are borne, 
render them very useful for winter and spring 
decoration, either as pot plants or when their 
flowers are cut for the embellishment of the 
house. 

There are some named varieties of the Cyclamen : 
indeed, new varieties bearing names are being 
introduced every year. But they are not sold, be- 
cause the old system of propagation by means of 
di-v-iding the corms has been abandoned. But finding 
that seed from many of these will reproduce the 
A-ariety, cultivators offer such seed for sale, and a 
few. at least, of the leading varieties will be found 
in the catalogues of most seedsmen. 



338 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDEN] XG. 



THE VINE AND ITS FEUIT. 



Ey William Cole k an. 



KEEPING AND PACKING GRAPES. 

Keeping Grapes through the Winter. — 

To keep grapes through the winter, they should he 
thoroughly ripe hy the end of Septemher. Small 
hunches keep hetter than large ones, and these 
should he more severely thinned than summer 
grapes, as it is necessary for the 
air to have a free passage 
through the centres to prevent 
condensation of moisture on the 
herries. If the roots have the 
run of internal and external 
borders, the first should he well 
watered as soon as the grapes 
hegin to colour, when a mulch- 
ing of short dry manure may he 
laid on the surface to keep in 
the moisture, and so feed the 
roots until the foliage is ripe. 
The leaves should he kept on the 
vines as long as possible ; but 
when they begin to fall, their 
daily removal will be necessary, 
as decaying vegetable matter 
always engenders damp, which 
soon affects the berries. When 
all the leaves have been cleared 
away, let the whole surface of 
the border be well covered with 
dry bracken as an absorbent of 
atmospheric moisture, and to 
prevent dust from rising and 
settling on the berries. Avoid 
sweeping the floors when very 
dry ; never admit a pot-plant 
that will require water, and dis- 
pense with fire heat as much 
as possible, consistent with the 
maintenance of a temperature 
ranging from 45° to 50'^. 
Look over the bunches every week for decaying 
or defective berries, and ventilate freely, with fire 
heat turned on when the external atmosphere is dry 
and the warmth of the house is not likely to draw in 
moisture. In damp, cold weather keep the house 
close, and, if possible, almost dispense with fire heat, 
as a temperature of 40° will not hurt the grapes if 
they can be kept dry. If on such days gentle 
warmth is found necessary, leave a crevice on each 
light open at the top of the house ; but on no account 
open the front, as a circulation would draw in a 
stream of moist vapour. In low, cold, damp situa- 
tions, these precautions are of more importance than 




Fig. 22.— Keeping Bundles in Bottles, 



on high, dry soils, hence the advantage of starting 
all late houses early in the spring so as to avoid 
much autumn firing, which does more harm than 
good, as grapes so ripened never keep well. Exter- 
nal borders should be well covered with dry bracken, 
before the summer heat is di-awn or washed out of 
them ; and glass lights, shutters, or, best of all, sheets 
of corrugated iron, placed above and not touching 
the fern, to keep out snow and rain. In this way 
grapes can be kept in good con- 
dition until March ; but this 
system is now superseded by 
bottling and keeping the fruit 
in a properly arranged grape- 
room. 

Preserving Grapes in 
Bottles of Water. — We arc 

indebted to the French for this 
excellent system, by means of 
which the late kinds of grapes 
can be kept fresh and plump, 
and perfect in flavour, until the 
end of May. In order to in- 
sure success, it is important that 
the grapes be thoroughl}* lipe 
by the middle of SejDtember, 
when the treatment recom- 
mended in the preceding paper 
will apply until Christmas, or 
the first week in January-. As 
nothing can be gained by allow- 
ing them to hang after this 
date, the room in which they 
are to be preserved should be 
prepared some little time in 
advance, and well fired to expel 
damp after the bottles are filled 
and placed in position. To 
those who have not had ex- 
perience in the construction 
of a grape-room, the follow- 
ing hints may be of service. 
Any dry, airy, well-ventilated store-room (if with 
hollow walls and ceiled roof, so much the hetter) 
will answer the purpose, the gi-eat object being the 
maintenance of a dry, equable temperature, \vdthout 
having recourse to much fire heat. The bottles 
should be placed in racks, tier above tier, secured to 
an inner wall, and they should lean forward at an 
angle of about 45'^, as in the annexed engraving 
(Fig. 22), so that the bunches may hang without 
touching the rack or each other. A small, slow 
combustion boiler placed outside, with a flow and 
return pipe inside for expelling damp, and keeping 
up the proper degree of warmth in very severe 



THE VINE AND ITS FRUIT. 



339 



weather, will be necessary ; but fire heat is not an 
essential, pro^'ided the room can be kept dry, and a 
temperatui-e of about 45° maintained without it. 
Having filled and placed a sufficient number of ordi- 
nary wine bottles with soft water, and heated the 
pipes for several days in succession, to dry the walls 
and floor, on a dry, fine day cut the grapes with idl 
the wood close to the base or pruning bud ; carry 
them steadily to the room, insert each piece of w^ood 
in the bottles, and place a small piece of wadding in 
the necks to prevent evaporation. Do not shorten 
back the pieces of wood beyond the bunches, as 
every fresh cut allows the water to pass in the form 
-of in^dsible vapour into the air of the dry room, and 
•constant filling up is objectionable. Lady Downes, 
Mrs. Pince's Muscat, Black Morocco, and AVhite 
Tokay, being the best for keeping after March is 
•out, they should be placed in the ujDper tiers ; then 
should follow Gros Colmar, Alnwick Seedling, 
Black Alicante, Wests, St. Peters, Trebbiano, and 
Muscat of Alexandria, for use fi'om January up to 
"the end of March. It wiU be necessary to look 
them over occasionally for decaying berries ; but if 
•all defective berries are removed at the time of cut- 
ting, the grapes will keep much better in the room 
than on the vines, pro\dded the bottles are kept 
filled up with soft water. 

"V\'Tien all the grapes are cut and the ^dnes are 
relieved of a strain almost equal to that produced by 
•early forcing, they can be pruned, cleansed, and 
allowed a good two months' rest before they are again 
■excited into growth. "Where late Hamburghs are 
in demand, all that are hanging on the vines in 
October may be removed to the grape-room, where 
"they will keep fresh and good, and with less loss 
than if left on the vines until the end of the year. 
■Some grape-growers put a small piece of charcoal 
into the bottles ; but this is not necessary, as many 
years' experience proves that the grapes keep just as 
well without it ; but when a portion of the grapes 
lave been used, it is a good plan to empty and fill 
Tip [their bottles with fresh water, and transfer the 
Lady Downes to them. ]\Iuscats and Gros Colmar 
should be thoroughly ripe some time before they are 
•cut, and if one part of the room is drier than another 
they should have it, as the Colmars are liable to 
mould, and the fleshy stalks of the shoulders some- 
times suffer from the moisture contained within 
"themselves. 

Preserving Grapes in Troughs. — This is a 
modern invention, patented by Mr. George Ward, 
the well-known grape-grower of Bishop Stortfoi'd. 
As yet it is too early to say whether the troughs are 
a complete success, though, judging from their 
extreme simplicity, and the fact that jMr. ard is 



satisfied after long trials, there seems little doubt 
that they will soon be found in general use. 

The troughs, which are oblong in shape and seven, 
teen inches in length, are single, as in Figs. 23 and 24, 
or double, as in Figs. 25 and 26. The material used 
in their manufacture is glazed earthenware, which 
possesses the advantage of being non-porous, cheap, 
and cleanly. Each single trough is made with a 
flange against one of its sides ; there is also one 
running along the middle of the double troughs, 
the use of which will be readily seen. The 
trough is filled with water nearly up to the brim. 
The shoot bearing the bunch is cut back full length 
to the pruning bud to admit of its hanging free of 
the trough, while the end of the shoot is inserted 
under the flange f. The shoot acts as a levei-, work- 
ing on the edge of the trough as a fulcrum, and the 
weight of the bunch keeps it in x^osition by pressing 
it firmly under and against the flange f. 

The following are some of the advantages which 
Mr. Ward claims for his invention: — The troughs do 
not require tilting, and yet the grapes hang in their 
natural position. They need not be fuU, as there is 
no danger of the ends of the shoots becoming dry ; 
the water keeps sweet, and there is no fear of drip. 
Water can be added without removing the grapes. 
Ko tying or fastening is required, and each bunch 
may be lifted out and replaced at pleasure. 

The single troughs are made for fixing against a 
wall in tiers fifteen inches apart, one above the other, 
and are supported on L-shaped iron holdfasts, which 
retain them in position, but admit of their removal 
for cleansing and other pui'poses. Fig. 23 shows the 
appearance on the w^all and Fig. 24 shows, on a larger 
scale, a section thi-ough the trough. The double 
troughs are made for fixing on stands specially con- 
structed for the purpose ; the latter may be made 
any length and to contain any number of tiers, and 
placed in convenient positions in the grape or store- 
room. Each shelf s (see Fig. 25) is made with a ledge 
LL on either side to hold the trough in position. 
Fig. 26 gives a view of the stand and troughs, and 
Fig. 25 shows an enlarged section of one shelf and 
trough. 

The Packing of Grapes. — The packing of 
grapes for transit by rail, often to a considerable 
distance, is a matter which requires a greater amount 
of attention than is frequently given to it. Many 
cultivators produce excellent fruit, but very often 
damage or completely spoil it through not knowing 
how to pack. The great art of packing, not only 
grapes, but all sorts of tender fruit, either for 
market or private use, is more than half attained 
when the young beginner gets over the fear of pack- 
ing too tightly, for if once allowed to move or change 



340 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENINa. 



their position after the boxes are handed over to the 
tender mercies of a railway company, the contents 
suffer to an extent that greatly depreciates their 
value. Some growers use baskets that will hold from 
eighteen to twenty pounds each, and four of these, 
v/hen packed in a case of suitable size with handles 



for general packing is dry, soft moss, of which a 
large sufjply should be obtained when the weather is 
fine, thoroughly dried, and beaten with sticks to 
destroy the harshness and free it from dust. Having 
the boxes and moss at hand, proceed by placing a 
layer an inch or more thick evenly over the bottom 




at each end, make up a weight that protects them 
from being turned over by the railway porters. For 
private growers, boxes of uniform size that will hold 
from eighteen to twenty pounds each are^ best ; 
indeed, boxes that will just hold the quantity 
required are preferable to baskets, as they do not so 
readily give way to pressure. These should be made 
of half-inch deal, twenty-four inches long, fourteen 
inches wide, and six inches deep. The best material 



of the box, line the box, sides, ends, and bottom, 
with a double thickness of cap paper and a single 
thickness of silver paper, allowing one half of the 
sheets to hang over the sides for turning over when 
the packing is finished. Weigh the box, carry it to 
the vinery, placing it in a slanting position by 
raising one end to an angle of 45°. Commence 
packing by placing good bunches in each of the 
lower corners, keeping the shoulders well up to the 



THE VINE AND ITS FRUIT. 



341 



level of the sides, select a third bunch that will fit in 
tightly between the other two. Proceed in this way 
until the box is half full, then raise the box to a 
sharper angle, and press the bunches still closer 
together; finish cutting, reserving three short 
clumpy bunches for the last row; return to the 
grape room, take the gross weight, deduct the weight 
of the box, and write the nett weight on a card. 



placed between the grapes and the lid, the pressure 
of the elastic moss keeps every berry in its place, 
prevents the loss of bloom by friction, and the 
stalks which stand upwards pi-event the shoulders 
from touching the lid. 

The preceding directions apply to Hamburghs; 
Muscats being more tender require greater care, and 
the less they are handled the better, as any undue 




Fig. 27. -Grapes Staged for Exhibition. 



Place the box flat upon the table, get a supply of 
moss near the right hand, and commence wedging the 
grapes away from the sides by the introduction of small 
quantities of moss into the cavities formed by draw- 
ing the thi'ee thicknesses of paper inwards ; gradually 
work round, constantly drawing the paper inwards 
until the berries begin to show signs of rising out of 
the box. Strain a sheet of paper over the top, secure 
the card containing the weight with a tack. Turn 
up the paper from the outside, and secure the lid. 
Some gardeners place moss or wadding over the 
paper, and thus take all the bloom off the shoulders. 
Nothing more than a sheet of paper should be 



pressure or friction causes them to change colour when 
opened and exposed to the air. They must, however, 
have sufficient packing to prevent them from moving 
in transit. If the bunches are very large it may be 
necessary to use wider boxes, but they need not be 
deeper. Having prepared the box by laying two 
inches of moss at the bottom, line the sides and ends 
with strips of wadding folded in silver paper, and 
proceed as before by tilting the box to a sharp angle. 
Place a double sheet of silver paper in the lower 
angle, allov/ing two-thirds to run along the bottom. 
Cut the first bunch, lay it lengthwise across the box, 
turn up the ends of the paper, and draw them with 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXIXO. 



342 

both hands over the hunch towards the lower end. 
Then take a strip of wadding, four inches by twelve, 
place it against the bunch to form a division ; lay in 
another double sheet of paper, and proceed by laying 
the next bunch with the shoulders in the opposite 
direction, turn up the ends of the paper as before, 
and draw the second bunch close to the first. Add 
another strip of wadding, and repeat until the box is 
full, when by raising it to a sharper angle the weight 
of the fruit, aided by very slight pressure with the 
fingers, will make room for another bunch. Fill all 
vacancies round the sides by forcing moss between 
the wood and the lining ; fold the upstanding ends of 
the paper evenly over the fruit, secure the lid with 
two small nails, enclose the record of the weight, 
and cord each box singly or two together. Wadding 
must be used with great care, and on no account be 
put in contact with the gTapes. 

Lady Downes, Alicantes, and other kinds ha\dng 
long, tapering bunches, may be treated as Muscats, 
placing them transversely across the box ; but it is 
not necessary to place anything between them, as 
they are less susceptible to bruising; indeed, the 
tighter and closer these kinds are pressed together 
the better they travel. Lady Downes, unless very 
fine indeed, do not require a six-inch box ; but it 
simplifies the matter of packing if all the boxes are 
of uniform size, and the unnecessary depth may be 
reduced by increasing the thickness of the layer of 
moss at the bottom. The bunches of the kinds that 
lie transversely across the box should not, however, 
touch the paper, which should be di-awn tightly over 
the top of the box, and retain its position by being 
nailed down with the lid. 

The key-stone of success in adopting the foregoing 
system lies in the use of dry, soft moss, the cheajDCst 
and best material for general packing, and this 
should be forced down between the sides of the box 
and the paper until it begins to form an arch near 
the lid, when the boxes may be turned upside down 
without injury to the grapes. 

Grapes for Exhibition. — Experienced ex- 
hibitors and obsei'vant visitors to the great fruit 
shows are often pained by the untidy way in which 
good examples of grape culture are sometimes set up, 
or the careless manner in which they are conA^eyed to 
the tents. The grape-grower who wishes to succeed 
must not only be able to finish his fruit on the A-ines, 
but must also be able to convey it without spot or 
blemish to the most distant part of the country. He 
must not be above spending a night with his cases in 
a luggage van, neither must he be afraid of showing 
a firm front when hasty midnight changes take 
place on crowded platforms. Visitors to the great 
exhibitions little think of the watchful care- and 



anxiety which have been devoted to the transit 
alone of a stand of spotless grapes ; and as many ot 
our confrhres seem little better informed, a few hmts 
on setting up and exhibiting may not be out of 
place. 

Years ago it was the custom to show grapes on 
dishes or in flat boxes, but now they are invariably 
set up, or rather suspended, on stands specially 
prepared for the purpose (Fig. 27). The bunches, 
it will be seen, are resting on a sloping board or 
stand, some fourteen to eighteen inches in height, and 
of convenient length for carrying from one to three 
bunches. "NMien a greater number of bunches form 
one exhibit, it is best to use two or more stands of 
imiform height, as three or at most fom- bunches are 
sufficient for one stand. In order to show the 
grapes to the best advantage, and to convey them 
with the greatest degree of safety, the sloping part 
of the. stand should be more upright than they are 
sometimes made, as there is then less danger of the 
berries moving or the shoulders of the bunches 
falling back on the stand. The sloping part of the 
stand should be first covered with a sheet of wadding, 
and then with a sheet of silver paper for black 
grapes, and pink paper for white ones, neatly turned 
under the edges, and secured with small tacks. The 
bunches are cut with a piece of the wood on which 
they have been growing, and are transferred at once 
to the stands, where they are secured by means of a 
piece of strong string or tape passed round the stalk 
and through the two holes in the back. This string, b& 
it borne in mind, should be tied tightly round the 
stalk at the junction A\ath the wood, so as to pre- 
clude all possibility of chafing in transit ; the ends- 
are then passed through the two holes, and tied at 
the back. ^\1ien set up the bunches should bfr 
about three inches apart to admit of inspection ; they 
should be suspended A\-ith the flattest side to the- 
board and, it is hardly necessary to say, with the 
best side facing the judges. A bunch should never 
be lifted after it is suspended, as with the greatest 
care it cannot be done without disturbing the bloom. 
Some writers on packing for exhibition advise 
passing a piece of string through the berries and 
round the stem about the middle of the bunch, 
thence thi'ough two holes in the stand ; but this is a 
troublesome and unnecessary operation, which cannot 
be performed without remoA-ing the bloom. More- 
over, it is a dangerous precaution, as any sudden 
jerk in transit is likelj' to cause the stems to snap 
where the string passes over them. Large bimches 
having hea^y shoulders may sometimes have wads of 
cotton wool placed under them ; bej-ond this no pack- 
ing of any kind must be used. "When all the grapes 
are cut and arranged on the boards, fit them into 
the cases in which they are to travel to the show. 



THE VINE AND ITS FRUIT. 



U3 



These should be made of half -inch deal, just large 
e!noug-h to take in the stand and clear the fruit when 
the lid is secured ; pass two screws through the case 
from the outside into the hack or upright part of 
the stand to keep it from working forward, and so 
placing the points of the bimches in contact with the 
cases ; put on the hd, and secure it with a stout strap 
like a stirrup leather. If passed round the middle, the 
straps offer facilities for carrying the cases, and they 
tan be quickly removed when time is of importance. 
When removing the cases great care must be 
observed in keeping them level, as a turn over would 
be fatal. Many exhibitors never lose sight of their 
boxes, or allow them to pass out of their hands ; but 
if kept level, grapes worth exhibiting will stand 
more shaking than many people imagine. 

VINES IN POTS. 
Pruiting Vines in Pots. — In large grape- 
growing places this mode of culture has fallen into 
neglect, as good winter grapes can be kept over the 
period at which the fruit from pot vines was for- 
merly considered of value. Where late winter 
grapes are not grown, and it is necessary to get an 
early supply of new ones, or where newly-planted 
houses afford room for growing a set, they often 
come in very useful, as well-prepared canes readily 
respond to forcing. But where a structure is 
specially devoted to them, a low span-roofed house 
or pit answers best, provided it is light, well glazed, 
and heated, as it is less expensive in fuel, and where 
the demand is not heavy a few pots will often save a 
permanently planted house for later and more certain 
use. 

Although pot vines ready for forcing can be pur- 
chased by the thousand, gardeners always prefer 
growing their own when they have convenience for 
doing so, and as this entails the use of two houses 
for one crop of fruit, the system cannot be recom- 
mended on the score of economy. To many, how- 
ever, it is interesting and instructive, as it enables 
them to grow and test many varieties, which, under 
other conditions, they could not do. Some good 
cultivators grow their vines from eyes one year and 
fruit them the next under the treatment explained 
in the chapter on the Propagation of the Vine ; 
others use cut-backs, which make stronger growth, 
but it is questionable if they are better than well- 
ripened yearlings. 

The varieties best adapted for forcing are Black 
Hamburgh, Madresfield Court, Alicante, Foster's 
Seedling, Duchess of Buccleuch, and ^Vhite Musca- 
dine. All the Frontignans also do well in pots. 

Vines for pot culture should always be ripened 
early, and if forcing is to commence, say in Novem- 
ber, they should be cut back to the required length 



by the end of September or earlier, if they have lost 
their leaves before that time. As a moist, mild 
bottom-heat is of importance, provision should be 
made for surrounding the lower parts of the pots 
with fermenting material, but as leaves or tan keep 
sinking and drawing the pots away from the trellis, 
the latter should be placed on firm pedestals or 
shelves, an arrangement which will admit of turn- 
ing and renovating the material when it gets too 
low or the heat begins to decline. Having washed 
the vines, enlarge the holes in the pots with a ham- 
mer to set the crock roots at liberty ; place each 
vine on a sod of good turf laid grass downwards on 
the pedestals, and introduce the fermenting material 
loosely at first and partly burying the lower parts of 
the pots. Defer tying up the canes and allow them 
to hang loosely over the bed, with the back buds 
raised to the highest part of an arch, and the points 
on a level with the rims of the pots. Syringe regu- 
larly three times a day, and give the temperature re- 
commended for starting early vines. Water very 
sparingly at first, as too much would make the soil 
sour, and most likely rot many of the roots. Eaise 
the temperature of the pit to 60° by the time the 
buds break, and gradually increase the heat to 68° 
by the time the bunches come into flower, allowing 
a daily increase of five degrees from fire heat and 
ten degrees from solar heat when the weather is 
favourable. Discontinue direct syringing after the 
bunches become prominent, but on no account neg- 
lect the supply of water to the roots, as pot vines in 
leaf will take liberal supplies of warm, clear diluted 
liquid or guano water at short intervals. 

When aU the buds are thoroughly on the move, 
decide upon the mode of training. Some coil them 
round four sticks placed in the pots, but the most 
simple way is to tie them up to the trellis like ordi- 
nary vines, as the side shoots can then be tied out 
and stopped at the second joint beyond the bunch, 
and the latter are most conveniently placed for thin- 
ning. If they show freely, remove all the bunches 
that are not likely to be wanted, as overcropping is 
fatal. Stop all laterals on the shoots carrjdng 
bunches, but lay them in from the others after the 
first stopping, wherever there is room for foliage to 
expand to the influence of sunheat and light. Top- 
dress from time to time with lumps of turf, manure, 
and bone-dust in moderation ; also spread a little 
about the sods when the roots have found their way 
into it, and keep the bottom-heat at their level at 
75° to 80*. When the stoning stage arrives, 
slightly reduce the night-heat to 65°, to give them a 
little rest during this trjang process; but raise it 
again to 68°, if time is an object, when it is over. 

Pay regular attention to ventilation from the be= 
ginning, keeping the house rather dry and warm, 



S44 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GARDENING. 



with a constant circulation during the time the vines 
are in flower ; but close early at all other times, 
with an abundance of sun heat and moisture. If 
any of the vines miss fruiting, remove them at once 
to practise semi-extension by laying in the sub- 
laterals from those carrying full crops of fruit. 
Increase the air and reduce moisture when the grapes 
begin to colour, but never allow the vines to feel the 
want of water at the roots. 

Pot Vines for Table Decoration. — These 
pretty objects are prepared by passing a well- 
ripened rod through the bottom of a small pot while 




Fig. 28. — Trainers for Pot-Viues. 



it is attached to the parent vine, and allowing it to 
root into rich compost with which the pot is filled 
when the vines are pruned. The rod selected should 
be furnished with eyes that are likely to break 
well and show plenty of fruit, and it may extend 
from one to two feet above the top of the pot, 
where it must be secured to an upright stick or 
tripod (Fig. 28), firmly fastened to the rim. As the 
buds break, all below the pot are rubbed off or closely 
pinched, while those above are stopped at the second 
joint beyond the bunch and tied out to a light wire 
trellis or hoop fixed at the top of the centre stick. If 
properly tended with water the pot will be well 
filled with roots by the time the grapes are ripe, 
when the canes may be cut through by degrees close 
to the bottom of the pot, and the established fruit- 
bearing plant will be ready for use. 

Fig. 29, on the next page, is a sketch from a 
pot vine grown by Mr. Sage, late gardener at Ash- 
ridge. This was prepared by taking a long rod 



through the bottom of a pot, leading it up tie centre 
stick, thence round a circular or parasol-shaped wire 
trellis, before the buds broke. The young growths 
and leaves were then trained regularly, but not 
crow^ded ; the bunches were good, and the effect was 
artistic and excellent. 

When preparing plants in this way it is important 
that the yearling-rod be coiled in its proper place 
before the buds break, when every leaf will expand 
with its face to the light, and the shoots can be 
pinched or extended so as to till every part of the 
trellis with its foliage, an evenly-balanced head 
being all-important. When coiling is deferred until 
the fruit is ripe the vines do not look happy, as the 
foliage never takes a natural position, and the 
bunches get rubbed and disfigured under the opera- 
tion. A little selaginella planted on the top of the 
pot and grown on with the vine gives it a nice finish 
when the fruit is ripe. 

VARIETIES OF GRAPES IN GENERAL CULTIVATION. 

1. Alicante. — This is a very handsome, easilj-- 
cultivated, vinous grape, and has been largely cul- 
tivated for market and exhibition, but in many 
places it is now superseded by Gros Colmar, which 
commands a better price. It is only second-rate in 
quality, and is best suited for late use, coming in as 
a useful link between the latest Hamburghs and 
Lady Downes. It succeeds under Hamburgh treat- 
ment ; always sets and colours well ; and is improved 
by hanging after the leaves fall from the vines. 
Mr. Meredith, late of Garston Vineyard, brought it 
into note, and by his excellent and extensive cultiva- 
tion it soon became known as Meredith's Alicante, 

2. Alnwick Seedling. — A very handsome, 
oval, black grape, of free habit and good constitution, 
but only second-rate in quality. It is one of the 
best late-keeping grapes of recent introduction, re- 
quires a high temperature when in flower, and 
careful fertilisation with the pollen of some other 
variety to ensure its setting freely. It always 
colours well, and is in good condition from Christ- 
mas onwards. It was raised at Alnwick Castle ; but 
to Mr. Bell, of Clive House, is due the credit of 
bringing it out in its true character. 

3. Black Hamburgh. — This grape is too well 
known to require description. It is unsurpassed as 
an early grape, and is the best of all for a general 
crop, being of extremely easy cultivation, and first- 
rate in quality ; but unfortunately the majority of 
growers cut it before it is in its best condition. 
This gardeners' friend was introduced from North 
Germany about the beginning of the last century, 
and is known in this country under many synonyms. 
The fine old xines at Cumberland Lodge, Hampton 
Court, Finchley, Shardloes (Bucks) , Eastnor Castle, 



THE VINE AND ITS FRUIT. 



345 



SiUwood Park, and Kinnell, in Scotland, are Black In addition to tlie above, we have Champion Hara- 

Hamburghs. Mr. Meredith, when at Garston, burgh, Mill Hill Hamburgh, and Frankenthal, 

grew a bunch weighing 9| lbs., and Mr. Hunter, of which many consider distinct varieties. The 

Lambton Castle, has produced bunches weighing varieties with medium-sized oval berries are the 





Fis-. 29.— Vine in a Pot foe the Table. 



13 lbs. 2 ozs. and 21 lbs. 12 ozs. It is to be regretted 
that this fine grape cannot be had in condition all 
the year round. The berries do not, however, keep 
good on the vine after the beginning of December ; 
but they can be preserved in fair condition until the 
•end of January, if cut and bottled as soon as the 
ioliage is ripe. 



best for eating, while the large hammered-berried 
variety, known as the Dutch Hamburgh, is the most 
telling for exhibition. 

4. Black Morocco. — This fine black oval 
variety, when well grown, is one of the best, as it is 
one of the most handsome, winter grapes in cultiva- 
tion ; but unfortunately it does not set well. Mr. 



346 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXING. 



Barron says this is " one of tlie worst setting grapes 
known ;" but with me, on the north side of a Muscat 
house, it sets as freely as a Hamburgh. It rejoices 
in plenty of heat, and requires careful fertilisation 
with Hamburgh pollen. The bunches and berries 
are large, and it keeps well in a dry room till the 
middle of April. In Worcestershire it is known as 
the Kempsey Alicante. 

5. Black Prince. — A handsome, free-setting, 
Sweetwater grape, but only third-rate in quahty. 
The bimches gi-ow to a great length, and the berries 
always colour well. One \ine may be planted in 
large collections for exhibition pm'poses, but it is an 
old variety that is superseded by many kinds that 
are infinitely superior. 

6. Buckland Sweetwater. — An English seed- 
ling of handsome appearance, and worthy of a place 
in every early vinery. It succeeds well under 
Hamburgh treatment, and fruits best when trained 
on the long-rod system, but in some soils it is rather 
shy. "When the berries assume a rich golden coloiu', 
they are of good flavour and very refreshing. It is 
a good early exhibition grape. 

7. Canon Hall Muscat. — A large, round- 
berried, handsome grape, when well grown ; but as 
it does not set well, perfect bunches are rarely met 
with. The vine is not so good a grower as the 
Muscat of Alexandria, being gross, pithy, and often 
badly ripened ; neither is the quality of the fruit 
c^qual to that fine old variety. The last generation 
of gardeners always made a point of planting it, but 
it is now seldom met with. 

8. Dr. Hogg. — A splendid, round-berried, Mus- 
cat-flavoured grape, of the Chasselas or Frontignan 
quality. It was raised by the late Mr. Pearson, of 
Chilwell, and is now grown in every garden where 
those dehcious grapes are appreciated. The bunches 
grow to about twelve inches in length ; the berries are 
larger than those of the Frontignan, and, unlike the 
Chasselas Musque, they never crack when ripening. 

9. Ducliess of Buccleuch.. — This dehcious 
Muscat-flavoured gTape was raised by Mr. Thomson, 
of the Tweed Vineyard. The bunches grow to a 
great length, and the berries set well ; but being 
rather small they detract from its appearance. It is 
a free-setting variety, well adapted for pot culture, 
and requires a httle more heat than the Hamburgh. 
When grown, as the raiser has grown it, it is well 
worthy of a place in all choice selections of Muscat 
grapes. 

10. Duke of Buccleuch. — This is another of 
]\Ir. Thomson's seedlings, but as it belongs to the 
Sweetwater section, it is only fit for early or summer 
use. When well done, it is one of the most noble 
grapes in cultivation. The flesh is tender, rich, and 
juicy ; and the berries, which are very large, take a 



rich amber colour when fully ripe. The vine is 
very strong grower, and does best in a warm in- 
ternal border. AVith some growers the berries are 
subject to spot. 

11. Foster's White Seedling. — An oval, 
white, Sweetwater grape, of good quality, and in- 
valuable for early forcing. It was raised by Mr. 
Foster, of Benniborough Hall, Yorkshire, who from 
the same potful of seedlings also raised the well- 
known Lady Downes. With the exception of the 
Muscat, this is one of the best white grapes in culti- 
vation. It ripens well under Hamburgh treatment, 
and is invaluable as an early exhibition grape. 

12. Golden Champion. — This fine, large, oval,, 
white, Sweetwater grape was raised by ]\Ir. W. 
Thomson, and is a noble acquisition where it does 
well. Having a weak constitution, it should be 
worked on the Hamburgh, and trained on the long- 
rod principle. ]\Ir. Webb, of world-wide fame as a 
manufacturer of ornamental glass, grows magnificent 
bunches of this grape in the centre of the town of 
Stourbridge. A liberal admixture of siliceous refuse 
from the works is introduced into the borders ; the 
vines grow well, and the berries are free from spot. 

13. Grizzly Frontignan. — This is one of the 
most delicious Muscat-flavoured grapes in cultiva- 
tion, and should have a place in warm internal 
borders in early and mid-season houses. The ^ine 
is a moderate grower, and well adapted to pot 
cidture. The berries, Hke all the Frontignans, are 
rather small, but they set freely, and ripen well 
under Hamburgh treatment. 

14. Gros Colmar. — A very large, round, black, 
"\T.nous grape, extensively grown for market. The 
vine is robust, and sets its fruit freely in a Ham- 
burgh house, where, if properly thinned, the berries 
swell to an enormous size ; but it takes a long time 
to ripen, and is not in its best condition until some 
time after the leaves fall. To do this handsome, but 
by no means rich, grape well, it should be grown in 
a warm, mid-season house, where it can hang for 
some time after the other grapes are cut, and then 
be removed to a warm grape-room, where it will 
keep until the end of March. As the berries fre- 
quently measnre 4|- inches round, they should be 
liberally thinned. 

15. Gros Guillaume. — This is frequently met 
with under the name of Barbarossa, and is, as is well 
known, one of the most uncertain gTapes in cultiva- 
tion. It fruits best on the long-rod system, and 
requires plenty of heat to ripen up the wood ; other- 
wise it is shy and capricious. The fruit is only 
third-rate in quality, unless very highly ripened ; 
but the bunches are large and handsome, and the 
grapes keep well until the end of March. It fruits 
well in and around Stratford-on-Avon, where the 



THE VINE AND ITS FRUIT. 



347 



late Mr. Butcher was the first to bring it into notice. 
The largest bunches have been grown by Mr. 
Koberts, Charleville Forest, Ireland, the heaviest 
cluster weighing 23 lbs. 5 ozs. 

16. Gros Maroc. — This is an oval black grape, 
of first-rate quality, and handsome appearance. It 
is difficult to propagate ; but once established, it 
grows and fruits freely under Hamburgh treatment. 
The fruit, when hanging on established vines, might 
be taken for Gros Colmar ; but, unlike that variety, 
it is fit for use as soon as it is ripe, and the flesh 
being more tender, it neither travels nor keeps so 
well. Where fine grapes of good quality are wanted, 
either for private use or exhibition, a vine should be 
planted in all early and mid- season houses. The 
berries swell to a large size, and require liberal thin- 
ning ; they also colour well, often under unfavour- 
able conditions. 

17. Lady Downes Seedling. — This invaluable 
black winter grape is too well known to requu-e de- 
scription. When well grown and thoroughly 
ripened, the fruit will keep fresh and plump in the 
grape-room until the end of May — five months after 
the bunches are cut from the vines. It requires a 
long season of growth, and, being a late starter, 
should be coaxed forward with fire heat in the 
spring. It also requires a high temperature to set 
the berries properly ; indeed, like all our best winter 
and early spring grapes, it does best in a tempera- 
ture very little, if any, lower than that given to 
Muscats. Nine-tenths of the Lady Downes grown 
are never properly ripened, and consequently neither 
keep well nor give satisfaction. 

It is a remarkable fact that the terribly con- 
demned Black Morocco should be the parent of 
three of our best English seedlings — viz., Madres- 
field Court Muscat, Foster's Seedling, and Lady 
Downes, and that the second is the best early white, 
while the third is unquestionably the best late black, 
grape in cultivation. What is still more remark- 
able, the early white and the late black came from 
the same potful of seedlings. 

18. Madresfield Court Muscat.— This ex- 
quisitely-flavoured grape was raised by my lamented 
friend, Mr. Cox, and was sent out as a late variety, 
its parents being Muscat of Alexandria and Black 
Morocco. As a natural consequence, it was con- 
demned as a bad keeper ; but now it has, by its ex- 
cellence, forced its way into the early and mi(^-season 
houses, its qualities are appreciated. It is exten- 
sively grown for early market, but it will not keep 
for any length of time after it is ripe, and, like its 
capricious male parent, it sometimes shows a dispo- 
sition to crack. Mr. Eoberts, of Gunnersbiiry, 
grows this variety remarkably well. 

19. Mrs. Pearson. — A round, white, Muscat- 



flavoured grape, of very superior quality, raised by 
the late Mr. Pearson, of Chilwell. The vine is a 
good grower, shows plenty of bunches, and sets 
its fruit freely. Where two kinds of late 
white grapes are wanted, this will be found a 
valuable acquisition. It requires, however, quite as 
much time and as high a temperature as the Muscat 
to bring out its best qualities. When thoroughly 
ripened, it promises to become a good grape for 
bottling. 

20. Mrs. Pince's Black Muscat.— Like all the 
thick - skinned winter grapes, this fine variety 
requires warm treatment and a considerable time to 
ripen up the fruit. The bunches grow to a large 
size, but the berries do not always set well, and it is 
a diflicult grape to colour. When well rij^ened this 
is one of our best late grapes, and keeps fresh and 
plump up to the end of April. 

21. Muscat of Alexandria. — This is un- 
doubtedly the most handsome, as well as the most 
valuable, white grape in cultivation. The vine is a 
good grower, shows an abundance of bunches, and 
sets its fruit fairly well when the roots are in a 
satisfactory condition in a warm border. The 
majority of growers who aim at good culture always 
give this universal favourite a house to itself, as it 
requires a high temperature when in flower, and 
again to ripen up the fruit and wood. To ensure a 
perfect " set," the flowers should be fertilised with 
pollen from the Hamburgh. When well ripened 
and properly coloured to a bright amber under the 
direct influence of plenty of sunshine, this is the 
king of grapes, and if cut and bottled in December 
will keep until March. 

22. Muscat-Bowood. — Although this might 
not be a true cross, it is a valuable grape, of excellent 
constitution. It was raised as a seedling by the late 
Mr. Spencer, of Bowood, and, like many others, it 
differs from the parent in being a little earlier, and 
setting and finishing in a lower temperature. 
Where the old variety does weU, this is not an ac- 
quisition. 

23. Muscat-Hamburgli. — An old friend under 
a new name, but none the less a first-class variety 
when it can be induced to set well. It was formerly 
known as the Black Muscat, and when well grown 
is one of the most delicious grapes in cultivation. 
One vine at least grafted on the Hamburgh should 
be in every collection, where it will do better than 
on its own roots. 

24. Raisin de Calabre. — A round, w^hite 
grape, of very indifferent quality, valuable for its 
late-keeping qualities. The vine is a good grower, 
and does well in a late house, for which it is best 
adapted. One vine may be planted in a large col- 
lection. 



348 



CASSELL'S POPL'LAE GAEDEXIXG. 



25. Royal Muscadine. — A round, -white, S-weet- 
■^vater grape, of excellent quality, and easy cultiva- 
tion. It grows and fi'uits well in a cool house : is 
an atundant bearer, and keejjs well after it is ripe. 
This is one of the most useful vines for amateui's, 
and is well adapted for pot culture. 

26. Syrian. — A large, coarse, white grape, now 
rarely met with. It requires plenty of room, and 
should he grown in a well-drained border, as the 
wood and fruit require a long time to ripen. After 
long exposure to the sun, the berries are passable ; 
but no one now thinks of planting it. It is men- 
tioned here, as it is supposed to be the variety which 
the Spies found in the Land of Promise. Speechley, 
■of Welbeck. grew a bunch weighing 19 lbs. 

27. Trebbiano. — Very similar to Raisin de 
Calabre : a handsome, white, late grape, of second 
quality, only valuable for its keeping qualities, ^Mr. 
Curror, of Eskbank, in 1875, grew a bunch, the 
heaviest on record, weighing 26 lbs. 4 ozs. If the 
vines have plenty of space, and the grapes are 
allowed to ripen and hang for a long time in a high 
temperatui-e, they will keep good until the end of 
March. One vine may have a place in large col- 
lections. 

28. Venn's Seedling.— An excellent black. IMus- 
cat-flavoured grape, supposed to be a seedling, biit 
not a cross, fi^oni 3Iuscat-Hamburgh. However this 
may be, it sets and swells better than many, and 
having a thicker skin and stouter footstalks, it keeps 
longer than the parent. It succeeds, too, where the 
Muscat-HamLui-gh is a failm^e. 

29. West's St. Peters.— A first-rate. old. late- 
keepiag, black grape, still worthy of extensive culti- 
vation. The bunches and berries are of medium 
size, and on this account well adapted for keeping. 
When well ripened, under Lady Downes treatment, 
it will keep well imtil the middle of March. In 
point of quality, it is little inferior to the Hamburgh, 
which it succeeds. 

30. White Frontignan.— THs. like aU the 
neglected family, is one of the most delicious, musk- 
flavoured varieties known to grape-growers. It does 
well with Hambui'ghs, and requires exposure to the 
sun when ripening. It is an excellent variety for 
fruiting in pots. 

31. W Jiite IN'ice. — A white, vinous grape, of 
second quality. The bunches are large and ugly. 
The berries, which are of medium size, set well, and 
require a long period, under warm Hambm-gh 
treatment, to bring them up to a presentable condi- 
tion. Where large exhibition bunches are wanted, a 
™e should be planted. Mr. Fowler. Castle Ken- 
nedy, has gi-own it 17 lbs. 2 ozs., and Mr. Dickson, 
Arkleton, has produced clusters weighing 18 lbs. 
•7 ozs., 19 lbs. 5 ozs., and 25 lbs. 15 ozs. 



32. WiLite Tokay. — This is an oval, vinous 

grape, of first-rate quality, well worthy of a place in 
every late house. It can be grown with mid-season 
Hamburghs, where it can hang to finish after the 
latter are cut from the vines. When the berries 
become of a rich amber colour, and the leaves have 
fallen, it can be kept for a long time in the gi^pe- 
room. 



THE FLOWER GARDEN. 

Bt WILLIA3I WiLDSMITH. 



THE "MIXED" STYLE. 

BY the term " mixed style " is meant not onh' the 
cultivation of hardy flowering herbaceous per- 
ennial plants (these principally), but these combined 
with suitable dwarf shrubs and hardy carpeting 
plants, such as .Sedums and Saxifragas, and even 
some plants of a tender nature, which, in the summer 
season, can be grouped in vacant spots, and add 
greatly to the interest of the general arrangement. 
Many people object to this mixed style of planting, 
charging it with lack of neatness, too much labour 
in tying plants to supports, lack of colour, bare 
earth, and general unsuitability for dressed grounds 
or formal beds. With the exception of the last, 
none of these objections are difficult to overcome. 
The last objection, in our opinion, is certainly a 
vahd one, and therefore we should never think of 
adapting the style to such positions. Formality of 
design does demand — if we may be allowed the term 
— formahty of plants, or, in other words, uniformity 
of height and a true balance of colour, without 
which a formal series of beds are anything but a 
pleasure to contemplate — at any rat«, to persons of 
ordinary vision. As to the other objections, under 
the head of " arrangement," we hope to show bow 
they can be surmounted. 

Merits of the Style — The principal one is that 
the great bulk of the plants being hardy and of easy 
culture, the smallest equally with the largest garden 
may have its mixed flower-bed or border. Another 
advantage is that, though desirable, it is not really 
necessary that there should be any set form of 
arrangement, so long as the plants are arranged 
according to height, and therefore the veriest no^-ice 
need have no fear of failure, even on the score of 
arrangement. Another merit is that a smaU collec- 
tion of plants looks just as complete as the largest, 
of course size of beds and borders being taken into 
account. Still another advantage is that there is 
but little labour attendant on the culture of the 
plants; tying, weeding, and clearing away dead 



THE FLOWER GARDEN. 



349 



steins and flowers being all that is absolutely neces- 
sary after the plants are once in. 

It will be seen that all these advantages are con- 
tingent on circumstances, such as size of garden, 
lack of labour, and inability to obtain a good 
selection of plants ; the merits of mixed flower 
gardening being still greater where there are none 
of these hindrances, but instead thereof full scope to 
carry out the style in its entirety, which, to sum up 
in a few words, means effectiveness all the year 
round, as much flower as possible at all seasons, and 
distributed over the entire bed or border. 

Situation. — To obtain such results, perhaps the 
most important consideration is situation and sur- 
roundings, for, though a bed of mixed plants may 
look well as a heel in any position, care should be 
exercised that the surroundings be in harmony with 
it ; no geometry, statuary, or formal stone-work , 
and that no view, or graceful sweep of lawn, or 
boles of trees be intercepted by the planting. 
These avoided, almost any situation having a south 
or west aspect is appropriate ; but by far the most 
effective places are shrubbery recesses on the lawn, 
and, next to these, wide borders of rainbow or 
horizontal form that are well backed up with shrubs. 
For there can be no question that, so far as 
regards effectiveness, the best arrangement is to 
have but one front to the border, for the reason that 
most of the tall herbaceous plants are unsightly at 
the bottom, and should therefore only be viewed 
over dwarfer kinds, and in front of a background of 
shrubs or other screen. 

Soil and Culture.— If of moderate depth, any 
description of soil will grow the plants well, always 
provided that plenty of manure be given ; but a deep 
loam of medium texture that does not need annual 
diggings-in of manure is a long way the best. Of 
course, all have not such a soil at command, and 
therefore recourse must be had to supplying the 
most suitable ingredients to the varying soils that 
have to be dealt with. A deep loam, if well 
trenched and given a moderate dressing of well- 
rotted manure, will need little, if any, other dressing 
for three or four years — a fact of the greatest im- 
portance, both as regards saving of labour and well- 
doing of plants, as many kinds of herbaceous plants 
attain their most perfect development when left 
undisturbed for years. Stiff, or what are called 
clayey loams, should be also deeply trenched, and 
plenty of light vegetable or leaf soil worked in 
during the process ; this being another description of 
soil that, when well drained, the plants will flourish 
in for years, without any other dressing than that of 
an annual surface-mulching of manure. 

For light soils, deep trenching is of the utmost 



importance, and with abundance of good manure 
the plants will do just as well as in the best loam, 
only every second year a fresh supply of manure is 
needed, a matter that involves lifting and re- 
arranging the plants : that is, if the best results are 
desired. In some respects, this biennial lifting is an 
advantage, for thereby an increased stock of plants 
can conveniently be had by division, and defects in 
previous arrangements of plants can be rectified. 
All other descriptions of soil will come under one or 
other of the three kinds here named, and should be 
treated as advised for these. 

As to general culture, little is needed beyond a 
surface- dressing of manure in winter, and the 
keeping the ground free of weeds throughout the 
growing season, together with tying up such kinds 
as absolutely require support ; but onhj such, for not 
a plant should be tied that is at all likely to be self- 
supporting ; furthermore, the height of stakes ought 
never to exceed the height of the plants, and the 
ties should not be drawn so tightly that the plants 
present a lumpy, broom-like appearance. To some 
these points may appear matters of little moment, 
but they are of sufficient importance to make all the 
difference between attractive neatness and untidiness, 
and are therefore worthy of attention. 

Arrangement of Plants. — Ever since increased 
interest has been taken in hardy flowering plants, 
and in mixed flower gardening generally, there has 
been more quibbling as to how best to arrange 
them than in anything else connected with flower 
gardening. Therefore it is not presumed that the 
arrangements here proposed will be accepted as 
perfect. But at any rate they have this merit, viz. , 
that they have been put into practice, and satisfied 
those most nearly concerned. The old-fashioned 
*' dot" system — that is, plants in single file, dispersed 
over the entire border with just as much precision 
as to height and distance from each other as might 
be expected in the severest geometrical pattern 
— cannot be too highly reprobated. Indeed, one 
wonders that the plan survived so long, and still 
more, that numbers yet continue to so arrange them ; 
a circumstance that can only be accounted for by 
supposing that such persons have never seen, or even 
thought of, any other mode of arrangement. 

What may be termed the grouping style is that we 
would advise, and which consists in planting a given 
number of plants in a mass, and in numbers pro- 
portionate to the spread and height of plants ; the 
aim being to obtain colour in such quantity as to 
prove effective when seen from a distance. Dwarf- 
growing plants, such as the shrubby creeping 
Veronicas, Lithospermums, and the larger Saxi- 
frages, may be in groups of twch'e or eighteen 



350 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXIXG. 



plants. Of course tb.e groups should be of irregular 
form, and the numbers varj^ — say from eighteen 
to three, for the taller and more robust-growing 
kinds. Another important point to be observed is, 
that though it is imperative that the dwarfer kinds 
be confined to the front of the borders, a too strict 
line of uniformity of height should be scrupulously 
avoided, and pains should be taken to so dispose the 
plants as to colotir that there shall be no violent or 
jarring contrasts ; and further, season of flowering 
of the various species should be taken into account. 
The reason for the latter is obvious, viz., that there 
may be throughout the flovrering season a regular 
dispersion of bloom over the entire border. 

To carrj" out such an arrangement in its entirety, 
we well know, needs a better knowledge of this class 
of plants than even the majority of professional 
gardeners possess ; but it is knowledge that is soon 
acquired, particularly if there is a natural fondness 
for the plants ; and if there is not, there soon will 
be, if circumstances demand that mixed hardy flower 
gardening shall be of the highest order. Those in 
difiiculty as to seasons of flowering, height, and 
spread of plants, and who have not a goodnatured 
neighbour capable of imparting the desired informa- 
tion, should procure the descriptive catalogues of 
our best hardy-plant nurserymen. We have per- 
sonally tested such catalogues, and found them most 
reliable and wonderful aids in the arrangement of 
plants after this order. 

There is one other merit in these mixed arrange- 
ments, viz., that any vacant plots there may be can, 
with a view to increased summer gaiety, be filled 
with tender or half-hardy flowering plants ; indeed, 
it is a moot point as to whether vacant plots should 
not purposely be left with that intent ; certainly our 
view is that there should. Of course, at other seasons 
the ground might be covered with hardy carpeting 
plants. Pelargoniums, Heliotropes, Fuchsias, Mar- 
guerites, single Dahlias, and Hollyhocks are a few 
of the many kinds of plants that can ap]Dropriateh' 
be used in association with hardy perennials. 

Cut Flowers. — The arrangement of plants which 
are intended to afford cut flowers for decorative 
purposes should be much after the same order as 
regards grouping together ; but, as in this case it is 
desirable to get at the flowers without treading on 
the beds or borders, these should not be more than 
six or seven feet wide, and may be arranged -^-ith 
the taller kinds in the middle; only very tall -^orts 
ought not to be used, certainly none that exceed a 
yard in height : then the objection alluded to above, 
as to unsightly naked stems, will not apply. The 
borders of the kitchen garden are usually devoted to 
such purposes ; at any rate, such arrangements 



ought not to occupy a site in the flower garden 
proper, as this latter should be held sacred to sucli 
flowers as are allowed to grow in their living beaut v 
till they die a natural death. 

The most perfect arrangement of hardy plants for 
cut-flower pui-poses that we have ever seen, was a 
narrow border each side of the central walk of a 
kitchen garden. At the back were horizontally 
trained espalier Pear-trees, the nearest row of 
flowering plants being thirty inches from the trees ; 
thus neither the plants nor fi'uit-trees suffered by 
being in too close j)roximity to each other, and the 
fruit-trees formed a most appropriate background 
for the flowers. These situations, and arrangement 
of plants for cut-flower use, may serve as hints 
to those not ha\-ing exactly similar places, towards 
selecting others that may serve the same purpose, 
with a view of preventing the gathering of Jloicers 
from beds, which it is desired to keep as gay as 
possible at all times. 

Objections to this style of gardening comprise 
only two that are at all worthy of consideration; 
these being, labour anent the preservation of neatness 
and support of the plants by t}-ing, and the difficulty 
of covering the groiind. In respect of the first- 
named objection, we reply that no branch of 
gardening can be done well without labour, and 
that there is far h-ss of it needed in this branch, even 
if t}-ing and trimming up were carried to the utmost 
extreme, than there is connected with an ordinary 
bedded- out garden, if the labour of propagation, 
"housing, pegging, and the like be taken into account, 
not to mention the short period that it continues in 
good condition. This really is the only logical way 
to look at the matter; and all who consider the 
question from this standpoint will, sooner or later, 
be ready to admit that the odds as to laboirr are 
decidedly in favour of hardy plants. 

As to the difficulty there is in covering the 
ground, it is purely imaginary, as we shall hope to 
show by appending a list of plants suitable for 
carpeting the groimd under and about every kind of 
plant used in the borders : but meanwhile, it must 
suffice to say that mossy Saxifrages and Sedums, 
and plants of allied nature, that are surface rooters 
only, and therefore do not rob the border of the 
nourishment that is required by the flowering 
plants, are every way suitable for carpets and under- 
growths, and add in no small degree to the interest 
of the general arrangement. 

There is another objection sometimes raised, 
which is, that the great bulk of hardy plants die 
do^Ti in winter, and then the borders look empty 
and are devoid of interest. Here again there is 
forgetfulness of what happens in every other depart- 



THE FLOWER GARDEN. 



351 



iment of flower gardening, and that too with less 
prospect of a remedy than in this case, for whichi 
there are an immense variety of evergreen and 
variegated shrubs, that appropriately intermix with, 
the flowering plants at any season, and during the 
winter season impart a furnished appearance to the 
"borders. The names of the best kinds for this 
purpose will be found amongst the 

List of Plants for Special Purposes. — 

First let us give a general list, including all 
:sections of the best Herbaceous, Perennial, and 
Alpine plants : — 



Acanthus mollis. 
A. niger. 
A. spinosus. 

Achillea Ptarmica fl. pi. 
A. tomentosa. 
Aconitum Napellus. 
Actaea spicata rubra. 
Adonis vemalis. 
Acantholimon glumaceum. 
Agrostenima coronaria atro- 

sanguinea. 
Alstrsemeria peruviana. 
A. pulcliella. 
A. tricolor. 
Anchusa italica. 
Anemone alpina. 
A. coronaria. 
A. apennina alba. 
A. japonica. 
A. japonica alba. 
A. nemorosa. 
A. Pulsatilla. 
A. fulgens. 
Aquilegia oalifomica. 
A. chrysantba. 
A. glandulosa. 
A. thalictrifolia. 
Armeria cephalotes rubra. 
A. maritima alba. 
A. plantaginea rosea. 
A, graudiflora. 
Alyssum montanum. 
A. saxatile. 
A. variegatum. 
Asphodelus luteus. 
A. lateus fl. pi. 
Arundiiiaria falcata. 
Arundo donax. 
A. variegata and conspicua. 
Aster altaicus. 
A. Amelhis. 
A. bessarabicus. 
A. coccineus. 
A. erieoides. 
A. perigrinus. 
A. Townsendii. 
Astilbe japonica. 
Aubrietia Campbellii. 
A. deltoidea grandiflora. 

A. grseca. 
Bambusa aurea. 

B. gracilis. 
B. japonica. 
Baptisia australis. 

B. exaltata. 
Betonica grandiflora. 
Bocconia cordata. 
Caltha palustris fl. pi. 
Campanula celtidifolia. 

C. grandis alba. 
C. macrantha. 
C. rhomboidea. 
Cistus hir-utus. 
C. florentinus. 
C. lusitanicus. 



Chrysocoma Linosyris. 
Coreopsis lanceolata. 
C. teuuifolia. 
Cypredium Calceolus. 

C. spectabile. 

Delphinium caslimerianum. 

D. cliiuensis, 
D. nudicaule. 
Dianthus arenarius. 
D. capitatus. 

D. fragrans. 
D. neglectus. 
Dictamnus t'raxinella. 
D. Fraxinella alba. 
Dodecattieon Jeil'reyanum. 

D. Meadea. 

Dracocephalum Euysghia- 
num. 

T>. Ruysghianum japoni- 
cum. 

Epiniedium graudiflorum. 

E. luteaai graudiflorum. 

E. macrauthrum. 
Funkia undulata. 

F. ovata aurea variegata. 
F. Sieboldii. 

F. variegata. 
Galega officmalis alba. 
Galtonia candicans. 
Gentiana acaulis. 

G. asclepiadea. 
Geranium armenum. 

G. ibericum. 

Geum coccineum plenum, 
Gunnera scabra. 
Heliantlius angustifolius. 

H. giganteus. 

H. multiflorus plenus. 
H. simplex. 
H. majus. 

Helleborus atrorubens. 
H. colchicus. 
H. niger. 
H. altifolius, 

Hemerocallis disticha fl. pi. 
H. flava. 
H. Thunbergi. 
Heucbera san guinea. 
Hypericum balearicum. 

H. calyciuum. 

ti. nummularium. 
Iberis gibraltarica. 

I. Garrexiana. 
Iris Ksempfeii. 
I. orientalis. 

1. stylosa. 

I. Susiana. 

Knipliofia aloides. 

K. niacowani. 

Latbyrus biflorus. 

L. latitolius. 

Linum flavum. 

L. candidissimum. 

L. perenne. 

L. perenne album. 



Litbospermum prosti atum. 

3.. polyphyllus. 

L. polyphyllus albus. 

Lychnis chalcedonica fl. pi. 

L. chalcedonica alba fl. pi. 

L. dioica rubra fl. pi. 

L. d. alba fl. pi, 

L, Viscaria alba. 

L. V. plena. 

Lysimaehia clethroides. 
Malva moschata. 
Matricaria inodorum fl. pi. 
Monarda didyma. 
Nieremberiiia rivularis. 
CEiiothera Frazeri. 
CE. macrocarpa. 
Orchis, any hardy species. 
Pseonia (many varieties). 
Papaver nudicaule. 
P. urientale. 
Pentstemon barbatus. 
P, lieterophyllus. 
Phlox Nelsoni. 
P, frond osa. 
P. subulata. 

P. verna (and many othei's). 
Polemonium ceeruleum va- 
riegatum. 
Polygonum cuspidatum. 
P. giganteum. 
Potentilla ambigua. 
P, atropurpurea. 
P. coespitosa. 
P, bybrida plena. 
P. splendens. 

Primula acaulis grandi- 
flora. 
P. cashmeriana. 
P. cortusoides. 
P. denticulata. 



P. farinosa. 
P. intermedia. 
P. ro>ea. 

Pyrethrum uliginosum (and 
many hybrid varieties). 

Eanunculus amplexicaulis. 

R, anemonoides. 

E. speciosus. 

Eudbeckia siDCciosa. 

E. fulgida. 

E. subtomentosa. 

Saponaria ocymoides. 

Saxifragas (in great va- 
riety). 

Schizostyllis coccinea. 

Sedums (in great variety). 

Selagiuella helvetica. 

Sempervivum (in great va- 
riety ) . 

Seaecio pulcher. 

Silene alpestris. 

S, maritima fl. pi. 

Soli da go Virgaurea nana. 

Spiraea Arimcus. 

S, Filipendula fl. pi, 

S. palmata. 

S, venusta. 

Statice incana. 

S. latifolia. 

Trillium graudiflorum. 
Tropseolum polyphyllum. 
T, speciosum. 
Veratrum album, 
V. nigrum. 

Veronica amethystina. 
V. Candida. 

V, longifolia subsessilis. 
V. Lyallii. 
V. orientalis. 
V. Traversii. 



The following is a list of hardy plants which are 
suitable for planting as itndergrowtJis to tall-growing 
kinds, particularly beneath such as die down in 
winter, to secure that the borders may present a 
furnished appearance at all seasons : — 



Alyssum maritimum. 
A. montanum. 
Anteunaria tomento?a. 
Arabis albida variegata. 
Arenaria balearici. 
A. moutana. 
Artemisia frigida. 
Aubrietia Campbellii. 
A. Campbellii variegata. 
Cerastium tomentosum. 
Genista prostrata. 
Helianthum canum. 
H. roseum. 

Lamium maculatum album. 
Leptinella scariosa. 
Litbospermum prostratum. 
Lotus corniculatus. 



Lysimaehia nummularia. 
Mentha Eequieni, 
Phlox procumbens. 
P. reptans. 
Potentilla reptans. 
P. verna. 

Pyrethrum Tcliiatchewii, 
Santolina alpina. 
Saxifragas (many varieties). 
Sedum (many varieties). 
Silene acaulis. 
S. alpestris. 

Thymus Serpyllum varie 

gat us. 
T. lanuginosus. 
Veronica alpestris. 
V. repens. 



Next we require such as the following list of 
evergreen shrubs and other plants which harmonise 
well with herbaceous plants, and which may be used 
sparingly over the entire border, with a view to 
winter effect : — 



Cupre'sus Lawsoniana 
erecta viridis. 

C. L. nana. 

Daboecia polifolia alba. 

D. polifolia atropurptirea. 
Daphne Cneornm. 
Euonymus japonicus varie- 

gatus. 



E. japonicus argentea aurea. 
E. japonicus radicans varie- 
gata. 
Frica herbacea. 
E. cnruea. 

Juniperus hibernica. 
J. liibernica compressa. 
Kalmia latifolia. 



352 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GAEDEXING. 



K. latifolia myrtifolia. 
L. latifolium. 
Pernettya mucronata. 
Eetinospora ericoides. 
"R. obtusa. 
E. flliffera. 



R. argeiitta. 
E. plumosa. 
K. aurea. 

Skiminia japonica. 
Thuja aurea. 
Veronica Traversii. 



The following is a list of plants which are suitable 
for edgings to hardy plants, borders, and beds : — 

Achillea segyptica. 
A. tomentosa. 
Ajuga reptans variegata. 
Alyssum saxatile variega- 

tum. 
Antenuaria dioica. 
A. tomentosa. 
Arabis albida variegata. 
A. lucida variegata. 
Arenaria balearica. 
A. montana. 
Campanula ccespitosa. 
C. carpatica. 
C. alba. 

Cerastium alpinum. 
C. Biebersteini. 
C. tomentosum. 
Coronilla moutana. 
Dactylis glomerata varie- 

eata. 
Festuca glauca. 
Funkia subcordata. 
F. ovata variegat i. 
F. Sieboldii variegata. 
Gentiana acaulis. 



G. verna. 



Hypericum nummularium. 
Lamium maculatum album. 
Lithosperuium prostratum. 
Lysimachia Nummularia. 
L. N. aurea. 
Phlox reptans. 
P. subulata. 
P. alba. 

San toll n a incana. 
Saponaria ocymoides. 
Saxifraga hirta. 
S. rosularis (and many 

others). 
Sedum acre elegans. 
S. corsicum. 
S. glaucum. 

S. Lydium (and many 

others). 
Thymus citriodorus. 
T. aureus. 
T. languinosus. 
T. Serpyllum alba. 
Veronica alpina. 
V. Candida. 
V. rupestris. 



Many other kinds of plants might be mentioned 
that would perhaps do equally well for the purposes 
named as those given ; but the lists are ample for 
all practical purposes. As to variety of summer 
bedding plants which are suitable for herbaceous 
borders, we would simply say, any kinds and any 
quantity that are to spare, so long as the general 
arrangement is not marred by placing them in uni- 
form order over the border. 

ANNUALS AND BIENNIALS. 
Annuals are usually divided into three groups 
or sections, viz., hardy, half-hardy, and tender. 
The latter group, being only suitable for gTeenhouse 
culture, does not come within the scope of these 
papers 

The Hardy section are those that withstand 
the winter in the open ground, and are mainl}^ used 
for the decoration of the flower-beds in early spring, 
and for intermixing with herbaceous perennials in 
the hardy plant-borders. The half-hardy section 
are mainly used in conjunction with summer bedding 
plants, for which nearly all of them are well adapted. 
Both the sections contain many kinds of plants that 
are infinitely superior for flower garden purposes to 
many kinds of bedding plants, and one can only 
attribute their neglect of culture to the fact that 
people do not properly estimate their value, or try 
to do them justice by giving them a similar amotmt 
of attention that ordinary flower-garden plants 



receive. Granted that their season of flowering is 
of short duration, yet when desirable it can, with 
foresight as to successional sowing, thinning, and 
pinching, be prolonged throughout spring, summer, 
and autumn. Such prolongation of flowering hinges 
principally on 

The Time to Sow. — Hardy kinds that are in- 
tended to flower in April and May should be sown in 
September, successional sowings being made under 
hand-lights in January and February, and again in 
April, iMay, and June, these last three sowings, as 
also those in September, being made in the open 
ground. For the September sowing, seicct a warm 
sunny border, dress with vegetable mould or well- 
rotted horse-droppings, and dig deeply ; then di-aw 
shallow drills a foot apart, sow thinly, and cover in 
the seed by hand. Soon as up, thin out the plants 
an inch or two apart, such early thinning being an 
important point in the seedlings growing up sturdily, 
as also for transplanting to their flowering positions 
without serious check from the roots ha\dng got 
matted together wdth other plants. Soon as large 
enough for transplantation, they may be done at any 
time, or be left thinly m the seed-bed till February. 
The successional sowings ad^'ised to be made in 
January and February should either be under the 
protection of a frame or hand-light ; in other respects 
they may be treated as those sown in autumn. 
Spring and summer so^\^Lngs may either be sown in 
exactly the same way, or, where they are to flower ; 
this latter is a plan not to be commended, unless 
ample time can be afforded to look after slugs, which 
are most destructive to annuals till they get an inch 
or two high, when their attacks cease, either through 
the plants being distasteful or too tough. 

Persons who have practised this most general way 
of raising annual flower-seeds, and failed oftener 
than succeeded, would do well to give up the prac- 
tice, and raise the plants either in frames or on a 
warm border, and when transplanting give them 
good space. They may then expect to be rewarded 
by large robust plants that ^\-ill not only keep in a 
flowering state for a longer period, but the flowers 
will be very much finer. If, however, there is not 
convenience for sowing in other places than where 
the plants are to flower, early thinning should be 
insisted on, and the first flowers and points of shoots 
be pinched off to induce the plants to branch ; and 
tall kinds that need stakes should be tied before they 
get out of the perpendicular or get injured by vdnd 
or heavy rains. 

The list of hardy kinds is a large one, but 
there are numbers of but little ser\'ice other than 
from a botanical point of view. Obviously, there- 
fore, for flower-garden purposes these axe of no 



THE FLOWER GAEDEN. 



35o 



value; hence only those kinds that last longest, 
are easily grown, and are the most showy, can 
nave a place in this 

List of Hakdy Annuals. 



Half-Hakdy Annuals. 



Alyssum maritimiiin. 
Bartonia aurea. 
■Calliopsis atrosanguiuea. 
•C. corouata. 
Candytufts (various). 
Clarkia elegans. 
C. elegans rosea, fl. pi. 
<C. integripetala. 
C. integripetala alba. 
'C. pulchella. 
Collinsia alba. 
<J. bicolor. 
C. grandiflora. 
Convolvulus minor (dark 
blue). 

Esclisclioltzia californica. 
E. flore-pleno. 
■Oilia tricolor. 
(t. tricolor rosea spleudens. 
•Oodetia, Lady AlbemarJe. 
G. Duchess of Albany. 
■G. rubicunda. 
Larkspurs (variovis). 
iimnanthus Douglasi, 
L. grandiflora. 
Linaria bipartita splendida. 
Lupins (various). 



Linum grandiflorum cocci- 

neum. 
Mignonette. 
Nasturtiums (various). 
Nemophila atomaria. 
N. insignis. 
N. maculata. 
Sweet Peas (various). 
Sweet Eockets. 
Sanvitalia procumbens. 
S. flore-pleno. 
Sapouaria calabrica. 
Scabious (dwarf double). 
S. sweet. 

Scbizantbus grandiflorus 

oculatus. 
S. pinnatus. 
Silene peudula. 
S. pendula compacta. 
S. pendula ruberrima. 
S. pendula (double). 
Sweet Sultan (purx^le). 
S. Saltan (white). 
S. Sultau (yellow). 
Virginian Stock (red) . 
V. white. 

"Whitlavia grandiflora. 



Half- hardy kinds are indispensable for sum- 
mer display, and, being more germ-ally grown than 
the preceding, their culture is better understood. 
All the kinds require the shelter of a frame or hand- 
light to raise them successfully, and most of them a 
slight hot-bed, such as that which is derived from a 
bed made of two-thirds leaves to one of stable-litter. 
The soil should be light and fine, and the seeds be 
covered very thinly in rows six inches ai)art. The 
finer seeds, such as Amaranthus, are best sown in pots 
and pans and plunged in the bottom-heat. The 
lights or frames should be kept closed till the seeds 
have germinated, when air should be given freely, 
and gradually increased till the plants can be fully 
exposed. Thin out when about an inch high, plant- 
ing the seedlings in some sunny spot, to be protected 
at night with nf^tting or mats, or, if cold frames are 
available, prick them out in these. Stocks, and 
others that make lengthy tap-roots, are the better if 
pricked out on soil resting on a hard bottom, to pre- 
vent the roots descending, as they then make side- 
rootlets that transplant with soil attached — a very 
necessary condition, for Stocks especially, which are 
proverbially bad plants to move. Time of sowing 
must to some extent be dependent on the time they 
are required to flower ; if early, sow in ]March and 
successionally to the middle of JNIay, then a succes- 
sion of flower will be secm-ed from June to 
October. 

List of kinds. — The following are the best and 
most generally useful of this section : — 
23 



Acrocliuium roseum. 
A. album. 

Amarauthus bicolor. 
A. melancholicus ruber. 
Asters (various). 
Balsams. 
Bartonia aurea. 
Brachycome iberidifolia. 
Downingia elegans. 
D. pulchella. 

Gaillardia hybrida grandi- 
flora. 
Gourds. 

Helichrysum (various). 
Ice Plant. 
African Marigolds. 
French Marigolds. 



Matricaria nana aurea 

ciispa. 
Nicotiana aflinis. 
Palava flexuosa. 
Phlox Drummondii 

(various). 
Portulacas (various). 
Salpiglossis. 
Stock, German. 
S., Ten- week, 
S., Intermediate. 
S., East Lothian. 
Tagetes signata pumi'.a. 
Tropoeolum canariense. 
Tropacolum Lobbianiim. 
Zinnia elegans. 



Biennials. — These, as the word implies, do not 
flower the first year of sowing ; but this constitutes 
almost the whole of the difference in their culture 
and that of Annuals. All the kinds are hardy ; at 
least hardy enough to withstand our ordinary 
winters. Brompton Stocks, Wallflowers, and Rockets 
sometimes succumb; but a little protection, in the 
shape of leaves or litter, when the weather is 
exceptionally severe, will save them. 

For most districts, the best time to sow the whole 
of the kinds is about midsummer. Select a well- 
drained border, with a sunny exposure, but sheltered 
from east and north winds. Prepare the soil by 
digging deeply and applying a dressing of leaf- 
mould ; then draw drills six to nine inches asunder, 
sow, and cover with soil to a depth of half-an-inch, 
and the operation is complete. As soon as the plants 
are large enough to be thinned out, the surplus 
should be afforded the same favourable position as 
the seed-bed. The time to permanently transplant 
varies from September to February; for, though 
they may do well transplanted in autumn when the 
plants are thus isolated, there is a risk of their 
being destroyed by vermin or frost ; hence we prefer 
to leave them together till February when, if needs 
be, they can be protected. 

Li st. — The following are the most generally use- 
ful kinds : — 



Anchiisa italica. 
Canterbury BeHs. 
Catananche bicolor. 
C. coernlea. 
Foxgloves. 
French Honeysuckle 

and white. 
Honesty. 



rad 



T-^dian Pinkp. 
Peutstemons. 
i^weet Eockets. 
Sweet Scabious. 
Brompton Stock. 
Sweet Williams. 
Wallflowers. 



Where to Plant and How to Arrange. — 

Having enumerated all the kinds that w^e have 
proved effective in various positions, it only remains 
to indicate such positions, of course premising that 
the soil is of a lightish nature, deeply dug and well 
manured. The most appropriate place for most of 
the kinds are the hardy herbaceous borders, where 
they should be planted in clumps of from three to 



3-54 



CASSELKS POPULAR GAEDEXIXG. 



nine plants in each, according to the size, height, 
and spread of plants, the dwarfer growers being 
near the front and the taller behind, and disposed as 
to colour after the strictest contrasting rnle, that is, 
scarlet, yellow, blue, white, and so on. Harmony of 
colouring is an utter impossibility in mixed borders, 
and we have long since given up the attempt to 
attain it. Dwarf annuals, such as Virginian Stocks, 
Mignonette, and Saponaria calabrica are excellent 
for filling out the front parts of such borders, and do 
first-rate so^ti where they are to flower. Stocks, 
Asters, Phlox Drummondii, Zinnias, and Everlast- 
ings make excellent beds in themselves, and they 
also look wonderfully well planted in straight lines 
in long borders as follows : a back line of Sweet 
Peas, then Everlastings, next Lupins, next Zinnias, 
next tall Asters, then Stocks and Phlox Drummondii 
alternated, the Phlox forming a cushion for the 
Stocks and dwarf Asters that are planted as a mar- 
ginal or front row. 

There are some few that make excellent bedding 
plants, and may be requisitioned for that purpose 
when ordinary bedders are likely to run short. 
These are Brachycome iberidifolia, Sanvitalia pro- 
cumbens, Xemophilia insignis, the Annual Chrysan- 
themimis, Portulacas, Collinsia bicolor, Phlox Drum- 
mondii, Clintonia pulchella, and the African and 
French Marigolds. Probably there are no other 
flower-garden plants that receive so little cultural 
attention as do the major portion of Annuals, and a 
w'ord of advice on this score is therefore necessary ; 
and that is, give them their due proportion of care 
as to soil, thinning, tpng, staking, mulching, and 
^^gilance anent the attacks of grubs and slugs, and 
they will reward such attention by proving — all 
points considered — at least equal, both in length of 
season and quality, to any other garden flowers. 



THE CUCUMBEE. 

Bx William Earlet. 



Cucumber {Cacumis sativus). French, Con- 
comhre ; German, Gurke ; Spanish, Cchomhro. — The 
culture of the Cucumber has interested amateur and 
practical growers greatly from the earliest period of 
its introduction down to and including the present 
time. With the generalitj' of cultivators, frame 
culture is practised, owing to the fact that glass 
structures are generally expensive to erect and main- 
tain. For market purposes, and where the con- 
sumption is large, the latter is, however, to be pre- 
ferred, if not essential. 

Though a native of the East Indies, the several 
sub-A'arieties obtained by cross-fertilisation, &:c., 
down to the Gherkin, a sbort prickly form grown in 



the open fields, will thrive more or less in a lower 
degree of warmth than is generally surmised. Even 
" frame " Cucumbers will succeed in green-houses 
during the summer months, as will certain kinds 
of moderate length and quality upon ridges out of 
doors, having the assistance of a little bottom heat 
and hand-lights only, to give them an early and free 
start into growth. 

Though, however, it is comparatively easy to grow 
Cucumbers during the summer months, or fi-om the 
month of May to September, inclusive, much care 
and attention is requisite to succeed with them 
throughout the winter months and in the very early 
spring. At these seasons an insufiiciency of light 
and an excess of moisture are the chief evils to be 
guarded against. Winter Cucumbers have now, 
however, become so much a necessity to many 
growers, that special instructions will be given for 
their culture ; but as the fi-ame culture of the Cu- 
cumber is really within reach of all, we will give 
full instructions in regard to them fii'st. 

The Preparation of the Materials and 
Sowing of the Seeds. — To secure a good early 
crop of fi'uit, the necessary materials should be got 
together towards the end of the month of Januarj" 
in each year. Owing to the small amount of space 
actually needed to raise seedlings in, a one-light 
frame will be amply large enough. The fermenting 
materials for this frame must be thoroughly sweet- 
ened by the process of successional fermentations, by 
repeated turnings over, so that no rank steam can 
possibly be given off from them subsequently. The 
bed for this one-light must be five feet high when 
first packed up, and exceed the length and width of 
the frame by four inches on all sides. Linings must 
next be packed against this bed all roimd, some 
eighteen inches to two feet in width, and be so 
brought up at the top as to cover the outer wood- 
work of the frame on all sides. Such heat as thus 
penetrates through the woodwork of the frame will 
have a needful drying effect on the atmosphere 
within : as, given the needful amount of artificial 
warmth, the greatest difficulty subsequently will be to 
keep down excessive steam, or atmospheric moisture. 
By making up this bed, with linings, early in the month 
of February, letting it heat well with the sash on, but 
with air given freely back and front, the heat will 
be so moderated early in the same month also, that 
seeds may be sown in pots and placed therein. Hence, 
by the time the young jDlants are through the groimd, 
a wann pure atmosphere will exist, which by air- 
giving, &-C., should be a mean of about 78*^ or SO*^' bv 
day, and not less than 74'^ by night. A layer of hay. 
over which mats may be placed, will insure the 
necessary degree of warmth by night, though a very 



THE CUCUMBER. 



355 



small aperture to give egress to excessive internal 
moisture or steam must be given at the liighest part 
of the frame at the back. 

The seeds should be sown three or four each 
ia two or more 60-sized pots, wherein ample 
drainage must De nrst placed, then a layer of moss, 
and filled with a finely-sifted loamy soil and leaf- 
mould in equal quantities. Press the soil somewhat 
firmly, and do not water it until it becomes mode- 
rately dry after the seeds have been sown a day or 
two. If too much moisture be permitted them at 
first, they are liable to decay ere germination is com- 
pleted. So soon as the young plants have pushed 
through the ground, and show the third, or first 
rough leaf, pot them off into other similar pots and 
soil, placing two at two opposite sides in each pot. 
By pennitting the young plants to touch the sides of 
the pots, they are less likely to decay than when 
placed centrally in mid-soil, for they are tender at 
this season of the year, and very liable to injury 
from steam, &c. 

Meanwhile, and while these operations are pro- 
ceeding to raise young plants and grow them into 
planting-out size, a larger heap of stable dung only, or 
a half-and-half of stable dung and tree-leaves, should 
be preparing, and being worked into what is called 
by gardeners a sweet state ; that is, all the rank steam 
and burning heat should be got out of it. As this is 
of vital importance we will, at the risk of some 
repetition, repeat the processes taken to insure a 
sweet and dui'able warmth in what is called the 
bed. 

As, in process of fermentation, rank steam is 
given off, the manure must be first purified and 
subdued by the simple means of throwing the 
whole of the materials up together into a conical 
heap. So soon as they become warm throughout 
and give off steam freely, they must be again turned 
over. Commence at one side of the heap, removing 
the outer sides ; make a base for the heap of the 
outsides, and so turn all over into the new heap, 
keeping the existing centre on the outer side, and 
the sides in the middle. Shake every forkful well, 
so as to separate the materials, building it up in 
conical or lidge form. This should be done three 
or more times at the least ; after which measure 
out a space upon a warm sheltered aspect facing 
the south, similar in shape to the frame which 
is to be used, but from four inches to a foot 
wider and longer than the actual size of the 
frame. Build thereon a square bed, which should be 
thi'ee or four feet high at the back, and one foot less 
in height at the front, "^^'hen it is built, having 
been trodden down in process so as to make the 
materials moderately firm, put the frame upon it 
facing south, covering it over with the sashes. Then 



place a lining of the same materials up against the 
bed, about fourteen to sixteen inches wide all around, 
fashioning it nearly similarly to the bed. Permit all 
to remain thus with the sashes shut down close until 
the inside of the frame is full of steam; then open it, 
lightly fork up the inside of the bed, and replace the 
sashes, giving a little air at the back only. Xow 
place more material upon the outer lining, bringing 
it up to within half a foot of the top of the frame all 
around. Later on in the season the lining may be 
dispensed with — at least, until the heat within the 
bed subsides, when it may be added to give an addi- 
tional fillip to the declining warmth within the frame. 

Every precaution must be taken to build the bed 
upon the most sunny site possible, especially at so 
early a period of the year when so little sunshine 
exists. It must also occupy a space that is not 
liable to the inroad of superficial storm- water. In 
low-lying gardens, and where any doubt exists in 
this respect, it is desirable to first lay upon the 
ground-surface a base for the bed, consisting of old 
wooden blocks or faggots, arranged in neat shape 
and the exact size of the bed. A thick layer of 
straw, even where the latter is not needful, will 
besides always prove an advantage, even upon sites 
that are somewhat elevated and habitually dry. 

"Well elevate the frame at the back, in such 
manner as to insure that all probable sunshine shall 
pervade as far as possible every part within. 

When the heat within the frame falls to a mean 
of about 90'', place another layer of material all 
around the insides of the frame, tread it down 
somewhat firmly in such a manner as to fix it tightly 
against the sides of the frame, and underneath its 
lower edges, if possible, in view of keeping out any 
steam, which might otherwise rush in that way from 
the outer linings. 

The next process is to put a mound of suitable soO. 
under the centre of each sash. 

Should there be any doubt as to the regularity of 
the heat within the bed, and any possibility that it 
may exceed the mean given as a safeguard, a good 
square turf from pasture-land might be placed over 
the surface of the bed first, upon wliich the mound of 
suitable soil might be put. 

Planting Out. — The best soil for Cucumbers is 
one consisting of decayed pasture turfs two parts, 
well broken up ; one part fine, slightly stiff, yellow 
loam, and one part thoroughly rotted leaf-mould 
and stable maniu'e, all well intermixed. Place this 
mound of compost lightly in conical form \ip to 
within six inches of the glass, and await a day or 
two for all to become warmed through. At which 
time, should the internal heat not exceed 85°, the 
plants may be planted. 



256 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXIXG. 



Plants fit for planting out should have two or 
three rough leaves, or such as follow the two 
original seed-lobes. They should have just the 
point of the young shoot pinched out beyond the 
second rough leaf, and if permitted to form lateral 
-hoots, however undefined subsequently-, so much the 
better. Precisely similar treatment of the seeds will 
suit huuse culture, kc. Turn the plant out of the pot 
carefully, remove the crock at the bottom of the mould, 
make a deep hole in the centre of the mound, and place 
th3 plant therein, drawing the soil up around the roots, 
pressing it somewhat finnly ; then huxy the stem of 
the plant up to within an inch or two of the lower 
leaves. Shade, if the season is so advanced as to 
need it, for a day or two : give air in moderation 
when the weather is fine. Insert a thin wedge under 
the back of the sash during the night, allowing a 
space of about a quarter of . an inch only for egi'ess 
of all excess of steam, and cover the sashes over with 
hay or sti^aw, kept in place by means of a mat over 
all, so as to insure a night temperatui-e of 70°. Take 
care to remove this covering at the approach of day- 
liglit, that no light be lost. With fine weather, 
S}-mptoms of growth in the plant, not too much 
steam, and a knowledge that the mound of soil does 
not contain an excess of latent moisture, give to 
1 he roots of the plant a little tepid water about the 
eighth day after planting. 

The internal heat must in future be " kej)t up 
by renovating the linings around the outer sides. 
One portion only should be renovated at a time — 
say the front lining, a side one, or the back. A store 
of material must be kept for this purpose, and the 
operation must be done as quickly as possible, 
choosing the early part of a fin.e day upon which to 
do it. The existing lining simply requires to be 
turned over, adding a little fresh material throughout 
in process of turning. Should any portion of the old 
lining have become dry in process of fermentation, 
damp it with a rosed water-pot. 

In a few weeks the plants will be making progi'ess. 
As a result, sundry roots will protrude through the 
mound of soil. Pkice another layer of prepared 
compost over all, and well up around the collar of 
each plant. At the samq, time lights up the 
material around the outer sides of the mounds of 
soil to aid heat in ascending. This process of mould- 
iag up must be repeated as needed, until finally the 
whole internal surface of the bed, from plant to 
woodwork of the frame, is one mass of such. Plant- 
growth will have now advanced; sunlight gnd the 
outer temperature will have greatly increased ; water- 
ings will have to be more frequent, good root-soakings 
being required once a week; and daily between 3 and 
4 o'clock p.m,' the whole internal surfaces — plants, 
bed, frame-sides, (Src— should be sprinkled over and 



shut up so closely that air cannot gain ingress. By 
this means the internal heat may rise to 90°, 95^, or 
even 100**. Again give a little air at the back about 
6 p.m. Increase it so soon as the influence of the 
sun is felt within next morning, still increasing it as 
the morniag wears into mid-day, in such manner that 
the internal heat be maintained at 85*^ for the 
maximum, but do not let it fall below 68*^ as a 
minimum. 

Culture in Glass-houses. — The culture of 
the Cucumber in glass-houses, whether in summer 
or in winter, is more simple and easy, and involves 
less trouble than their culture in frames. Cucum- 
ber-houses should always be abundantly heated, 
the hot-wat€r pipes being in excess of any demand 
likely to be made on them. Tanks used to be 
a favomite means of furnishing bottom and also 
affording surface heat. These answer well when 
covered over so that a di-y or a moist heat may be 
commanded at will. In growing winter Cuciunbers 
a dryish atmosphere is necessary, and shorter vaiieties 
are mostly grown at that season, such as Sion House, 
Telegraph, and Monroe's Duke of Edinburgh. 
Bottom heat is also essential to winter, and as bene- 
ficial to general house cultui-e as for fi-ames. Indeed, 
for winter cultm'e it is most important that an un- 
fluctuating bottom heat of about 80° be maintained. 
This is best secured by the means of hot-water pipes 
running through a space beneath the beds of s<-jil 
wherein the plants have their roots. Flues properly 
heated will suffice, but the above are best. Xeither 
must be in immediate contact with the soil, however, 
but should occupy a chamber beneath it, A convenient 
method is to have iron or wooden fi'amework elevated 
about six inches above the pipes or flue, upon which 
rough materials are first placed, and subsequently the 
soil. The mound of soil ia this latter instance must be 
deeper, and it may be richer than such as is used for 
framework. Unlike the latter, it has not a base of 
]nanure below wherein the roots extend and feed 
eventually. If. therefore, it be not of good depth or 
bulk, it will eventually, when the roots are filling the 
soil-space, not afford permanency of food-supply for 
advancement. In placing the soil in the side pits 
press it down somewhat firmly, but place a conical 
mound up from it near to the glass» lightly, whereon 
and wherein to plant the young plants out. By these 
means more and more soil can be added, as the roots 
are seen to permeate it and to extend through it. 

The advantages attached to house culture, especi- 
ally during adverse seasons of the year, consist of 
the fact that a damp base with its steam emanation, 
and with no power of drying excess of moisture 
excepting with sunshine, as %^T.th frame culture, does 
not exist. Hence root wateiings and surface spiink- 



! 



THE CUCUMBER. 



357' 



j lings, and their subsequent irying by artificial heat, 
so highly refreshing, are accorded, and to their last- 
ing benefit. 

The drying tendency which the pipes have in the 
sunken chamber below the roots must not, however, 
be overlooked, and root waterings of a free and 
copious natm-e must be given periodically to insure 
that proper moistui'e exists. In connection with 
these a little additional heat may always be given ad- 
vantageously. Xor should the fact be overlooked that 
over-head syringings at proper seasons may also be 
far more copious. Indeed, they must be, as a 
counter-tendency to the di'^-ness of the artificially- 
heated atmosphere. 

AVhen Cucumber plants grow and fruit freely, 
periodical attention is requisite in regard to ^Jruning 
and stopping. So soon as the shoots start strongly 
into growth, in whatever position, pinch off their 
points : the result will be that sundry young lateral 
or side shoots will form. It is at the axils of the 
first or second leaf upon these laterals that the 
female flower, or fruit-bearer, will be formed. Early 
in the season it is an old practice to procure a 
matured male flower ; remove the outer petals when 
dry, and insert it just within the fully-expanded 
female flower, the latter being always conspicuous 
by having the miniature Cucumber form for a foot- 
stalk. The practice is, however, seldom now adopted, 
imless in the cultiu"e of sorts for seeds. 

So soon as the young Cucumbers are seen upon the 
lateral shoots, pinch off their points also at one leaf 
beyond them. Eventually, whether frame or house- 
grown, the plants will have grown so freely as to 
require periodically thinning out. All old leaves 
should be removed so soon as they show symptoms 
of decaying, unless a fruit be at the axil of any, 
when it is not desirable to do so — bearing this fact 
in mind also at such times as leaves become too 
numerous and densely grown together, when thin- 
ning them out will be often necessary. Remove at 
such time any aged long portions of the vines having 
no fruits attached, and try to induce relays of young 
shoots from as near to the base of the plants as 
possible. When plants have been in bearing some 
time, and immediately after such a pruning, it will 
be a great aid to them to give the soil within the 
frame a thin mulching with rich compost. An 
occasional top-dressing with dung or some of the 
many artificial manures, with a good manurial water- 
ing, will also prove advantageous. These are es- 
pecially useful to such structures as are kept rather 
too dr^' for Cucumbers, for the sake of other plants. 

A very important consideration connected with the 
bearing plants, and one not generally attended to 
as it should be, is that of removing from the plants 
all young Cucumbers so soon as they attain to full 



size. To permit them to remain upon the ^dnes after 
this stage has been reached is to doubly tax the 
plants, whilst the quality of the produce is also 
materially lowered. The fruits keep admirably in 
water, especially if a smaU portion of the stalk end 
be removed occasionally. 

The insects which infest Cucumbers comprise red 
spider, thrips, and aphis. Insufficiency of moisture 
often gives birth to the two former. Everv en- 
deavour should be made to resuscitate health in view 
of throwing them off ; dusting with flowers of sul- 
phur for the former, and fumigating for the two 
last, being efficacious. 

Mildew, a parasitical growth, sometimes infests 
the leaf surface during the winter months even in 
structures heated by artificial means, and occiu's at 
times in connection with frame culture dming 
cloudy weather in summer. An excess of atmos- 
pheric moisture, with too little warmth, is the cause, 
and simply but slightly dusting all infected parts 
over with flowers of srdphur the remedy. 

Culture of the Cucumber in the Open 

Air. — Outdoor or field culture is somewhat exten- 
sively followed by market-garden farmers, being the 
practice followed to produce the masses of inferior 
produce, Gherkins, ifcc, which are so prominent a 
feature in autumnul town markets. 

The plan employed is to deeply and well work and 
manure the ground. Subsequently, very early in the 
year, single but thick rows of rye are sown across the 
space whereon field Cucumbers are to be grown, at 
distances of about twelve feet apart. These eventu- 
ally grow up so as to screen the young plants from 
the cold, being sown as a rule from north to south- 
ward. About the first week in the month of May 
the soil is again freshly worked up, and during fine 
weather the seeds are sown in about three rows, at 
about six or eight inches asunder in the rows, between 
each two rows of rye. "When the yoimg plants push 
through the ground they are carefully hoed amongst, 
similar attention being given as requii-ed throughoiu 
the summer ; the only other attention they require 
being the leading of main shoots into vacant spaces 
around, and removing the fruit when of proper 
size. 

Ridge Cucumbers consist of intermediate forms, 
obtained by intercrossing tender frame varieties 
and the hardy form of Gherkin. They comprise a 
class which can be cultivated by all who do not 
possess glass structures, pits, or frames. 

The ridge, or mound, is formed by first placing 
fermenting materials enough together in a long 
narrow heap so as to give a moderate quantity of 
heat ; the most convenient and best plan being to 
take out a portion of the soil in any given space 



358 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



from cig-ht to twelve inclies in depth, and from 
three to four feet in width. The length not to be less 
than four feet, and as much more as can be made 
up with existing materials and extent of crop 
required. When the soil is being taken out from 
the trench, lay it in equal quantities on both sides, 
and place the fermenting materials therein, to a 
depth of about three feet. These materials may 
consist of all kinds of garden clippings, sweepings, 
and gleanings collected together in process of 
cleaning up, even to hedge and ditch clippings, &c., 
and the green grass collected in process of lawn- 
mowing, &c. Mix all up together well. Make the 
top somewhat flat, and cover the sides over, with the 
soil previously taken from the trench. Place a long- 
stick in the centre of the mound, and when it is 
perceived, by drawing this stick out and feeling it, 
that the materials are heating, in process of fer- 
mentation, procure good rich, fibrous, yellow loam, 
add to it about one-third of rotten manure, mixing 
both together, and place a ridge of it along the top 
of this mound. Either sow seeds at once along the 
apex of this ridge, or, having procui-ed plants, plant 
them along the centre of the mound, at equal 
distances of about twelve or fifteen inches apart. 
It is an excellent aid, in both cases, to place hand- 
lights or bell-glasses over them for a few weeks, 
giving a moderate quantity of air to the plants so 
soon as they exist beneath. 

To ascertain whether the heat is likely to be in 
excess of what may be actually required, as 
occasionally during the first two or three weeks it 
may be, test-sticks must still be maintained within 
it, which should be withdrawn and felt occasionally. 
If at any time they become very warm, make holes 
in the mounds with a large stake, leaving them open 
when made, in such manner that the excess of heat 
can rush out through them. By these means, injury 
therefrom to the young growing roots is not likely 
to occur. Growers who cannot tell from moderate 
experience how warm mounds are by this sim.ple 
means, may make a similar hole, about the centre of 
the mound, insert therein a thermometer, cover it 
over, and ascertain in a few hours subsequently what 
amount of warmth it registers. Should this exceed 
100'', it will be necessary to subdue it by means of 
the holes as suggested. When it does not exceed this, 
the internal heat is not likely to become too great. 

When seeds are sown in the ridge, the young plants 
will, so soon as they have formed three or four rough 
leaves, need "stopping," that is, pinching out the 
points just beyond the third or fourth rough leaf. 
This will induce them to ''branch out," or form 
duplicate young shoots, in lieu of the one only 
existing previously. 

As growth advances, give more and more air to 



hand-lights, or bell-glasses, until these are he. 
coming moderately filled with the growths, then 
elevate them upon bricks, in such manner as to per- 
mit the }'oung shoots to grow out under and beyond 
them, pegging them down in place as they extend. 
At this juncture give root watei'ings. When growth 
is seen to be free and to have extended beyond 
these sheltering hand-lights, remove them bodily, 
choosing a fine warm period for the purpose, and 
during the afternoon of any chosen day. Should the 
sunshine be very powerful on the following days, 
place a few tree-branches for shade over such parts 
of each plant as previously grew under hand-lights, 
to secure them from injury thereby. During all 
subsequent dry weather periods give root waterings, 
as may be deemed expedient, so as to insure a free 
and constant supply of moisture. ^ Occasionally pinch 
back any strong growths, needful to insm-e fruiting 
laterals, and pinch back the point of each lateral at 
one leaf, beyond where all female flowers are seen to 
exist. As the plants progress in growth, add a little 
fresh soil and manui-e in equal parts to the surface 
of the ridge, in such manner that an occasional joint, 
or the axil of a leaf upon a matured branch, be 
buried therein. By this means roots will be induced 
to form thereon, to the general benefit of each plant, 
and its fruit-bearing capacity. S^-ringe the leaves 
over morning and evening dming dry arid weather, 
after once they are well established, taking care to 
search among the leaves, Sec, often, to ascertain 
what fruits exist, in view of removing them at the 
earliest moment possible, when of sufiicient size ; to 
permit them to remain upon the plants one day 
beyond, is to unduly tax the latter, to the depriva- 
tion of future fruits and permanent health. 

The best varieties, of which many exist, are : — 
Abbott's Prolific, Cuthill's Black Spine, Dread- 
nought, Carter's Model, Telegraph (Rollinson's) , and 
Tender and True. For outdoor ridge-work, Im- 
proved Stockwood Long Ridge, Incomparable Ridge, 
and Long Prickly. 



CUCUMBER-GROWING BY EXPRESS. 
By D. T. Fish. 
This is the latest and newest departure in the cul- 
ture of the Cucumber ; and as it is the speediest, it 
is also likely to become the most popular and profit- 
able mode of production. Hence, it is needful to 
describe it in a work of this kind by one who 
has reduced it to successful practice. In brief, as 
the title implies, it is a fast mode of production. 
This, of itself, is a high recommendation, for the 
quality of Cucumbers, like that of Lettuces, is 
largely dependent on the rate of growth. The faster 
in reason they can cover the space between the start 
and the finish, the sweeter, more crisp, and tender 



THE CUCUMBER. 



359 



the produce. Any check to growth develops tough- 
ness or bitterness in the produce. Besides, these 
annual plants have no intrinsic value in themselves, 
such as choice Heaths, Rhododendrons, or other stove 
or greenhouse plants ; Cucumbers are grown simply 
and only for a certain amount of produce. That of 
first-rate quality, in the shortest time, is therefore 
all that the cultivator has to trouble about : the 
Lettuce being well hearted up and cut, the stump is 
relegated to the rubbish-heap ;' and so in a measure 
with Cucumber plants. After yielding a dozen, 
fifty, or a hundred fruits, the plants are useless, 
and can be cleared away to make room for others. 
Should the plants even break down under express 
culture after a dozen or a score of crops, the quick 
retiirns, as heavy in quantity as superb in quality, 
would still be in favour of express culture ; but 
unless cropped to excess or otherwise mismanaged, the 
plants do not break down. On the contrary, the 
faster they grow and the heavier the crop of fruits 
they set and swell, the more vigorous the plants 
gi'ow. The plants throw off produce as an athlete 
muscular vigour, gaining more strength with each 
display of agility or force. 

Nor is the secret of the apparently inexhaustible 
supply of vital and productive force far to seek. 
Three conditions are needful to insure success 
in the express mode of growing Cucumber^. 
These are light, heat, and moisture. The first 
is the source of strength ; the second, the cause 
of motion ; the third, the means of keeping the 
plant fully supplied with all it needs. Experienced 
cultivators, as well as novices, will observe that one 
thing that is mostly made so much of by cultivators 
is conspicuous "by its absence, that is, air. Cucumber- 
growers by express look upon air with suspicion. 
As mostly applied, it wastes time as well as heat and 
moisture, hinders growth, and puts a drag on the 
wheels of rapid production. Hence, they simply 
ignore it. No doubt air will reach Cucumbers or 
other plants without our aid, and in spite of our 
attempts to hinder it. But that is quite a different 
matter to the building and warming of Cucumber- 
houses, and taking means to semi-saturate the air of 
the same by artificial means, and then sweeping out 
all these aids to growth by the in-rush of the ex- 
ternal air through open ventilators. This is a folly 
that the express Cucumber-grower declines to be 
guilty of. 

Fully exposed to the light. Cucumber plants will 
bear a temperature of 120° with impunity. With 
the atmosphere at saturation the fruit and plants 
will grow like weeds in a temperature ranging from 
90" to 120''. The expression must not be understood 
to mean that tbe plants will become weedy : quite the 
contrary. Fully exposed to the light in a semi- 



saturated atmosphere, with the roots fully fed with 
solid or liquid manure, the plants continue in the 
most robust vigour, under these forcing conditions. 
The leaves are full of vigour, verdure, and sub- 
stance ; the soil filled with a perfect network of 
roots, overflowing the root-runs into the moist air 
so rapidly as to need top-dressing to cover them at 
least once a week or ten days. This incessant top- 
dressing with solid compost, and root-feeding with 
sewage or manure water, is one of the secrets of suc- 
cess in the express culture of the Cucumber. Hence, 
the importance of a thoroughly drained basis and a 
porous bottom of rough, turfy loam, to make sure of 
the rapid escape of water, and prevent the possibility 
of stagnation. Anything like sourness of root-run 
proves fatal to this mode of culture. 

The tops should also be gone over daily ; each 
shoot stopped at the joint showing fruit, and so on 
continually. The next leaf formed will have one or 
more fruit in its embryo, every one of which will 
swell under proper management. 

All fruit should be cut when about three-quarters 
grown. It is the later development of the fruit, and 
the effort to form and ripen seeds, that proves most 
exhausting to the plant. During the earlier stages 
of the growth of Cucumbers, they drain the plants of 
but little strength, and no sooner is one removed 
than the growing strength seems to run at once into 
the new channels of successive Cucumbers. Hence, 
the Cucumbers should be cut daily, or at the least 
three times a week. After each cutting, one can 
almost see the succession fruit grow ; and the weight 
of the produce may be doubled, as well as its quality 
kept up to the highest standard, by the simple and 
safe practice of early cutting. 

No fruit must be kept for seed under this system, 
for two very good reasons : the first, which seems* 
suflBcient, viz., that little or no seed will be formed or 
ripened under express culture ; the second is, that 
one Cucumber left for seed will probably rob the 
cultivator of at least fifty edible Cucumbers of the 
highest quality. 

As this system develops an enormous amount of 
root force and power, it is not needful to sacrifice 
all this, even should the plant, after six months or 
more of bearing, show signs of exhaustion or 
distress. They may be cut back, more or less, as 
their condition may seem to require, and with 
liberal top dressings, and a continuance of all the 
express modes of forcing growth, the old plants 
will break into new vigour, and go on bearing even 
more plentifully than before. 

Finally, the express system is the only remedy 
and antidote yet discovered for the Cucumber 
disease. The latter can be grown out and kept out 
by express treatment when all other methods have 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



failed, and hence it is well worthy of a trial hy all 
who have suffered from this mysterious — and other- 
wise incurable — malady. 

Neither need any amateurs or small gardeners 
hesitate to adopt the express culture of the 
Cucumber, because of their limited means or 
areas. In summer the whole practice may be best 
described as a simple method of bottling- up and 
utilising sunbeams. Every glass-house, however 
small, if fairly well built, is a trap set to catch 
and hold these ; and these alone, in favourable 
weather, combined ^dth night coverings, would 
render the express culture of the Cucumber possible 
and fairly successful from May to October. Artificial 
heat and clear light render it possible at all seasons. 
But, just as all express trains do not run at the same 
speed, so in express Cucumber growing, the tempera- 
ture and speed may vary as v>ddely as from 75'' 
to 120° ; and with a mean of 90^ many of the 
advantages of the system may be reaped, with 
less risk, perhaps, but in much longer time, than at 
higher temperatures. The principles are the same in 
each mode of express culture, though the speed may 
vary. These principles are incessant growth, per- 
petual bearing in a close semi-saturated atmosphere, 
a high temperature, full exposure to light, no checks 
nor exhaustion from any want of food or water at 
the roots, nor from over-bearing- or seed-forming or 
ripening. 

For this mode of culture plants raised from cuttings 
are to be preferred to those raised from seeds. Not 
only do they come into bearing much sooner, but 
they continue far more fertile. Under the high 
temperature and moist atmosphere needful to make 
the most and best of express culture in the least time, 
many of the branches near the ground will put forth 
roots. These cut off and planted seldom look behind 
them. 

But failing these natural layers or cuttings, no 
plant roots more readily than Cucumber from cut- 
tings of the ordinary kind. Growing shoots with 
one or two joints placed in the moist soil, pui'e sand, 
or blocked pots or bottles of water, damp moss or 
cocoa-fibre refuse, will be sufficiently well rooted to 
plant out in their fruiting quarters within a week or 
ten days of the time of insertion, and these will pro- 
ceed to show and swell off Cucumbers at once, and will 
continue in bearing so long as desired. The pro- 
pagation of Cucumbers by cuttings hastens produc- 
tion, and augments their fertility. Almost before 
seedlings have reached to the stage of rough or 
proper leafage, cuttings are showing or even swell- 
ing several fruits. This saving of time would be 
important under any system, but is of course still 
more so under express culture, as this renders the 
production of seed almost impossible. 



GEEEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 

By William Hugh Gower. 



Camellia. — The species of this well-known and 
highly popular genus of plants are natives of China 
and Japan, where they are found in a wild state, but 
have long been carefully tended in gardens by the 
lovers of horticulture in those countries. In Chinese 
paintings their chief favourites take a prominent 
position, the three principal being the Camellia, 
Chrysanthemum, and Abutilon. 

Camellias are perfectly hardy in England, but as 
the flowers open in the early spring months their 
beauty as border plants is much deterioi-ated by wind 
and wet. On this account they are usually grown in 
the green-house, where, with their large symmetrical 
flowers and glossy dark green leaves, they form 
splendid ornaments during the dull months of 
winter. 

CamcUia japonka was the first kind introduced 
to Europe, and although the flowers of this species 
are only single red, it was considered a great 
acquisition at the time, which was in the year 1739 ; 
it is now entirely discarded, except for the purjDOse 
of grafting or inarching the better kinds upon. 

Soon after the single red a double white form was 
introduced, which stands in good repute at the 
present time, and is kno"mi in gardens as the " old 
double white," or Alhn plena ; and after this several 
other double forms were brought to this country, 
showing that the almond-eyed gardeners of the 
Celestial Empire had long been busy with the 
improvement of the Camellia. So great a favourite 
has the plant become, and European gardeners 
have so persistently followed up the work com- 
menced by the Chinese and Japanese, that the 
varieties now in cultivation in this country are very 
numerous. 

In large establishments a house is frequently 
devoted to the cultivation of the Camellia, and under 
such conditions the plants are seen to the best 
advantage, because so treated the atmosphere and 
temperature can be regulated to suit theia^ require- 
ments, both in the growing and flowering stages. 
Nevertheless, it is not essential to good development, 
for with ordinary care good plants and an abundant 
crop of flowers can be obtained in a mixed collection 
of green-house plants. 

Camellias thrive in either peat or loam, or in a 
mixture of both, and also in leaf mould ; this latter 
soil is usually adopted by the Belgian gardeners, who 
use leaf mould as a substitute for peat, but the 
plants when imported to this country do not thrive 
well in it. 

For growing Camellias quickly into fair-sized 
plants without a thought of flowers, we ad-^dse them 



GREEN-KOUSE PLANTS. 



361 



to be potted in peat, as it encourages a more rapid 
growth; but where short-jointed wood and a plenti- 
ful supply of flowers is the object in view, use 
about equal parts of peat and good turfy loam, 
with the addition of a little sharp sand. We have 



young growths begin to start, even if all the flowers 
should not have fallen oif . Many practise a system 
of potting just as the plants have finished making 
their wood, but we are convinced from experience 
that if fresh soil is necessary for a plant, it must be 




Double Camellia (Mathotiana). 



seen these plants grown in loam pure and simple ; 
but although under this treatment an abundant 
crop of flowers are produced, the leaves to a great 
extent lose their rich colouring, and become a sickly 
yellow. 

These plants will live and thrive for several years 
in the same pots ; a little top-dressing, however, 
should be given in the spring of each year. But when 
re-potting is necessary, let it be done before the 



most advantageous just at the time nature calls 
upon it to seek for fresh food, in order to develop 
new wood and increase its dimensions. 

In re-potting, avoid shifting into over-large pots ; 
drain the pots well, and press the new soil down 
very firm. Camellias will not root with loose 
soil. 

When growth commences, a closer and moister 
atmosphere is of great advantage to the Camellia; 



362 



CASSELL'S POPULAE GARDENING. 



but when standing in a mixed collection of plants, 
the special requirements of one class cannot be 
studied to the detriment of others. It, however, 
is always possible to find some jDart of a house which 
<!an be kept a little closer than another ; and in such 
a position the Camellias should be placed. When 
^•rowth is finished, and the wood and leaves have 
become somewhat hardened, they may be removed 
TO the open air, and placed in such a manner as to 
prevent worms getting into the pots : here they may 
remain until autumn. After removing Camellias 
into their winter quarters, careful watering is very 
necessary in order to prevent the buds from falling ; 
by careful watering we mean, the keeping the soil 
in such a happy medium, that the wood shall not 
shrivel through drought, nor the roots suffer from 
flooding; if either condition should occur, the result 
will be the premature falling of the buds. A free 
■circulation of air is also necessary to insure good 
development of the flowers. 

Soon after the plants are removed to their winter 
quarters, it will be necessary to look them over for 
the purpose of disbudding. If a large quantity of 
flowers are required, irrespective of size, very few 
buds will need removing ; but where very large 
flowers is the desideratum, then one bud only should 
be left on each shoot. 

The black and green fly often attack the young 
growths of Camellias ; these, however, are easily 
■destroyed by fumigating with tobacco, or tobacco- 
paper ; fumigate lightly, and if all are not destroyed 
the first time, repeat the operation after an interval 
■of two days. 

A^Tiite and brown scale also infest these plants at 
times ; when these pests appear, a mixture of soft 
•soap and a little -parafiin oil, applied with a small 
stiff brush, will soon clean them off. This operation, 
liowever, must be done carefully, or the remedy may 
l)e as bad as the disease. 

From the following varieties a good selection may 
be made to suit all tastes : — 

A. Alba -plena. —The first double Camellia intro- 
duced to Europe, and one that is still much esteemed ; 
pure white. 

C. Arclidnchess Augusta. — Crimson ; each petal 
w;'ith a central stripe of white ; whole flower veined 
irt^ith bluish-purple. 

C. Bealii. — Eich crimson ; a superb flower. 

C. Bonomiana. — Flowers beautifully imbricated ; 
petals large and round ; pure white, banded with 
rosy-carmine. 

C. Chandlerii elegans. — Light rose, large, and very 
fine. 

C. Circe. — Pure white. The flowers of this variety 
are small, and therefore valuable for bouquets, button- 
holes, and the decoration of ladies' hair. 



C. Countess of I)erhy. — Largo, pure white, flaked 
with rose. 

C. Countess of Ellesmere. — A variable flower, but 
fine in all its forms ; x^ure white, mottled with rose, 
sporting to rose flaked with white ; flaked with 
white or flesh- colour ; and striped with caiTaine. 

C. Comtessa Lavinia Maggi. — Large fine form ; pure 
white, regularly striped with broad bands of carmine. 

C. Cup of Beauty. — Beautifully imbricated ; ]3ure 
white, striped with rose. 

C. JDuchesse de Bcrrl. — Beautifully cupped and im- 
bricated ; pure white, exquisite form. 

C. Duke of Lancaster. — Large, fine form : full deep 
rose. 

C. Emperor Kapoleon III. — Eose, veined with 
crimson, and. bordered with white ; well imbricated. 

C. Fimbriata. — Pui'e double white ; beautifully 
fringed. 

C. Gem. — Large, cupped, and beautifully imbri- 
cated ; carmine, with pink centre. 

C. General Cialdini. — Eose-camline, striped with 
red ; finely imbricated. 

C. Imhricata. — Deep scarlet ; fine form. 

C. Jenny Lind. — Waxy white, striped with rose ; 
fine form ; finely imbricated to centre. 

C. Jubilee. — Pinkish -white, dotted and splashed 
with rose ; fine form. 

C. Lady ILume's Blush. — Waxy white, suffused 
with delicate flesh -colour; its size renders it very 
useful for bouquets. 

C. Madame Ambroise Tcrschaffelt. — Eosy- white, 
striped and spotted with carmine ; fine form. 

C. Matliotiana. — Brilliant rich crimson ; large, 
and beautifully imbricated. 

C. Mathotiana alba. — Large ; finely imbricated ; 
pure white ; extra. 

C. Mrs. Cope. — AATiite, tinged with pink, and 
speckled with rose ; very double. 

C. Pearl. — Pearly white ; petals round and of 
good substance ; perfect in form ; extra. 

C. Prince Frederick William. — White, flaked with 
carnation ; flne form. 

C. Prificess JLary. — Brilliant crimson ; large ; fine 
form ; extra. 

C. Queen of Beauties. — Blush, veined with pink ; 
very delicate and handsome. 

C. Queen of Denmark.— Dee-p crimson, shaded with 
rose, and striped with white ; large and fine. 

C. Peine des Fleurs. — Vermilion - red ; large and 
fine form ; extra. 

C. Stella Polarie. — Bright crimson ; centre of each 
petal striped with a line of white ; weU imbricated, 
and very handsome. 

C. tricolor imbricata plena. — Soft rose ; each petal 
broadly striped with crimson ; large, double, and 
finely imbricated. 



GEEEN- HOUSE PLANTS. 



363 



C. Trlonfo di Lodi. — White, streaked with, rose ; 
beautifully imbricated. 

C. Valtevareda. — Bright rose, often spotted with 
pure white ; large and beautifully imbricated ; 
extra. 

C. Virgine de Colle Beato. — Pure white ; petals 
spirally imbricated ; a charming flower ; extra. 

C. Virgine Franco. — Pink and white, streaked and 
spotted with red ; good shape. 

C. Wilderii. — Soft rose ; fine form ; beautifully 
imbricated; extra. 

Campsidium, — A genus belonging to the Big- 
noniaccce, requiring the same treatment as Bignonia, 
which see. 

C. cJiUioise. — A conspicuous climber, but its 
beauties appear to be little known, or it would be 
more frequently seen in our plant -houses. The 
whole plant is quite smooth ; the petioles are 
winged, and the closely-set leaflets are sessile, 
oblong lanceolate in shape, very sparingly toothed, 
and dark green ; the racemes are terminal and pen- 
dulous, bearing numerous bright scarlet tubular 
flowers. Spring and early summer. Chili. 

Canarina. — A genus of Canipamdacece, which 
contains one species only ; this is tuberous-rooted, 
the stems dying down, and the plant remains in a 
dormant state for several months in the year. 

The soil should be equal parts of rough peat and 
loam, and a warm corner of the green-house should 
be assigned to it when growing. Propagation by 
division. 

C. campanula. — This plant seems to have been in- 
troduced to our plant-houses so long ago as the 
year 1696. The root is tuberous and milky, pro- 
ducing soft hollow stems, which are sparingly fur- 
nished with thin, opposite, shining light green 
leaves. The flowers are large, pendulous, bell- 
shaped, and yellowish-orange, a shade of colour very 
rarely met with in this order. The season of its 
blooming much depends upon the time it is started 
into growth, but the early spring months would 
seem to be its usual time. Canary Islands. 

Cantua. — This genus contains but few species, 
and these are too seldom seen ; they are all natives 
of Peru, and require about the same treatment as 
Fuchsias ; for soil, use a mixture of peat, loam, leaf- 
soil and sand, in about equal parts. Drain the pots 
well, and stand the plants in a good airy position. 

C. buxifolia, as its name implies, resembles the 
Box, but sometimes they become lobed. Flowers 
tubular, some four inches long ; tube crimson ; limb 
spreading ; deep rose - colour. May and June. 
1846. 



Ceratostema. — A genus belonging to the order 
Vacciniacece, which is very nearly allied to the 
Heath family. The order is not extensive, but it 
contains a great quantity of very beautiful plants, 
amongst which the single species of Ceratostema 
here enumerated takes fii'st rank. 

The whole of the plants in the order to which 
Ceratostema belongs are rather difiicult to cultivate ; 
they require about the same treatment, and to avoid 
repetition when describing other members of the 
Vaccinice, we will refer to Ceratostema. 

The soil for these plants should be a mixture of 
rough sandy peat and a little light loam. The pots 
must be drained well, as they like an abundant 
supply of water ; the atmosphere should be kept 
rather moist, but there must be a free circulation of 
air. These plants thrive well with Camellias, but 
they like an abundance of light. 

C. speciosum — A strong-growing plant, with a 
thick woody root-stock, from which the branches 
spring ; leaves alternate, simple, ovate, dark green ; 
flowers axillary in small clusters, some three inches 
long and pendulous, tubes, crimson-scarlet, tipped 
with yellow. Summer months. Ecuador. 

Chamoerops.— A small genus of Fan Palms, 
found growing farther north than any other mem- 
bers of the order, one species coming even so far 
north as Nice. 

They are handsome plants, having their leaves 
plaited, round, or fan-shaped, with numerous seg- 
ments, which are deeply divided. The petioles are 
long and stout, usually furnished with spines at the 
edges, and enveloped at the base in a dense mass of 
rough fibry tissue. The flowers are numerous, 
produced in branching panicles from the base of the 
leaves. The flowers, however, are inconspicuous, 
and are succeeded by a large one-seeded berry. The 
soil for their culture should be rich loam, with some 
sharp sand added. Chamoerops enjoy an abundant 
supply of water; therefore their pots should be 
thoroughly drained. 

C. Fortunei (the Chusan Palm). — This species, 
the correct name of which is Trachycarpus For- 
tunei, named in honour of the celebrated traveller 
Fortune, is a sturdy-growing plant, which has 
proved hardy in various parts of this country ; but, 
nevertheless, it does not seem to luxuriate, for in 
such situations it grows but slowly, and does not 
appear happy. As a'green-house ornament, however, 
the case is altered ; here it is more vigorous, and its 
leaves attain a much superior development. Grown 
in tubs or large pots, it is a splendid object for the 
embellishment of the sub-tropical garden in summer. 

The leaves of this plant are supjiorted upon long 
unarmed petioles, and are in the form of, and plaited 



364 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENING. 



like, a fan. They are divided into narrow segments 
about half-way down, and are of a uniform deep 
green. It forms a large umbrella-like head, and is a 
very effective ornament. North of China. 

C. Jiicmilis (the European Fan Palm), — Attains a 
height of twenty to thirty feet, but it frequently pro- 



There are several recognised varieties of this 
species, amongst which may be noticed C. arborci<ci:ni> 
and C. macrocarpa. It is found in gi'eat abundance 
in Southern Europe and Northern Africa. 

C. Palmetto (correctly, Sabal Tafmetto) is very or- 
namental, but slow in giowth ; leaves fan-shaped, 




Chamoerops humilis. 



duces numerous suckers from the base, which pre- 
vent it from attaining such proportions, and is then 
by no means so ornamental. The petioles are long, 
and armed at the edges with sharp spines. Leaves 
fan-like, divided into narrow segments for about a 
third of their length, and glaucous on both surfaces. 

In the South of Europe the leaves of this species 
are extensively used for hat, broom, and basket 
making, and are very durable. The Arabs in 
Northern Africa also employ them for covering their 
tents, &c. 



divided into numerous long narrow segments of a 
glaucous hue. Southern States of America. 

Cheirostemon. — This genus of Stcrcidinds con- 
tains but one species, which in its native country 
attains a height of eighty to a hundred feet. It is 
popularly called the Hand-plant in this country, but 
at the present time is very rare in cultivation. The 
onl}^ plant known to exist for some time was a very 
ancient specimen found growing at Toluco, near the 
city of Mexico. By the Mexicans it was held in 



GEEEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 



great veneration, and was called by them " Macpal- 
xochitlquah.uitl." It should be grown in light 
turfy loam and peat, and the drainage must be kept 
open and in thorough working order. 

C. platanoides is a large tree, but assumes its true 



resemblance to an infant's hand. It appears to be 
indigenous to Guatemala. 

Chorozema. — A genus of handsome Australian 
shrubs, which, like so many of the plants from tnat 




Cheirostemox platanoides. 



characters and flowers in a comparatively small 
state, with large heart-shaped leaves, which arc 
doeply-lobed dark green on the upper side, clothed 
beneath with a ferruginous tomentum ; the flowers 
are destitute of a corolla, the calyx is unusually de- 
veloped, and the stamens, which are fi-ve in number 
and bright red, are very long and united at the base, 
and so turned that they have a somewhat striking 



country, belong to the Lcguminosce, or Pea-flowers. 
They are somewhat straggling in habit, but by 
judi(>iou3 pruning after the flowering season is past 
they may be easily gi*own into good plants, y» hen 
they are simply invaluable as decorators of the green- 
house or conservatory. The soil they thrive best in 
is a mixture composed of two parts peat, one of loam, 
and one of shatp sand. Propagated by cuttings. 



366 



CASSELL'S rOPITLAR GARDENING. 



C. cordatum. — Leaves heart- shaped, armed at the 
edges wath prickly teeth ; flowers freely produced in 
loose racemes ; red, spotted at base with orange- 
yellow. April and May. 

C. Kenchmanil. — This elegant species is very liable 
to attacks of mildew ; but if kept in a well-aired 
situation, and slightly dusted with sulphur at inter- 
vals, no harm need be apprehended. The leaves are 
small and Heath-like. It produces long racemes of 
Pea-shaped flowers, which are bright scarlet, with a 
green spot at the base. April to June. 1824. 

C. Lawrenciana. — A strong-growing kind, and a 
profuse bloomer ; flowers orange 
and scarlet. May. 1845. 

C. Dicksonii. — This is perhaps 
the largest-growing kind in the 
family, but rare in cultiva- 
tion ; scarlet and yellow. May. 
1836. 

C. varium. — Is more compact 
in habit than the other kinds, 
with large dark green leaves, 
and forms handsome specimens ; 
orange and red. 1837. 

Citrus. — This is the sys- 
tematic name for the family of 
plants which produce that 
luscious fruit, the Orange — a 
boon to the invalid upon a bed 
of sickness, parched, it may be, 
with a burning fever, and the 
joy of a schoolboy's heart at 
any time. 

The fruits which are known as the Orange, 
Lemon, Citron, Shaddock, &c. (Src, are all supposed 
by some to have been derived from one species, 
Citrus Medica, found in cultivation by Theophrastus 
in Media. It is not, however, found wild in any 
part of Persia, although at the present time it may 
be found in a state of nature in the mountain valleys 
of Northern India ; and although the fruits are now 
so various and distinct in appearance, this no doubt 
has been brought about by long cultivation and se- 
lection. The Orange appears to have been culti- 
vated by man at a very early period. It was com- 
mon in the North of Persia several hundred years 
before the birth of Christ, and the Jews appear to 
have brought it with them to Palestine on their 
return from captivity in Babylon. Erom the land 
of the Jews it was brought into Italy by .the 
Romans, and in Spain we read that Oranges were in 
cultivation about Seville towards the end of the 
twelfth century. 

The first recorded Orange-trees in England were 
those reared by Sir Francis Carew at Beddington, in 




Citrus Limonum. 



Surrey. These, it is said, were brought to this 
country by his relative. Sir Walter Raleigh ; but it 
is unknown if these were established plants, or seeds 
only. They were grown against a wall in the open, 
air, and bore large crops of fruit, but were killed by 
the great frosts in 1739—40. 

It is not the .intention to treat in these pages upon 
the cultivation of Oranges in England as a commer- 
cial speculation, for they cannot be grown in this 
country without protection in winter ; nevertheless, 
a few notes from a \'isitor to the Orange gardens in 
the Azores will not be out of place. Our friend 
says : — " The Orange-tree suc- 
ceeds everywhere in the Azores, 
even in poor soil, although it 
prefers the richer, and the 
sea-air is favourable to it. At 
one time grafting the good 
kinds upon seedling stocks was 
the only system of propagation ; 
now, however, they are largely 
propagated by layers ; this latter 
operation should be performed 
from about the middle of May 
up to the middle of June, and 
by the beginning of the next 
year they will be fit to remove 
from the parent plant. 

" TYie cultivators in the 
Azores say that plants from 
layers fruit quickest, but grafted 
plants produce the best fruit. 

' ' A danger the Orange- 
trees have to withstand is 
the boisterous winds which are so prevalent in the 
Azores, and which at times are so -violent as to up- 
root them. This has led to the planting of various 
trees in rows as shelter to them, but since these trees 
have become large enough to shade the Orange-trees 
they have produced fruits with thicker rinds, which 
is detrimental, as the fruits with thin rinds are 
better in flavour and travel better. About the 
tenth year the trees arrive at a fair fruiting state, 
that is to say, each tree will yield some 1,500 to 
1,600 fruits; but when another five years have 
passed the yield will be doubled, and it is recorded 
that trees have been known to yield upwards of 
20,000 fruits. 

" A disease called lagrlma is very injurious to these 
trees. The bark cracks near the base of the stem, 
and a ^iscid gimi exudes. This is followed by the 
bark peeling off, and the wood and roots decay, and 
the tree dies. The plan adopted where this disease 
shows itself is to make a large incision where the 
bark has split, in order to allow the gum to run 
away as quickly as possible. The soil is then re- 



GEEEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 



367 



moved from the roots, which are sxire to he found in 
a had condition. These are then carefully pruned, 
and fresh soil placed around them. Notwithstand- 
ing the paucity of kinds to he found in English 
gardens, great attention is paid to them in St. 
]\lichael's, where upwards of a hundred different 
kinds of Oranges are to he found." 

The Orange as an ornamental tree in our green- 
houses has heen of late years much neglected, hut it 
is curious to note that, although Orange-blossom has 
lost none of its charms or attractions for the fair 
sex of these realms, the 
plant has lost favour with 
cultivators, and conse- 
quently we have to import 
it in most instances for 
hridal festivities, which is 
certainly a disgrace to Eng- 
lish horticulturists. 

In the olden times of 
English gardening, an 
Orangery was considered 
indispensable; and, although 
the structures then used 
were quite the reverse of 
those used in the present 
times, plenty of fine trees 
existed in England. The 
finest collection of Orange- 
trees we have seen is that 
in the Gardens of the Eoyal 
Palace of Sans Souci, near 
Potsdam in Prussia, where 
they are accommodated in a 
noble house, about a thou- 
sand feet in length, forty- 
five feet broad, and about 
twenty - five feet high. 
These are cultivated in tubs, 

and during the summer months are all brought out 
upon the terraces in front of the Palace, where they 
produce a wonderful effect, and the air is quite laden 
^-ith the exquisite perfume of their blossoms. Some 
very fine trees at Holland House, Kensington, have 
for many years been treated in the same manner 
M'ith the best results. 

As before remarked. Orange-trees will thrive in 
even poor soil, but they prefer generous treatment, 
and the compost best suited for their healthy develop- 
ment is a mixture of rich loam, leaf-mould, peat, 
and manure, in equal parts. The manm-e shoidd be 
old, and obtained from cows, sheep, and fowls. This, 
being in a nice friable condition, should be well 
mixed, adding some sharp sand. It should be used 
in a tolerably rough state, as these trees thrive best 
in open porous scil ; thorough drainage is indispens- 




ClTEUS Medica, 



able. The whole of the Citrus family enjoy a liberal 
supply of water when growing, and when given it 
must be in such quantities as to penetrate the soil 
thoroughly, yet before another watering the soil 
should show signs of becoming dry. They enjoy 
occasionally applications of liquid manure, or mulch- 
ings of old cow-manure when in full growth \\ill be- 
found very beneficial. 

Although Oranges like an abundance of light, full 
exposure to the sun under glass is apt to bum the 
young leaves or turn them yeUow, which is very 
detrimental to their appear- 
ance, therefore some little 
shading will be found ad- 
vantageous during the hot- 
test part of the day. 

The fruits of the several 
varieties are largely im- 
ported for the dessert-table 
and various economic pui'- 
poses, and of late years a 
considerable quantity of the 
yoimg stems have been, 
brought to this country for 
walking-sticks. 

C. Aicmntium (the Sweet 
Orange). — A bold-growing, 
handsome tree ; leaves 
winged, broadly oblong, and 
shining green. Under cul- 
tivation it produces im- 
mense crops of golden fruit, 
which are too well known 
to need description. The 
flowers are white and 
deliciously fragrant, largely 
used for decorations in 
bridal festi^dties. Like all 
plants that have been 
long under cultivatioji, the Sweet Orange has pro- 
duced many varieties, one of which is kno^Ti as 
the Malta, or Blood Orange, the fruits of which are 
rather small, and the pulp is deep red or blood-colour 
throughout. The ^Mandarin is another variety^ 
which fruits in quite a small state. Leaves ovate and 
bright green. The fruits are small, deep orange- 
colom-, the rind is thin, and the pulp is very sweet. 
It is called the Noble or Mandaiin Orange in China, 
and is largely grown in the Azores. The Sweet- 
skinned Orange is another very distinct variety. It 
has a small rich yellow fruit, the rind being soft and 
very sweet. In the French shops this is sold under the 
name of Pomme d'Adam, and called the " Forbidden 
Fruit," but it is quite different to the fruit sold 
in London under that name. Tlie fruits of the 
Sweet Grange are largely imported from Lisbon, 



368 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



the Azores, and Malta. Recently Australia has 
sent some to London, but as in all cases these are 
gathered before they are quite ripe, excellent as the 
flavour is, they cannot compare with a fully ripe 
fruit, fresh-gathered from the tree. It has been in 
cultivation in various parts of the world for ages, 
and is still found wild in the valleys of Northern 
India. 

C. Bigaradia (the Seville or Bitter Orange) 
forms a handsome plant, with ovate, broadly- winged, 
dark green leaves ; fruit rough, very dark, with an 
extremely bitter rind. It is largely imported from 
Spain for preserving, as candied-peel, marmalade, 
&c. The Myrtle-leaved Orange is a variety of this 
kind. 

C. Bergamia (the Bergamot Orange). — Tree spiny. 
It bears a small pear-shaped fruit ; the flowers and 
fruit are both fragrant, and from them is obtained 
the essence called Bergamot-oil. 

C. decumana (the Shaddock). — A bold tree, with 
broadly-ovate winged leaves, and very large fruits, 
sometimes measui-ing two feet in circumference, and 
weighing from ten to twenty pounds. The rind is pale 
yellow, pulp pale red, slightly acid, very cooling and 
refreshing. They are to be found in the London 
markets under the names of Pompelmousses, Pom- 
poleons, and Pomaloe and the small-sized ones are 
sold as the " Forbidden Fruit." It is a native of 
China, and is largely cultivated in Jamnica and 
various parts of the West Indies, wheie it was first 
taken by Captain Shaddock. 

C. Limetta (the Lime). — This forms a handsome 
tree, with large ovate leaves and pale yellow fruit. 
The pulp is acid and bitter, but rather flat. It, with 
the Lemon and Citron, produce the Lime-jiiice 
so useful as an antiscorbutic. The plant called 
by the Italians Porno d'Adamo is a variety of the 
Lime. 

C. Limoman (the Lemon) is a handsome plant, nnd 
comes into a bearing state quite young. The fruits 
are too well known to need de=^cription. There are 
many varieties. It is found wild in Northern India, 
and cultivated largely in . the West Indian Islands, 
and is a valuable article of commerce. 

C. M?dica (the Citron) is a spiny-branched tree, 
with oblong pale green leaves, flowers purplish 
outside, white within, fruits ovate upwards, of six 
inches long, with a rough citron-yellow rind, which 
is spongy and very fragrant. It is pi-eserved and 
sold as candied-peel. The pulp is slightly acid. It 
yields the Oil of Citron and the Oil of Cedra of 
commerce. Found wild in Northern India, but has 
been cultivated in various parts of the world for 
many centuries. 

C. japonica, a native of China and Ja)\an, where it 
is called Kumquat. It is a plant of medium growth, 



and produces a handsome appearance. It bears an 
abundance of bright yellow fruit of exquisite flavour. 
These are sent to this country preserved whole, and 
meet a ready sale. 

Clethra. — A genus of Ericacem, most of which 
are natives of America. The species quoted here, 
however, is indigenous to Madeira, and becomes a 
stately green-house tree, although if properly culti- 
vated it will bloom in a young state, and thus may 
be accommodated in houses of small dimensions. It 
has been in cultivation in this country for a luindred 
years, but is less frequently seen than it deserves. 

The soil should consist of two parts peat, one of 
light loam, and a little sand. Young plants should 
be allowed to become pot-bound, when they will 
flower freely ; but if large plants are required they 
must be re-potted frequently and Icept growing. The 
coolest jDart of the green-house suits this plant 
best. 

C. arhorea. — A free-growing, handsome shrub, with 
oblong acuminate leaves, which are seirated at the 
edges, smooth and bright green on the upper side, 
paler below ; the racemes of flowers are much 
branched, bearing numerous pure white flowers, re- 
sembling large spikes of Lily of the Valley. Sum- 
mer months. Madeira. 



COMMON GARDEN FLOWERS. 



SNAPDRAGONS, HYDRANGEAS, F^ONIES, 
MICHAELMAS DAISIES. 

The Antirrhinum, or Snapdragon.— Time 

was when this fine and handsome biennial was 
included among the florists' flowers ; and even at the 
present time batches of seedlings are named by the 
Scotch raisers, and included under the head of " new 
florists' flowers." The type of flower noticed under 
this heading is Antirrhinum majus (the Great Snap- 
dragon). Antirrhinum is a compound of two words 
meaning a snout or nose ; the flowers being like the 
snout of an animal ; and this resemblance, no doubt, 
gave rise to the common name, Snapdragon. It is 
not a native of Britain, but it so abounds that it 
might be regarded as a native plant ; it is very 
frequently found growing on old walls and buildings, 
in which places plants will endure for several years, 
and it. is truly remarkable what large plants will 
grow with their roots depending entirely upon the 
moisture in the walls for support. In such positions 
the plants become true perennials ; whereas, when 
placed in gardens, it seldom lasts longer than two 
years, and therefore it is classed under the head of 
" hiirdy biennials." 



COMMON GARDEN FLOWERb, 



369 



Thirty years ago Mr. John Riley of Huddersfield, 
took in hand and greatly improved the Antirrhinum 
hy means of careful selection and high cultivation ; 
and it appears to be a statement scarcely credible, 
yet nevertheless true, that Mr. Riley grew plants six 
and seven feet in 
height, and four 
feet in diameter ; 
and these wonderful 
plants were not 
seedlings, but raised 
from cuttings made 
the previous au- 
tumn. 

The Antirrhinum 
is a plant quite easy 
of cultivation; but 
our advice is, if any 
one attempts to 
grow it, let it be 
something worthy 
of their best care. 
The best way to 
begin would be to 
send about the 
mon-h of May to 
Mesn-s. R. B. Laird 
and Sons, of Edin- 
burgh, who are now 
generally admitted 
to be the most suc- 
cessful cultivators 
of these tlowers, and 
obtain a half-dozen 
or dozen plants of 
good named varie- 
ties, of distinct 
character. These 
can come by post 
with the soil shaken 
from the roots, and 
as soon as received 
they should be 
potted singly in 
small spots in light 
rich soil, and put 
into a cold frame, or 
under a hand-light 

for a few days, taking care that they are not eaten by 
slugs or snails. When they have established themselves 
and begin to grow, they should be planted out in a 
bed or border, again in good soil, and encouraged to 
gi'ow as freely as possible. They will flower in 
August or September, but quite early enough to 
enable the grower to get a few pods of seed for 
his own sowing. Dxiring the summer the plants 




Antirrhinums. 
S'riiDsd (Swanley Beauty). Crimson (Faust). 



should be looked after, tying them neatly to stakes 
to keep the wind from blowing them about ; watering 
when necessary, and keeping the soil about the 
plants free from weeds. 

But after the seed is gathered, there is no reason 
why the plants 
should be wasted. 
There is always a 
risk in keeping old 
plants safely 
through the winter ; 
not but what the}' 
are perfectly hardy, 
but the plants really 
suffer more from 
dam.p than frost ; 
and the latter fol- 
lowing close on 
heavy rain is cer- 
tain to be fatal to 
them. The grower 
should therefore 
take cuttings of the 
best varieties, doing 
this at the end of 
August, putting a 
few into pots of 
light sandy soil, 
well di^ained, of 
course, and placing 
them in a cold 
frame. As soon as 
they are rooted — 
and they rcct 
quickly — they 
should be potted 
singly in small pots, 
using the same kind 
of soil, and winter- 
ing in a cold fram.e. 
These can be 
planted out in the 
open ground by the 
end of March, and 
they will flower in 
June and July. In 



this way a few very 



fine varieties can be 
continued each year ; but seed taken fi^om fine sorts 
will be certain to produce beautiful flowers. 

But when is the best time to sow seeds ? Supposing, 
as before mentioned, some seeds be gathered in 
September, it can either be sown at once, or in early 
spring. If a little bottom heat can be used, we 
should say defer sowing until February. But the 
seed can be sown in autumn in pans or shallow 



370 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



boies of light sandy soil, placing them in a frame 
or greenhouse. The seeds will soon germinate, and 
the plants should he protected from frost during 
winter, and pricked off into boxes or pans in early 
spring, and grown in as quickly as possible. Or the 
seeds can be sown in February in seed pans, placing 
them in a gentle heat, where the seeds will quickly 
produce plants, and allow tbcina to remain there 
until the plants are from two to three inches high. 
Then prick them out into boxes or pots, about two 
inches apart, and gradually harden them off till the 
weather is sufficiently mild to plant them out in 
a bed of good rich soil. Treated in this way the 
plants get into good size early, and flower about 
August. This is making the Snapdragon an annual. 
Then a sowing can be made about July in pans 
or boxes, placed in a cold frame ; and in September 
or October the young plants can either be planted 
out in a bed in a cold frame to winter, or be placed 
out in the open ground. A somewhat warm sheltered 
border is best ; young imbloomed plants winter much 
better than those that have flowered the previous 
summer ; and seedlings raised from seed sown in 
July will flower much eaiiier in the following- 
summer than those raised from heat in February of 
the same year. 

The plants that flower in July may have all their 
flower spikes cut away as soon as the beauty is over, 
lea\'ing only a very few from which it is desirable 
to take seeds ; and they will throw out fresh growths 
that will bloom in October and November if the 
weather is mild. The second blooms will not be 
so large as the first, but the plants will be more 
compact at growth ; and, because it is the autumn 
season, the colours if anything more brilliant. 

There is a very dwarf section of Antirrhinums of 
Continental origin known as Tom Thumb. They do 
not rise much beyond six inches in height, and some 
not so high as this. The seedling plants form dense 
tufts, and they throw up six or eight or more pretty 
spikes of flower. Any one with a liking for Tom 
Thumb Antirrhinums should sow a little seed every 
year; for if the plants are left over for two years 
they grow a good deal taller. The seedlings can be 
raised in just the same way as those of the taller= 
growing section. 

The colours of the Antirrhinum vary very much. 
Some of the flowers are self-coloured ; some beauti- 
fully striped and flaked ; others bi-coloured and tri- 
coloured. On some plants two or three difl'erent- 
coloured flowers can be seen at once. And wa con- 
clude by saying that all lovers of hardy garden 
flowers should grow a few pretty Snapdragons. 

Selection or Named Axtiurhinums. 

Ada, s^-riped. j Cluuy, dark criinson. 

Abel, Graud, striped. ' Canary, white fuel crimsor:. 



Selection of Named A: 

Clierub, white and rose. 
Comus, yellow and claret. 
Duard, deep crimson. 
<iipsy, sulphur and rose. 
Golden Gem, yellow, 
Hendersonii, white and car- 
mine. 
Jewel, cream. 



XTiKKHiNL'MS [continued). 

John Dowrice, rich car- 
mine and white. 
Monarch, orange-crimson, 
Ophir, deep yellow and rose. 
Sunrise, rosy-lilac. 
Sylph, white and rose. 
Sunshine, rosy-crimson., 
Themis, tine striped. 



Hydrangea. — The common Hydrangea of our 
gardens is K. Jioriensis, which was introduced from 
China nearly a century and a half ago. There are a 
few American species, not generally known, to be 
found in botanical and other gardens, and gene- 
rally of a thoroughly hardy character. The common 
form is a little more tender, and yet much hardier 
than is generally supposed ; standing well in the 
southern and western parts of England and round 
London, though always liable to be cut down in severe 
winters. When it is cut down to the ground, it in- 
A ariably springs up again luxuriantly the following 
year. In exposed positions it is wise to cover the 
crowns of the plants during winter with litter, so 
that if severe frost comes, and the branches are de- 
stroyed, no harm shall come to the roots. Hydran- 
geas should be planted in good soil when placed in 
the open ground, and if the covering recommended 
in winter be in the form of some fertilising material, 
the plants will be greatly benefited thereby. In 
spring, when the young growths come up from the 
bases of the plants, the thin ones should be cut away, 
and only the strong ones allowed to remain; and 
the old wood should be thinned out in the same 
way. 

The Hydrangea makes an admirable conservatory 
and forcing plant, and it is largely grown for market 
purposes. Small plants, having one or more stems, 
surmounted by very large heads of bloom, can be seen 
in the public streets of London in early summer, and 
it is remarkable that such splendid plants can be 
grown in such small pots. 

Cuttings taken in s^Dring strike freely in sandy 
soil and a light bottom heat. The usual plan is to 
put one cutting in a 3-inch pot, as soon as it is suffi- 
ciently rooted, giving them a compost made up of 
good turfy loam, leaf mould, and sand to grow in ; 
and applying plenty of water at all stages. After the 
growth is made, the plants are exposed to sun and 
air to ripen their wood. In November the plants are 
placed in heat, and when the flower-heads appear 
the plants are stood in pans of water, for at this stage 
a good supply of water is necessarj-. The market 
growers adopt the practice of taking cuttings from 
the plants in August, or as soon as the buds have be- 
come hard and the plants are ripening their growth ; 
they are placed singly in 5 -inch pots in a slight bot- 
tom heat, but not sufficiently brisk to incite them to 



COlVmON GAEDEN FLOWERS. 



371 



growth, or they will prove useless. The growth from 
these buds in spring produce flowers. 

It is well known that the flowers of Hydrangeas 
will frequently turn blue. This is entirely owing to 
a certain condition of the soil, which means the pre- 
sence of oxide of iron. In some districts of Ireland, 
where the oxide abounds in the soil, the Hydrangeas 
take on very rich tints of blue, and the plants attain 
to a great size. It is said that where iron-filings and 
a solution of alum are used, in some soils the blue 
colour is produced, while the same means will not 
produce it in others ; and other soils will invariably 
produce this blue colour without any peculiar matter 
whatever being added. The loams at Kenwood, at 
Hampstead Heath, and Stanmore Heath, and the peats 
at Wimbledon, as 
well as some bogs 
near Edinburgh, 
are famous for 
producing this 
blue in the Hy- 
drangea. Cut- 
tings have fre- 
quently been 
taken from plants 
bearing blue 
flowers, but the 
plants generally 
produce pink- 
coloured blos- 
soms. 

H. Thomas 
Ilogrj is a very 

fine and distinct white-flowered form of hortensis 
obtained from America. H. stellata prolifera and 
S. paniculata rjrancTiflora are two Japanese tj-pes that 
should be treated as ordinary greenhouse plants, 
though in warm positions both will succeed in the 
open air. The last-named is a fine object in the 
conservatory when bloomed in pots. 

The Pseony. — There are two distinct sections of 
Paeonies — one is the Tree, or Moutan, the other the 
Herbaceous. "Paeony" is derived fromPseon, a phy- 
sician, who used the plant medicinally, and at that 
time the roots of the common P»ony (P. officinalis), 
which was introduced to Europe some 350 years ago, 
were held in high repute as powerful antispasmodics, 
and as one of the most efficacious remedies against 
epilepsy, convulsions, and hysteria; but they are 
now totally disregarded for any medical properties 
they may have been supposed to possess. It would 
appear that about the time that the common crimson- 
flowered P. officinalis — or, as it is sometimes termed, 
r. herbacca — was introduced to England, P. alhiflora, 
a white flowered form, came at the same time. From 




TsEE PiEONY (Single Forsi). 



these two have sprung many varieties, but the crim- 
son-flowered types are most common in gardens. Of 
varieties there are a large number, and of many 
shades of colour, from white to deep purplish- 
crimson. One catalogue gives quite 160 varieties, 
classed under the name of P. herbacea. They 
are nearly all double ; a few single. The Pseony 
is a plant that does well in the open border, 
flourishing in any good loam where it can root firmly 
and find moisture during the summer months. When 
planted, they should be put in rich soil, and some 
mulching with manure will be found very useful 
diu-ing winter and spring. Some have richly frag- 
rant flowers. 

The following is a selection of choice varieties : — 

Alba sulphiirea, 

creamy-white. 
Anemonseflora, 

crimson. 
Artemise, rosy- 
pink. 
Candidissima, pi:re 

white. 
Charles Binder, 

lilac-purple. 
Duchess of Or- 
leans, lake and 
salmon. 
Doyen d'Enghien, 
red, margined 
white, 
Eugene 
rosy - 
blush. 
Humea alba, rosy- 
white. 
Jeanne d'Arc, rosy- 
pink. 
Lutea plenissitna, 

l^ale yellow. 
Madame Chaumy, 
satiny rose. 
Queen Victoria, blush. 
Eosamond, bright rosj- 
pink. 

Speciosa striata, rose and 

white. 
Splendida, bright rose. 
Surpasse Pottsii, puri^lish- 

crimson. 
Teuuifolia, deep blood-red. 
Versicolor, rich rose. 
Virginie, blush and pink. 
Whitleyi, single white. 



Verdier, 
pink and 



Madame Vilmorin, blush- 
white and crimson. 

Magnifica, delicate pink. 

Oberliii, rosy-lilac. 

Prince Prosper, deep crim- 
son. 

Prolifera tricolor, white and 

yellow. 
Pulcherrima, satin-rose and 

white. 

Queen Perfection, white 
and yellow. 



Tree Pseony.— This is Paonia Moutan, perhaps 
better known as the Moutan or Chinese Tree Pfeony. 
This and several others, mainly varieties, were intro- 
duced from China between 1789 and 1846. The 
flowers of these Pa?onies must be truly magnificent 
in their own country, for we are informed on high 
authority [The Gardener'' s Chronicle, of June 4th, 
1864") that "the common varieties — that is, those which 
have been in cultivation in oui- gardens for many 
years — beautiful though they are, give but a faint 
idea of the beauty of these other kinds which have been 
lately introduced. The flowers of the older sorts are 
mostly light-coloured — white, blush, or pink — and 
they are generally only semi-double. It used to be 



372 



CASSELL'8 POPULAR GARDEXIXG. 



said that these Chinese had a yellow variety, also one 
with black flowei's, and a double blue one, which, 
however, was only to be met with in the Emperor's 
garden. The latter produced blooms of extraordinary 
size, each having from 100 to 1,000 petals. "NMien 
China was partially opened to foreigners in 1842, a 
search was made for these famous ]Moutans, and 
many fine kinds — more than thirt}', we believe — 
were discovered and introduced into England. 
Amongst these, it was true, there was no real yellow 
or true blue : but there were dark and light purples, 
lilacs, and many shades of red of great beauty. One 
was almost black in colour — indeed, it was known as 
the Black 3Ioutan 
amongst the Chinese — 
while another was 
straw - coloured, and 
was called the Yellow 
jVIoutan. 'Most of the 
flowers of these plants 
were very double, and 
one at least was sweet- 
scented. Some of 
these varieties produce 
flowers of unusual 
size, and were their 
petals counted they 
might prove as numer- 
ous as those of the 
plant of the Emperor's 
garden above referred 
to." AVe owe the in- 
troduction of these 

new varieties to that enterprising traveller, the late 
Mr. Robert Fortune. 

The Common Pteony is a hardy herbaceous peren- 
nial, the foliage dying down to the ground in the 
autumn. The Moutan Pteony is a tree, shedding its 
leaves during the winter, and unless occupying a 
suitable position, likely to be injured by severe frosts. 
If the sunmier proves cold and wet, the wood is im- 
perfectly ripened, and when the severe winter follows, 
the constitution of the plants is impaired. On dry 
gravelly soils they form stately plants, and we have 
seen them used with great effect planted singly on 
lawns. Here they flower freely, and are objects of 
conspicuous beauty. In early spring, when the 
young shoots are being put forth, they are liable to 
injury from frost. All that is wanted is a slight 
protection in spring, a warai summer to ripen the 
wood, and cold in winter, so that the plants^ may 
go completely to rest. Cold situations and windy 
comers are not the places for Moutan Pfeonies. The 
plant seems to love a fresh strong loam ; and it does 
not disagree with a slight infusion of peat, though 
that is not necessary. For yormg plants a compost 



made up of well-roi-ted turf and leaf mould is ver-^ 
suitable. INIoutan Paeonies can be propagated by 
layers, or by pulling to pieces an old plant ; and every 
precaution should be adopted to induce a %-igorous 
growth, for then the flowers are certain to be very 
fine. 

The following is a selection of choice varieties oi 
Moutan Paeonies: — 



Alba lilaciua. 
Blanche Noisette. 
Cannesina pleuissima, 
Candida. 
Elizabeth. 
Fragrans plena. 
Horatiana. 




Tkee P5:oxt (Double Flower 



Incarnata plena. 
Lactea. 

Madame de Vatry. 
Maxima plena. 
Moutan, double. 
Osiris., 

Purpurea violacea. 
Queen. 

Eeiue des Fleurs. 
Robert Fortune. 
Speciosissima. 
Splendens. 
SteUa. 

Triomplie de Milan. 

Van Houttei. 

Tille de Yersailles. 

Yivid. 

Walmerii. 

Zenobia. 

Zariama. 



Michaelmas 
Daisies. — These are 
really perennial As- 
ters, or Starworts, 
and Aster means a 
star. They are called 
Starworts because the 
florets are collected to- 
gether on a receptacle, 
as in the case of the 
Daisy or Dahlia, and the rays of their circumference 
resemble stars. They are doubtless called Michael- 
mas Daisies because they flower in August and Sep- 
tember, and right on into the autumn. They are 
none of them indigenous to this country, but have 
come from different parts of Europe and other places, 
and of late years many fine varieties of originally 
introduced species have been raised in this country. 
There is now a large group of perennial Asters, con- 
taining more than a hundred species and varieties, 
the gi'eater portion of which are worthless for decora- 
tive purposes, though som.e of them can be met with 
in country and cottage, and especially what are termed 
old-fashioned gardens. These are mostly tall, gawk^- 
things, though they flower ver^' abundantly in 
autumn. But some of them, and especially more re- 
cently-raised varieties, are excellent autumn-bloom- 
ing plants. They are all herbaceous perennials, their 
foliage dying away in winter, but renewed by youns: 
growths in spring, and they do well in any ordinary 
garden soil, though the richer it is the finer will be 
the plants and flowers alike. Any variety can be 
larcclv increased bv division of the roots, or bv cut- 



COmiON GARDEN FLOYv^EES, 



373 



tings made of the young growths in spring. The 
plants flower best when they are fully established, so 
it is wise not only to plant them in good soil, but 
where they can remain for a few years. Some of the 
varieties are weaker growers than the others, and it 
is recommended that they be renewed by means of 
cuttings or root-di^dsion every two or three years. 
The different varieties vary both in the size of their 
flowers and 
the colom^s of 
the same, but 
blue, purple, 
and lavender 
shades pre- 
ponderate. 

A very se- 
lect collection 
can be found 
in the Nur- 
series of Mr. 
Thos. S.Ware, 
the Hale 
Earm, Totten- 
ham, and 
other places. 
Mr. Ware has 
made a selec- 
tion of the 
very best 
varieties, and 
we give a list 
of the finest 
found in his 
collection, 
which is gene- 
rally taken as 
the standard. 
They repre- 
sent the entire 
genus, and 
contain a 
number of 
first - class 

sorts, remarkable either for colour, size of flower, or 
abundance of bloom, and can be recommended for 
general cultivation : — for the decoration of the open 
border, for massing, &c. Some few make fine rock 
plants, while the dwarf compact-growing varieties 
are very pretty ia pots, and they are also found very 
useful for cutting from. 

Our selection is as follows : — 

Alpimis, pale lavender- blue, orange centre, flowers 
two inches in diameter, from six to nine inches in 
height, fine for the rockery or border. 

Amellus, large violet blossoms with yellow centre, 
very free flowering ; height two feet. 




Aster Amellus bessarabicus, 



Amelhis Bessarabicus, a fine variety of preceding, 
with rich purplish-blue flowers with orange centres ; 
height two feet ; one of the finest. 

CJiapmanni, bright lavender flowers, one and a 
half iaches in. diameter; a distinct and beautiful 
species. 

Ct/aneus, bright mauve flowers, xery abundant; 
four feet bigh, one of the latest in flower. 

Discolor, 
white flowers, 
changing to 
rosy - pink, 
about one foot 
in height ; 
very distinct. 

D u rn s u s, 
flowers bright 
purple ; two 
and a half 
feet high, 
flowering in 
Septemb er ; 
one of the 
best. 

£ r icoides, 
white, with 
yellow cen- 
tres, flowers 
small, but 
very abun- 
dant ; three 
and a half 
feet ; flower- 
ing in Octo- 
ber ; one of 
the most ele- 
gant of this 
genus. 

Formosissi- 
mus, a distinct 
and beautiful 
species; height 
four f eet ; 

flowers rosy-purple, very large, and exceedingly free 
blooming, a fine variety. 

Grandiflorns, one of the latest and most beautiful 
of this family, flowers large, of a rich purplish-blue. 

Lcevis, bright hlac, yellow centres, flowers large 
and abundant ; a distinct species ; four and a half feet. 

Longifolius var. formosus, a prett}' dwarf-growing 
variety, forming s\Tnmetrical bushes about two feet 
high, covered for a long time with bright rose- 
coloured flowers. 

Multiforus, small white flowers, but very nume=. 
rous ; a distinct and useful variety ; two and a haK 
feet. 



S74 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDENIXG. 



Xovce Anglice, rich triglit rose, with orange centres ; 
fiowers large ; one of the most distinct of the tall 
varieties. 

Novce A)igli(e rubra, a fine variety of preceding ; 
flowers bright magenta, five feet, later flowering 
than preceding. 

Xovce Belgicc, large hluish-purple flowers ; growing 
five feet high, and form immense heads of bloom ; 
one of the most conspicuous of the late-flow^ering 
group. 

Paniculatus, white flowers, one and a half inches in 
diameter ; a distinct and useful species ; four feet. 

Filosa, blue flowers ; five feet high, flowering in 
October. 

Tolyphyllus, flowers of medium size, white, very 
abundant, flowering in August ; grows four feet. 

Pyrenaicus, flowers large pale blue ; one and a half 
feet high ; one of the earliest- 

Sahuginosus, large white flowers, with yellow eye, 
one and a half inches in diameter ; flowering from 
June to November ; two feet high. 

Shorti, flowers lavender-blue, and very abundant, 
flowering in August ; height two and a half feet. 

Turbinellus, flowers pale rosy-purple ; three and a 
half feet high ; very showj- and distinct. 

Versicolor, white, shading to rose; flowers in 
masses in August ; effective ; four feet. 



THE KITCHEN GAEDEN. 

By "William Eaelet. 



Onion {Allium Cepa). French, Ogaon ; German, 
Zwiebel ; Spanish, Cebolla ; Italian, Cipola. — The 
Onion is a biennial plant, the origin of which is not 
known, though a probable native of Spain. Few 
more highly-finished bulbs are turned out of natui'e's 
workshop, whilst its fistular leaves and enlarged 
flower-stalk, along with its huge flower-head, give it 
a most singular appearance. 

As regards culture, the plant requires very liberal 
treatment. A light, sandy loam soil, having good 
depth, resting upon a porous subsoil, is most suited 
to its wants. Nor can the bed be prepared too 
deeply and well below, as it is a deep-rooting and 
feeding plant, which never gives a tithe of the bulk 
of crop it is capable of unless a deep tilth is 
insured. That it protrudes its roots through such 
good, properly prepared soil, to a depth of six feet, 
we have had ample means of testing. 

Choose an exposed site as far as possible removed 
from tree-shade, &:c. In instances where the soil is 
natm-ally light, to very light and stony, trench the 
chosen ground over as soon in the autumn or early 
"winter months as possible. The trench may with 



advantage be from three to five feet deep, according 
to depth of subsoil. Place at the bottom a layer of 
crude straw and other open manure, not at all 
decayed, if procurable ; turn over the surface spit 
from the next trench on to this, scatter another layer 
of manure thereon, and upon it another layer of soil, 
until the required depth of succeeding trench is 
arrived at. For the last layer of manure, immediately 
under the surface of the soil, use such as is more 
decomposed. Let the bed thus trenched over remain 
until spring, that it may have time to settle down 
and assume a nice firmness. Heavy soils need 
trenching in a similar manner. The heavier subsoil 
beneath such should in no instance be brought to the 
surface. So soon as it is reached, and cleared of the 
last layer of surface soil, deeply dig into it, turning 
it up as thoroughly as possible, so as to expose it to 
the immediate influence of the air. This done,, 
throw down a layer of moderately decomposed 
manure, and fork it into the bed newly turned up ; 
proceeding ultimately with the trenching in the usual 
way, adding layers of manure as Jiberall}- as possible. 
The more stiff the soil is, so much later ought this 
process of trenching in connection with such to be, 
as stiff soils cannot be made too free and open shortly 
before the time of seed- sowing. 

WTiere trenching has to be dispensed with in con- 
nection with the crop, though it is not advised, very 
deep digging is essential. This can only be done 
with a moderately new long-bladed spade, keeping in 
process quite an open trench, and projecting the 
^pade straight down to its utmost limit. Before the 
process of digging is undertaken, an abundant crop 
of manure must be wheeled on to the ground. Such 
manure should in this case be placed in each trench 
between the digging, and not dug in (in process of 
doing so), at one and the same time, else the digging 
will prove shallower by an inch or two, and the 
manure will not be placed so evenly at the bottom. 
When light soils, set apart for the crop, can only be 
dug, it is most important that it be done at least two 
or three months before the seeds are sown. In- 
difference to this, especially should a dry spring 
follow, will cause the crop to be a very poor one, 
besides admitting of a possibility that many seeds 
will not germinate well, if at all. 

For the summer crop sow the seeds between 
March 25th and the middle of April. During a- 
mild spring the former date or near to it is prefer- 
able. The old plan of forming narrow beds with 
alleys between is all but finally discarded. Choose 
a fine day when the surface of the soil is moderately 
dry. Hoe over the surface of the space intended to 
be sown, chopping down all lumps, Sec, then roughly 
run a wooden rake to and fro over its surface, pulHng* 
off large stones, litter, kc. Then commence at one 



THE KITCHEX GARDEX. 



end and tread the bed evenly all over, pressing and 
scuffling the soil in rows from end to end thoroughly. 
Again rake all over, making the whole as even as 
possible, and drawing off in process all additional 
stones, &c. Then stretch a garden-line from end to 
end of the bed at one side, and draw drill-rows as 
shallow as possible with the comer of a small hoe 
along it. If it can be arranged to have these drills 
running north to south so much the better, as the 
sun will have freer play around the plants. Continue 
to draw these drills at distances of four to five or nine 
inches apart until the whole piece is covered with them. 
The next process is to carefully sow the seeds in 
these drills. As many as three or four drills may be 
sown each time the bed is traversed. "WTien sown, 
commence again at one end of the first drill, place a 
foot on either side of it, and with the feet proceed to 
cover the seed in the drill with the soil lying on 
either side. "V\nien all is scuffled in, again rake the 
whole bed over across the drills, drawing yet again 
all stones, &c., across with the rake, and the bed is 
completed, and ready for germinating into plant and 
its future growth. In the case of light soils it is 
certainly a further aid, following the last raking, to 
run a roller over all, as these plants delight to grow 
in firm soil, however necessary it may be to have it 
well prepared for them. 

During the month of May, or subsequently, the 
young seedling plants will have assumed a size and 
consistency when further aid to progress may be 
given. Choose a small hoe, such as can be freely 
used between the rows, and hoe carefully between 
the j'oung plants. In some districts a short-handled 
hoe is used rapidly and with some advantage ; as by 
stooping and using the length of the arm en prods, 
a majority of the excess of the young seedlings may 
be cut out at this, the first hoeing, and before they 
attain a sufficient size to injure such as are ultimately 
to stand for growing and final ripening. This hoe 
is drawn along the rows straight, and the comer is 
here and there made to cut transversely across any 
row when excess of young seedlings need cutting 
out. From three to four rows are hoed each time the 
workman goes across the bed. 

Early in the following month of June, a second 
hoeing will generally be requisite. At this hoeing, 
thinning out and the final " setting out " of such 
plants as are selected to remain will have to be 
finished. According to the preparation of the 
ground, its depth and manure supply, so must the 
process be conducted. When good preparation has 
been made, bulbs averaging from ten to twelve 
inches in circumference may be expected, and the 
young plants should accordingly be thinned out to 
distances of about six or nine inches apart in the 
rows. The only attention beyond which such a bed 



375 

requires is to be kept free from weeds during the whole 
remaining part of the season. This is readily insured 
by occasionally hoeing the bed over. During dry 
seasons artificial waterings are of great benefit to 
them. It is by means of such that the fine Onions 
imported from Spain, as sold in Italian ware- 
houses in this country, are obtained. During 
the autumn the crop will show signs of cessation of 
leaf-growth, when bulbing will commence. Should 
the stalks be at all strong, and whilst some stalks 
fall, yet others persistently stand, the bed should be 
gone over, when each erect one with half a twist of 
the hand may be made to lie, without in anywise 
injuring it. By this means the crop will ripen off 
more uniformly, individual examples throughout 
being better formed and ultimately better ripened. 

It is bad practice to let the crop be too long upon 
the bed after initial maturity has been reached. The 
more uniformly all the tubers can be induced to 
ripen off together the better therefore. The surest 
sign of maturity is to be seen in the fact that the 
stem or collar immediately above the bulb, in the 
place where it is bent over, has become small. When 
it has assumed this small- waisted state, it matters 
not how green the fistular and now recumbent leaves 
are, then is the time to pull them up. Each one has 
to be taken hand-hold of, drawn, and laid upon its 
side; the whole being so laid that they make rows 
bottom upwards, close together, about three feet 
across. Here they will lie for a few days, when, 
with a wooden rake, di-aw them over (each row) into 
the vacant spaces previously existing between their 
former beds. Should the ground be at all weedy, 
hoe it over and rake off the weeds before drawing 
the bulbs over thereon. Generally about four or five 
such turnings will be requisite to insure that the 
crop be properly ripened. During rainy seasons, 
the process being more difficult, this time may be 
subject to extension. Every effort must be made, 
however, to hurry the process, else the crop will 
become discoloirred, and certain of the least ripened 
bulbs will be subject to decay, especially so should 
maggot pests attack them — pests to which the Onion 
is subject, and to which reference will presently be 
made. 

During a dry day, when the crop is properly 
ripened, the green leaves having decayed, the whole 
must be harvested. Each btilb should be taken in 
the hand and have the dried leaves and loose scales 
removed, all being subsequently placed upon a dry 
airy shelf in a cool shed. It is not important that 
they be spread out very thinly. When properly 
dried, they are found to keep very well in heaps under 
such a system of protection as this. According to the 
manner in which they have been perfectly ripened, 
or otherwise, so -^-ill the future need be of turning 



376 



GASSELL'S POPULAE GAEDENTNG. 



the heap, removing all which show symptoms of 
decay, growing out at the apices, &c. Few vegetable 
substances are more disagreeable than the Onion in 
a state of putrefaction. Where crops are limited in 
extent, many growers prefer to rope or bunch them 
during spare intervals in winter, which is a com- 
mendable plan, as it aids in prolonging their keeping 
Qualities when so treated and subsequently hung up 
in cool mid-air. 

It will be convenient in this place to refer to the 
culture of Onions for pickling. Choose a piece of 
ground as exposed as possible, of a stony, poor 
nature ; dig it up, make firm, and sow the seeds 
thereon, either in diill-rows or broadcast. Drill-rows 
are preferable, as the process of weeding is greatly 
simplified. The seeds must be sown thickly, and 
the whole seedling produce be permitted to grow 
very thickly together ; poor ground and density of 
crop resulting in a mass of minute bulbs such as are 
required for the purpose here named. 

A yet simpler mode of obtaining pickling Onions, 
admirably adapted for amateurs or other growers of 
small quantities, consists in laying in, as it is called, 
the thinnings of the main crops in crowded rows of 
from six to a dozen or more abreast. This is done 
by the taking out of a small opening as for digging, 
turning over a spadeful or so of earth, breaking the 
dug surface fine, sloping it down regularly with the 
spade towards the open trench, beating it firm and 
smooth, and laying in the Onions thickly, with the 
roots in the trench and the tops projecting a few 
inches above the newly-dug ground. Then place a 
little earth over the roots to hold them in position, 
invert a second spadeful of earth in front of the row 
of Onions, break it in fine, smooth down and level as 
before, insert a second row, and • so on till the whole 
of the thinnings intended for pickling are laid in. 
All the attention that these inlaid Onions need 
during the season is simply keeping clean, and 
should dry weather ensue soon after inlaying, an 
occasional watering. But they must by no means be 
unduly stimulated, as otherwise they would out- 
grow pickling size. The idea is to starve and crowd 
them into sufficient smallness for pickling, and this 
the overcrowding accomplishes. The competition 
for food is so great, the struggle for life and room so 
severe, that it is physically impossible for the Onions 
to reach beyond pickling sizes. On the best and richest 
soils favourable to the growth of Onions, this mode 
of inlaying the thinnings in crowded masses is almost 
the only means of growing pickling Onions, and it is 
astonishing what quantities of good picklers these 
crowded rows yield at the end of the growing season. 
The process of harvesting is simply a repetition of 
that explained for the main crop. 

Autumn-sown or spring and summer Onions 



require a separate and distinct treatment to tho 
above crops. Small beds are well prepared in a 
somewhat sunny, sheltered part of the garden, 
wherein seeds are sown somewhat thickly, broad- 
cast, between August 4th and August 12th. The 
young seedling plants resulting, kept free from 
weeds, remain in the bed until required for trans- 
planting. During the month of December or 
January following, prepare a piece of ground, upon 
an open exposed site, as liberally and well as possible. 
Choose a fine period during the month of February 
following, rake over this piece of ground so prepared, 
draw very shallow marks or drill-rows across it 
from five to six or nine inches asunder. Carefully take 
up the young Onions in the seed-bed, and transplant 
them along these drill-rows at from four to five inches 
apart in the rows, according to how deeply and 
well the ground has been prepared. When trans- 
planting them, take care to only place the roots 
firmly into the holes, as to unduly bury the 
stalks will act antagonistically as regards their 
ultimate full and fine bulbing powers. See that 
worms do not di-aw them out by the roots, keeping 
the ground hoed and free from weeds when spring 
arrives. Should any show signs of pushing up 
flower-stems, remove such stems immediately ; bend 
the necks of stiif ones down when the general crop 
shows signs of ripening; draw and harvest about 
midsummer, as advised for former crops. 

For the first division, or spring-sown crop, good 
selections of White Spanish, such as Nuneham Park, 
are desirable. For later-keeping ones a portion 
may consist of Main Crop, James Keeping-, and 
Bedfordshire Champion. For picklers. White 
Spanish, or White Nocera, The Queen, and Silver- 
skinned ; and for autumn-sowing, Tripoli, or the 
im]Droved varieties, Neapolitan Marzajole, Giant 
Eocca, and White Lisbon. 

The Potato Onion, a hardy variety, propagated 
generally by division, treat similarly to Shallots, 
upon deep, rich ground ; plant at distances of six or 
eight inches apart. Onions are liable to attacks of 
the Onion-fly, Anthoimjia ceparum and Eumerus 
^neus. To deter their attacks scatter soot lightly 
over the plants monthly, whilst growing. 

Parsnips [Pastinaca sativa). French, Fannis ; 
German, Pastinake ; Spanish, Pastinaca. — The Par- 
snip, or " Parsnep," as it used to be written, is a 
British plant and a biennial, which succeeds best in 
a deep rich loam of moderate consistency. According 
to old authorities, a light soil suits it best. It will 
succeed in such during rainy summers. To insure 
heavy crops, how^ever, it is essential to grow it upon 
ground having sufficient consis>tency to hold and 
maintain a liberal supply of latent moisture con> 



THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 



3/7 



ftantly ; if the root lacks this during the months of 
August and September, finely-developed produce, 
containing a minimum quantity of heart or centre, is 
not to he expected. Being a native plant it is hardy, 
and the fact that it is invariably found in its wild 
state upon calcareous soil affirms what is said above. 

The ground should be trenched, if possible, to a 
depth of at least sixteen inches, a liberal layer of 
manure placed at the bottom and midway therein ; 
but it is not advisable to enrich the soil unduly near 
to the surface, as this incites root- division, which 
causes individual plants to become forked, to the 
great demerit of the crop. The groimd should be 
prepared as early in the month of February as is 
convenient. 

Sow the seeds during the first week in the month 
of March, or as near thereto as weather permits. It 
is always desirable to sow such seeds when the 
surface soil is dry and workable. The better plan is 
to draw drill-rows, which should not be less than 
twelve to fifteen inches apart. Undue crowding of 
the young plants, an all but invariable error, makes 
it impossible for individual plants to grow to such a 
size as they are under liberal culture capable of 
doing. Towards the middle of the month of May 
the young seedling plants will have attained to svich 
size as to require thinning out. The proper distance 
apart in the rows is eight inches. Should vacancies 
exist they may be made up by transplanting strong- 
plants, with a deep dibble, wherever they occur. 
The only after-culture requisite consists of periodi- 
cal hoeings, to maintain the soil loose between the 
plants and destroy all weeds so soon as they appear. 

There is not much variety here. The Student is a 
new variety prized by many. The older original 
Hollow Crovvn variety is not probably yet surpassed 
for general qualities. A strong variety has long had 
prominence in Guernsey and Jersey, which is some- 
times called Cattle Parsnip — the Coqxiaine of the 
French, who also grow the JAsbonaise, a variety 
called sometimes the ]\Ialta. The Student is con- 
sidered by some better than either. The seeds require 
to be dropped somewhat thinly, into inch-deep 
drill-rows recommended, and should then be covered 
over in the usual way. 

Pea {Pisum sativum). French, Fois ; German, 
Erhse ; Spanish, Giusanti ; Italian, Fisello. — The Pea 
is a hardy annual, native of Soutliern Europe; its 
introduction is of long standing, though it is note- 
worthy that in the time of Queen Elizabeth {vide 
Fuller) the produce was introduced periodically from 
Holland for xise at the xo\dl table. Like many 
plants which are natives of Southern Europe, it will 
in a young state withstand the adverse influences of 
Biitish winters. 



Few amongst popular vegetables have been im- 
proved so greatly of late years. In contrast to the 
original old " Charlton " of English gardens, and the 
Nanterre of French gardens, possessing pods only 
about three or four inches long, with a similar 
number of small peas within, varieties now exist 
having pods of about double the length, containing 
from nine to twelve large peas in each. 

The treatment of the several successional crops 
has to be varied somewhat in accordance with the 
season when the seeds are sown, and that in which it 
is intended the crops should come to perfection. For 
instance, when sown in the autumn for standing, in 
short seedhng plants, through the fluctuations of our 
long winter months, for the very earliest crop, or 
sown very early after the advent of the new year 
with a like intent, a light, porous, sandy soil is the 
one suitable, and it should be one also exposed to 
all the sun possible, sheltered from northerly and 
easterly winds by walls, fences, or belts of trees, 
standing sufficiently far back not to in any way 
influence the young plants, either by shade of upper 
growth or adverse encroachment of root on to the 
cultivated area whereon they are grown. 

For the permanent crop a deep rii;h loam of a 
tenacious nature inclining to be clay-like is essential, 
or the crops, grown as they are thickly together in 
rows, will assuredly suffer during dry or moderately 
damp seasons. The result will be a too limited 
growth according to kind, an equally limited crop, 
and the undue hurrying of even such crop into the 
dry seed-bearing or ripening state, in opposition to a 
continued successional supply of large succulent pods, 
containing peas within in kind also. 

These remarks amply show that such a crop as 
this, if worth growing at all, should be grown well. 
It is far better to sow only a row of each of the early 
kinds, second early, and general crop, upon well- 
prepared ground, than to sow quantities in duplicate 
upon poor or indifferently-prepared soils. It is 
advised, therefore, that such good stiff loam as 
recommended be chosen as far as possible u2)on a 
fully-expos3d sunny site, and one not too near to 
fruit-trees, which so generall)^ exist in vegetable 
gardens ; for which purpose deep trenching, such as 
is advised for the Onion crop, is equally important. 
Uoots of Peas penetrate somewhat deeply, and unless 
they find nucleus for advance of growth at a depth 
below that to which simple digging can deposit 
manure, the growth will succumb at the most 
important time of all. All ground trenched — and 
in lieu of trenching proper, bastard trenching is 
strongly ad-vised — should be so treated during the 
winter season ; and the lighter the soil to be operated 
upon, so much the earlier should this be done. Too 
much manure — and it may be of a coarse, crude, or 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GAEDEXING. 



S78 

green nature — cannot, in reason, "be placed at the 
bottom and midway in these trenches. The results 
repay all such outlay. A conspicuous feature in 
■connection with the Pea crop is to be observed 
in the exceptional manner in which the roots 
absorb all available moisture. Whatever the summer 
season may be, whenever old Pea-haulm which has 
carried a crop is removed, the ground wherein the 
roots have expended their powers of growth is found 
to be as dry as it is possible for it to be. To neutral- 
ise this by enrichments, by waterings and surface 
mulchings of moist manurial matter, is therefore a 
need which is far too general in the neglect rather 
than the observance of. The intelligent cultivator 
will do well to take note of these simple facts, correct 
the errors, and reap the profitable results. 

In the matter of seed-sowing for this crop, practice 
Taries greatly as connected with thin and thick seed- 
sowing. The rule is to sow, at least, cent, per cent, 
too thickly. In the Principality the practice some- 
times exceeds this, on the side of error, the quantity 
of seeds sown in single rows being in some instances 
eurprisingly great. Upon the principle that imless 
«ach plant develops its vigoiu' in moderation pro- 
perly good results cannot follow, good produce is 
thereby made an impossibility. 

For the earliest spring pickings — which should 
take place in the month of jNIay, and the earlier the 
blotter — certain early sorts, being of rapid growth, 
must be chosen, and happily an improvement is 
rapidly taking place in regard to such. Inde- 
pendently of the old early "White" Peas, those 
-called commonly " Blue " Peas, which are an ap- 
proach towards the highly-valued [Marrowfats, haxe 
been added to early varieties, and being both hardy, 
of moderate height, and rapid development, come 
in nearly if not quite as early as the former. 

The earliest crop is somewhat of a speculative one. 
TSTiilst it is not possible to foresee what kind of 
weather the winter has in store, and how it will fare 
^ith late autumn-sown, such a sowing is, however, 
imperative in connection with growers who aim at 
gathering as early a crop as possible. For these sowings 
the most sheltered and best situation is one at the foot 
of a south-aspect fence. The time for sowing is during 
the early part of November, and again towards the 
middle of December. The drill-rows di'a^\Ti for 
these sowings should be one inch and a half deep, 
And. three feet distance one drill from the other. 
These drill-rows should be drawn wide or with the 
whole flat blade of a four-inch hoe, so that the seed 
Peas are somewhat divided therein when sown, in 
■such manner as they could not be were the drills 
drawn with only one comer of the hoe-blade. For 
these speculative crops, and in consideration that 
the young plants have to withstand the whole 



severity of the winter, with insect-attacks, &:c., the 
sowings should be made somewhat more thickly than 
is advised generally. When sown, draw the soil 
over on to them, chopping down all lumps, and 
make the soil fine and even immediately over the 
seeds. 

Such winter or early crops will require especial 
attention. So soon as the young seedling plants are 
two to thi-ee inches above the gi'ound, connnence 
di-awing the loose soil from both sides towards the 
young plants. Choose a fine day when the surface of 
the soil is dry, and at the first earthing hoe along 
close to the two sides of each row, chopping the soil 
down fine, then draw it close up to the base of the 
young plants, to a depth of about two inches. Jn a 
fortnight's time they will require yet another 
moulding. This time di-aw a larger quantity of soil 
towards both sides, but do not bring it into im- 
mediate contact with the young plants. Eather 
endeavour to form ^vith it a ridge on either side of 
each row higher than the apices of the ridges last made 
in moulding up. Eepeat the moulding as the winter 
advances, making such ridges still higher if possible, 
the object being to foim ridges for protection against 
cold generally, keen wind-frosts more especially, for 
if these be permitted to have full play upon the 
tender plants, they dash them against the hard frosty 
ground, twist them about, and cause irremediable 
injury. 

Dming very severe winters it is needful to 
scatter a little lime over the surface of the soil, and 
lay on either side of each row a ridge protection of 
coarse stable litter or, where obtainable. Bracken 
Fern. Sticking is an important protective winter 
aid to these early crops, and must be done so soon as 
the crop is high enough for the purpose. So soon as 
the young plants rise to a height of about four 
inches, place sticks to them in the m.anner referred 
to below. Well or deeply hoe between the rows in 
the early spring. Avhen active growth begins : and 
should it be desirable to hasten the crop, even by a 
day or two, pinch off the top of each growing plant 
so soon as flowers and their infant pods, in suflicient 
nmnbers for the crop, have been secirred. 

For the main crop, gi-ound having been prepared 
as advised, the first sowing should be made during a 
mild period towards the end of February. For this 
and the following sowings, duplicate sorts must be 
soT\m upon one and the same date, by which means 
a successional supply will be insui'ed after once a 
first gathering has been made. For the autumn 
sowings William I., Kentish Invicta, Day's Early 
Sunrise, and Dillistone's Early are most suitable. 

A row or two of each of these should also be again 
sown during this February sowing, and along with 
them Earliest of All. Again in IMarch, choosing fine 



THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 



379 



weather, make sowings of such, as Stratagem, 
Wonderful, and Princess Eoyal. Three weeks later 
sow one or the other of these three last named, along 
with such varieties as Telephone, Yeitch's Perfection, 
and Xe Plus Ultra. Continue successional sowings 
of these last or similar good varieties every three 
weeks tmtil the end of the month of May has heen 
reached. During the months of June and July sow 
these successions so soon as each last sowing is 
through the ground, or in round dates about once a 
fortnight. 

The tall-growing kinds should be sown about one 
foot wider apart in the rows than the short ones 
before named. Draw the di'ills for these tall sorts 
also with a six-inch-blade hoe if possible, making a 
wide drill-row, over the whole space of which scatter 
the seeds. Chop the soil down from each side of the 
drill-rows, after having first pressed the seeds down 
into the soil with the foot to secure firmness and 
more ready germination at such times as the weather 
proves dry. Leave the surface somewhat rough and 
loose over the seeds, and do not raise too great a ridge 
over them, but let it lie flat to catch such rain- 
showers as fall uniformly all over. 

"^A'hen these main crops have attained to the 
height of two or tkree inches above ground, di-aw 
just a few inches of soil close up to the young plants, 
then hoe deeply beside the rows and across the whole 
extent of the alleys between them. Xow draw quite 
a large ridge of soil up towards each row on both 
sides, but not nearer to it than two or three inches, 
making a table-land, fi'om which the 3-oung plants 
grow, with a ridge around it. By so doing heavy 
rain-showers will flow direct on to and over the 
roots, and not, as is too often the case, be diiven 
away from them into the alleys. Artificial wateiings 
can also be given to them vdth far better effect. To 
aid rains to thus penetrate to the roots, the sticks 
should also have their base placed just inside the 
outer ridge of this table-land on both sides. 

Pea-sticks should be prepared strong and thin. All 
ill-placed branches should be cut off, and the spray 
branchlets fi'om their apex ; so that each stick should 
form extended horizontal arms wh-^reby to conduct 
the plants in their upward growth, and to maintain 
them permanently in futm-e against the incidence of 
heaA-y rain and wind storms alike. Diuing a dry 
season such sticks may be somewhat less in height 
than the reputed height of given sorts. During 
rainy seasons they should be higher. 

Take care to point each slick well without jagged 
edges, so that in pressing them into the gi-ound risk 
of injury to the roots below is reduced to a minimum. 
The sticks must be placed in the ground so that they 
are as wide apart row fi'om row, top and bottom or each 
end, as is the base of the two rows apart. Amateurs 



generally make them meet at top, which is a very 
objectionable practice. It aids the young plants to 
clasp the sticks with, their leaf -tendrils as they travel 
upwards, to place the sticks slanting in the rows. 
Commencing with the first stick at one end so slant- 
ing, each one in succession should be placed at the 
same divergence from upright. When the two main 
rows of sticks have been fixed on each side any single 
row of Peas, a few of the short branchlets cut off 
in process of trimming might bo inserted all around, 
in the openings existing between the larger sticks, 
as an additional aid and incentive to activity of the 
yoimg plants. 

Birds of minor kinds are often very destructive to 
the Pea just at the time when germination takes 
place, and the young plants issue through the ground. 
At such a stage the common house-sparrows often 
clip off the young heads out of, as it would seem, 
sheer wantonness. Pea-guards are useful deterrents, 
so also are one or two threads stretched along the 
rows at about two inches above the young plants. 
Such thi-eads cannot be too small or too transparent, 
however. These wary bii-ds are more opposed to 
contact with such a minor matter they cannot imder- 
stand, than of strong string, which they would not 
hesitate to settle upon. 

Finally, for very late crops in autumn, the early 
kinds sown during November, &c., have been very 
generally recommended. For late autumn picking, 
however, no sort is better than the old Ne Plus Ultra, 
of which additional sowings might be made late in 
July. 

Artificial waterings are an important aid to Peas 
during di^y or moderately moist summers. "\Mien- 
ever resorted to, however, they should be copiously 
applied, along with waterings of liquid manure, as 
occasion may demand. Mildew often attacks late 
Peas with great virulence. It is easily destroyed by 
dusting the whole surface growth over with flowers 
of sulp)hur. 

Both the hawfinch and blue tit are often very 
destructive to peas. The former must be shot, and 
the latter kept off by similar means or by netting, 
kc, else will all pods be destroyed. 

Dwarf varieties of Peas are veiy easily forced or 
forwarded in pots. Similar treatment to that re- 
quired for Dwarf Ividney Beans, but with an average 
of about 5° less heat, suits them admirably. Varie- 
ties suitable for this purpose are Little Gem and 
American Wonder. 

Desirable varieties are — First early : Dickson's 
First, Dr. Hogg, Day's Early Sunrise, William the 
First, Kentish Invicta, and Paragon. Second early 
and general crop : Dr. Maclean, Evolution, Cham- 
pion of England, Gladiator, Telephone, Yeitch's 
Perfection, Dignity, Charles the First, Hunting- 



380 



CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. 



donian, Maclean's Wonderful, TelegTaph, Stratagem, 
John Bull Magnificent, Harrison's Glory, G. F. 
Wilson, Dickson's Favourite, Victory, Duke of 
Connaught, Robert Fenn, &c. For later crop : 
Emperor of the Marrows, Maclean's Best of All, 
Ne Plus Ultra, Sturdy, British Queen, Culverwell's 
Giant Marrow, Omega, Prince of Wales, and 
Yorkshire Gem. 

Rliubarb {Rheum Rhapontiewn.) French, Rhu- 
harbe ; German, Rhabarber ; Italian, Rhubarbaro ; 
Spanish, Rilibarbo. The common culinary Rhubarb 
deserves notice here, even though its leaf -produce is 
subject to somewhat different treatment to what other 
vegetable comestibles of the garden are. As a perennial 
plant, introduced originally from Asia, it is as hardy 
as it is easily grown, and popular amongst all classes. 
Many garden varieties, some of which are great 
improvements on the original species above, exist. 
All may be increased, either by seeds or division of 
the roots, as every crown attached to old stools will 
separate, and form independent plants readily when 
separately planted. 

In forming new plantations it is most economical 
to trench the ground two or three feet deejD, or to the 
depth at which the subsoil is found. The more 
manure, in reason,, then placed at the bottom of the 
trench, and midway up it, so much the better, be- 
cause it is not possible to make any additi ns 
thereto during the existence of such plantations. The 
plants, which may be possessed of two or three crowns 
each, should be planted upon such newly -prepared 
ground in rows three feet apart, and two feet dis- 
tances apart in the rows. Care must be taken upon 
trenched ground to somew^hat elevate the crowns at 
the time of planting, else when the ground finally 
settles down, they will be found to be too deep, which 
is a drawback to continued success in the future. Not 
only does this plant succeed better elevated somewhat 
above the mean level of the surface ; but by being so 
placed a better opportunity will, besides, be given, to 
add manure abundantly, in the form of mulchings, to 
the surfaces of the roots. Having planted such a 
plantation, it will, aided by these latter mulchings, 
last in full productiveness for years, the only further 
laoour requisite in regard to it being an annual early 
spring forking over of the surface-soil, and the need- 
ful amount of hoeing to keep it free from weeds. 



Seeds maybe sown either in deep boxes filled with 
rich soil, under glass protection, upon a slight hot- 
bed, or upon a warm, sunny border out of doors. In 
the two former cases the month of March should be 
chosen, and the latter about the middle or end of 
the month of April. So soon as the plants become 
large enough, transplant from the two former on to a 
rich nursery bed. Thin out the plants upon the 
latter when large enough, transplanting such young 
seedlings as are dr-awn in the operation. Grow the 
young plants in these nursery beds until large enough, 
then finally transplant into permanent plantations, as 
before advised. The variety named " Paragon " is 
one of the most prolific amongst late improvements. 
The crowns are, however, so easily divided, that un- 
less for new varieties, root division is the simplest 
means of propagation. 

Hastening forward or forcing Rhubarb is ex- 
ceedingly easy and simple. Any time after the 
middle of the month of December proper forcing or 
sea-kale pots are placed over each crown (large-sized 
fiower-pots may be inverted over them), these aie 
subsequently covered over with fresh manure in a 
state of ferment. By ensuring that the heat rises to 
80^ or 85'' Fahrenheit during the first week, graduallv 
falling down to 58° or CO", growth will be caused 
within, and a good crop of tender semi-blanched 
leaves will result. By similar treatment dming the 
months of February and March, using any kind of 
straw, litter, or kindred covering in lieu of ferment- 
ing materials, the natural supply will also be has- 
tened a month or two. Roots may also be taken up 
and potted, or placed into mould in a mushroom shed 
or other warm place, which being well watered will 
also give from two to three crops of leaves suitable, in 
rapid succession. Established plantations are jirone 
to run to seed somewhat about Midsirmmer. It is 
very important that such stalks be removed immedi- 
ately they make their appearance, else they rob the 
base of much strength, which should repose in the 
loots below' for future expenditure in needful rcot 
form. It is an error to deprive plantations of their 
leaves more than about three or four times in suc- 
cession during any sjoring season, A good displ;;^' of 
such should be permitted during the summer mcnth<, 
to remain upon the plants for autumn ripening down, 
whereby alone means of a good and abundant crop 
in the spring following is assured. 



PRINTED BY CASSELL AND COMPANY, LIMITED, LA BELLE SADVAGE, LONDON, E.C. 



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Natural History, Cassell's Concise. By E. Perceval Wright, M.A., M.D., 

F.L.S. With several Hundred Illustrations. 7s. 6d. ; roxburgh, los. 6d. 

Natural History, Cassell's New. Edited by Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B., 

F.R.S., F.G.S. With Contributions by Eminent Scientific Writers. Complete in 
Six Vols. With about 2,000 high-class Illustrations. Extra crown 410, cloth, gs. each. 

Nature, Short Studies from. Illustrated. Cheap Edition. 2s. 6d. 

Nursing for the Home and for the Hospital, A Handbook o£ By Cathe- 
rine J. Wood. Cheap Edition, is. 6d. ; cloth. 2s. 

Nursing of Sick Children, A Handbook for the. By Catherine J.Wood. 2s. 6d. 
Orion the Gold Beater. A Novel. By Sylvanus Cobb, Junr. Cloth, 3s. 6d. 
Our Own Country. Six Vols. With 1,200 Illustrations. Cloth, 7s. 6d. each. 
Paxton's Flower Garden. Three Vols. With 100 Coloured Plates, {^x is. each. 
People I've Smiled With. Recollections of a Merry Little Life. By Marshall 
P. Wilder. 2s. 

Peoples of the World, The. By Dr. Robert Brown. Complete in Six Volumes. 
With Illustrations. 7s. 6d. each. 

Phantom City, The. By W. Westall. ss. 

Photography for Amateurs. ByT. C. Hepworth. Illustrated, is. ; or cloth, is. 6d. 
Phrase and Fable, Dictionary of. By the Rev. Dr. Brewer. Cheap Edition, 

Enlarged, cloth, 3s. 6d. ; or with leather back, 4s. 6d. 
Picturesque America. Complete in Four Vols., with 48 Exquisite Steel Plates, 

and about 800 Original Wood Engravings. £-2 2s. each. 
Picturesque Canada. With about 600 Original Illustrations. Two Vols., 

£-i 3s. each. 

Picturesque Europe. Complete in Five Vols. Each containing 13 Exquisite Steel 
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in Five Vols., 18s. each. 



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Pigeon Keeper, The Practical. By Lewis Wright. Illustrated. 3s. 6d. 
Pigeons, The Book of. By Robert Fulton. Edited by Lewis Wright. With 

50 Coloured Plates and numerous^ Wood Engravings. 31s. 6d. ; half-morocco, £,2 2s. 

Pocket Guide to Europe (Cassell's). Size 5I in. x 3! in. Leather, 6s. 
Poems, Representative of Living Poets, American and English. Selected by 

the Poets themselves. 15s. 

Poets, Cassell's Miniature Library of the :— 

Burns. Two \'ols. Cloth, is. each ; or cloth, 



gilt edges, as. 6d. the set. 
Byron. Two \"ols. Cl .tli, is. each ; or cloth, 

gilt edges, 2>. 6d. the set. 
Hood. Two Vols. Cloth, is. each ; or cloth, 

gilt edges, 2S. 6d. the set. 
Longfellow. Two Vols. Clotli, is. each ; or 

cloth, gilt edges, 2s. 6d. the set. 

Shakespeare. Twelve 



Milton. Two Vols. Cloth, is. each ; or cloth, 

gilt edges, 2s. 6d. the set. 
Seott. Two Vols. Cloth, IS each; or cloth, 

gilt edges, as. 6d. the set. 
Sheridan and Goldsmith. 2 Vols. Cloth, is. 

each ; or cloth, gilt edges, 2.s. 6d. the set. 
Wordsworth. Two Vols. Cloth, is. each ; 
or cloth, gilt edges, zs. 6d. the set. 
half cloth, in box, 12s. 



Poor Relief in Foreign Countries, &c. By Louis.a. Twining, is. 

Popular Library, Cassell's. A Series of New and Original Works. Cloth, is. eacn. 



The Russian Empire. 

The Religious Revolution in the Six- 
teenth Century. 
Enghsh Journalism. 
Our Colonial Empire. 
The Young Man in the Battle of Life. 



J ohn Wesley. 
The Story of the English Jacobirs. 
Domestic Polk Lore. 
The Rev. Rowland Hill. 
Boswell and Johnson. 

History of the Free-Trade Movement in 
England. 



Lewis Wright. With Coloured Plates 
Popular Edition. With Illustra- 



Poultry Keeper, The Practical By 

and Illustrations. 3s. 6d. 

Poultry, The Book of By Lewis W^right. 

tions on Wood, los. 6d. 

Poultry, The Illustrated Book of. By Lewis Wright. With Fifty Exquisite 

Coloured Plates, and numerous Wood Engravings. Cloth. 31s. 6d. ; half-morocco, £its.. 

Printing Machinery and Letterpress Printing, Modern. By Fred. J. F. 

Wilson and Douglas Gkey. Illustrated. 21s. 

Queen Victoria, The Life and Times of. By Robert Wilson. Conoplete in 

2 Vols. With numerous Illustrations. 9s. each. 

Queer Race, A. By W. Westall. Cloth, 5s. 

Rabbit-Keeper, The Practical By Cuniculus. Illustrated. 3s. 6d. 

Railway Library, Cassell's. Crown 8vo, boards, 2s. each. 



JDead Man's Roek. Bj' Q. 
A Queer Race. By M estall. 
C.iptaia Trafalgar. By Westall and Laurie, 
The Phantom City. By W. AVestall. 
Another's Crime. By Julian Hawthorne. 
The Yoke of the Thorah. By Sidney 
Luska. 

Wlio is John Noman? By Charles Henry 
Beckett. 

Red Library of English and American Classics, The, 

cloth, 2S. each. 
The Prairie. 

Dombey and Son. Two Vols. 
Night and Morning. 
Kenilworth. 

The Ingoldsby Legends. 
Tow r of London. 
The Pionpprs. 
Charles O'Malley. 
Barnaby Rudge. 
Cakes and Ale. 
The King's Own. 
People I have Met. 
The Pathfinder. 
Evehna. 
Scott's Poems. 
Last of the Barons. 
Adventures of Mr. Ledbury. 
Ivanhoe. 
Oliver Twist. 

Selections from Hood's Works. 
Longfellow's Prose Works. 
Sense and Sensibility. 
Lytton's Plays. [Harte). 
Tales, Poems, and Sketches (Bret 
Martin Chuzzlewit. Two Vols. 
The Prince of the Hou^e of David. 
Sheridan's Plays. 



The Tragedy of Brinkwater. By Martha 

L. Moodey. 

An American Penman. By Julian Haw- 
thorne. 

Section 558 ; or, The Fatal Letter. By 

Julian Hawthcrne. 
The Brown fcioue Boy. By A\'. H. Bishop. 
A Traeie Mystery. By luhan Hawth rne. 
The Great Banj£ Roobery. By Fulian 
Hawthorne. 



Stiff covers, is. each ; 



TJnele Tom's Cabin. 
Deerslayer. 
Eugene Aram. 

Jack Hint on, the Guardsman. 
Rome and the Early Christians. 
The Trials of Margaret Lyndsay. 
Edgar Allan Poe. Prose and Poetry. Selec- 
Old Mortality. 
The Hour and the Man. 
Washington Irving's Sketeh-Book. 



[tiOMs from. 



Last Days of Palmyra. 
Tales of the Borders. 



Pride and Prejudice. 
Last of the Mohicans. 
Heart of Midlothian. 
Last Days of Pompeii. 
Yellowplush Papers. 
Handy Andy. 
Selected Plays. 
American Humour. 
Sketches by Boz. 

Macaulay's Lays and Selected Essays. 
Harry Lorrequer. 
Old Curiosity Shop. 
Rienzi. 

The Talisman. 
Pickwick. Two Vols. 
Scarlet Letter. 



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Rivers of Great Britain, The: Descriptive, Historical, Pictorial. RIVERS 
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with Etching as Frontispiece, 42s. 

Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, as Designer and Writer. Notes by William 

Michael Rossetti. 7s. 6d. 
Royal River, Tlie : The Thames, from Source to Sea. With Descriptive Text 

and a Series of beautiful Engravings. £2. 2S. 

Russia. By Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, M.A. 5s. 
Russia, Truth about. By W. T. Stead. Demy 8vo, cloth, los. 6d. 
Russo-TurMsh War, Cassell s History of. With about 500 Illustrations. Two 

Vols., qs. each ; hbrary binding, One Vol., 153. 

St. Cuthbert's To"V7er. By Florence Warden. Three Vols., cloth, 31s. 6d. 
Saturday Journal, CasseU's. Yearly Vols. , 7s. 6d. 

Science for All. Edited by Dr. Robert Brown, M.A., F.L.S., &c. Revised 

Edition. With 1,500 Illustrations. Five Vols., gs. each. 

Sea, The: Its Stirring Story of Adventure, Peril, and Heroism. By 

F. Whymper. With 400 Illustrations. Four Vols., 7s. 6d. each. 
Secret of the Lamas, The. A Tale of Thibet. Crown 8vo, 5s. 
Sent Back by the Angels ; and other Ballads of Home and Homely Life. By 

Frederick Langbridge, M.A. Poiidar Edition, is. 

Shaftesbury, The Seventh Earl of, K.G., The Life and Work of. By Edwin 

HoDDER. With Portraits. Three^ Vols., 36s. Popzuar Edition^ \a.Qn^NQ\.,'is.(i^ 

Shakspere, The International. Edition de luxe. 

" King Henry IV." Illustrated by Herr Eduard Grl'tzner. los. 

"As You Like It." Illustrated by Mons. Emile Bayard. £2> lo'^- 

"Romeo and Juhet." Illustrated by Frank Dicksee, A.R.A. 5s. 
Shakspere, The Leopold. With 400 Illustrations, and an Introduction by F, J, 

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Shakspere, The Royal. With Exquisite Steel Plates and Wood Engravings. 

Three Vols. 15s. each. 

Shakespeare, CasseU's Quarto Edition. Edited by Charles and Mary Cowden 

Clarke, and containing about 600 Illustrations by H. C. Selous. Coniplete in 
Three Vols., cloth gilt, £2, 3s. — Also published in Three separate Volumes, in cloth, 
viz. : — The Comedies, 21s. ; The Historical Plays, i8s. 6d. ; The Tragedies, 25s. 

Shakespeare, Miniature. Illustrated. In Twelve Vols., in box, 12s. ; or in 
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Shakespeare, The England of By E. Goadby. Illustrated. New Edition. 2s. 6d. 

Shakespearean Scenes and Characters. By Austin Brereton. Royal 4to, 21s. 

Sketching from Nature in Water Colours. By Aaron Penley. 15s. 

Skin and Hair, The Management of the. By Malcolm Morris, F. R. C.S. 2s. 

Social Welfare, Subjects of. By the Rt. Hon. Sir Lyon Playfair, M.P. 7s. 6d, 

South Eastern Railway, The Official Illustrated Guide to The. is. ; cloth, 2s. 

Spectacles, How to Select, in Cases of Long, Short, and Weak Sight. By 
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Splendid Spur, The. Being Memories of the Adventures of Mr. John Marvel, 
a Servant of His late Majesty, King Charles I., in the years 1642-3. Written by 
himself. Edited in Modern English by " O," Author of " Dead Man's Rock," &c. 
Crown 8vo, 5s. 

Sports and Pastimes, CasseU's Complete Book of. Cheap Edition. With 

more than 900 Illustrations. Cloth, 3s. 6d. 
Starland. Being Talks A\-ith Young People about the Wonders of the Heavens. 

By Sir Robert Stawell Ball, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Illustrated. Crown 8vo, 6s. 
Stock Exchange Year-Book, The. By Thomas Skinner. 12s. 6d. 
Sunlight and Shade. With numerous Exquisite Engravings. 7s. 6d. 
Thackeray, Character Sketches from. Six New and Original Drawings by 

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Three and Sixpenny Library of Standard Tales, &c. All Illustrated and bound 

in cloth gilt. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d. each. 
Jane Austen and h.er Works. 
Mission Life in G-reece and. Palestine. 
The Romance of Trade. 
The Three Homes. 
Deepdale Vicarage. 

In Duty Bound. _ _ , „ ^ r ^, , 

Fairy Tales. By Prof. Morley. 

Tot Book for aU Public Examinations. By W. S. Thomson, M.A. zs. 



The Half Sisters. 

Peggy Oglivie's Inheritance. 

Tlie Family Honour. 

Esther West. 

Working to Win. 

Krilof and his Fables. 



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Treasure Island. By R. L. Stevenson. Illustrated. 5s. 
Treatment, The Year-Book of. A Critical Review for Practitioners of Medicine 
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Tree Painting in Water Colours. By W. H. J. Boot. With Eighteen 

Coloured Plates, and valuable instructions by the Artist. 53. 

Trees, Familiar. By G. S. Boulger, F.L.S., F.G.S. Two Series. With Forty 

full-page Coloured Plates by W. H. J. Boot. 12s. 6d. each. 
Triumphs of Engineering. With Eight full-page Illustrations. 5s. 
Troy Town, The Astonishing History of. By Q, Author of *' Dead Man's Rock." 

Crown 8vo, cloth, 5s. 

Under a Strange Mask. By Frank Barrett. Illustrated. Two Vols. 12s. 
"Unicode": The Universal Telegraphic Phrase Book. Pocket and Desk 
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United States, Cassell's History of the. By the late Edmund Ollier. With 600 

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United States, The Youth's History of. By Edward S. Ellis. Illustrated. 

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Universal History, Cassell's Illustrated. With nearly One Thousand 
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Vaccination Vindicated. An Answer to the leading Anti- Vaccinators. By John 
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Veiled Beyond, The. A Novel. By S. B. Alexander. Cloth, 3s. 6d. 

Vicar of Wakefield and other Works by Oliver Goldsmith. Illustrated. 
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Water-CoIour Painting, A Course of. With Twenty-four Coloured Plates by 

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What Girls Can Do. By Phyllis Browne. 2s. 6d. 

Wild Birds, Familiar. By W. Swaysland. Four Series. With 40 Coloured 

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Wild nowers, Familiar. By F. E. Hulme, F.L.S., F.S.A. Five Series. With 

40 Coloured Plates in each. 12s. 6d. each. 

Wise Woman, The. By George Macdonald. 2s. 6d. 
Woman's World, The. Yearly Volume. i8s. 

Wordsworth's Ode on Immortality, and Lines on Tintem Abbey. Fully 

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World of Wit and Humour, The. With 400 Illustrations. Cloth, 7s. 6d. ; cloth 

gilt, gilt edges, los. 6d. 
World of Wonders, The. With 400 Illustrations. Two Vols. 7s. 6d. each. 
World's Lumber Room, The. By Selina Gaye. Illustrated. 2s. 6d. 
Yule Tide. Cassell's Christmas Annual, is. 



ILLUSTRATED MAGAZINES. 
The Quiver, for Sundny and General Beading. Monthly, 6d. 

CasseWs Family Magazine. Monthly, yd. 
** Little FoUcs Magazine. Monthly, 6d. 
The Magazine of Art. Monthly, is. 
The Woman's World, Monthly, is. 
CasseWs Saturday *Tournal. Weekly, id. ; Monthly, 6d. 
Work, An Illustrated Magazine of Practice and Theory for all Work- 
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Catalogues of Cassell & Company's Publications, which nnay be had at all 

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Cassell's Complete Catalogue, containing particulars of One Thousand 
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Cassell's Classified Catalogue, in which their Works are arranged according 

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Cassell's Educational Catalogue, containing particulars of Cassell & 

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CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited, Ludgate Hill, London. 



Selections from Cassell cC- Company's Publications, 



%\\Az^ antr Jldxgtnita tolnrka. 

Bible, Cassell's Illustrated Family. With 900 Illustrations. Leather, gilt 

edges, £2. 105. ; full morocco, los. 
Bible Dictionary, Cassell's. With nearly 600 Illustrations. 7s. 6d. ; roxburgh, 
ICS. 6d. 

Bible Educator, The. Edited by the Very Rev. Dean Plumptre, D.D. With 

Illustrations, Maps, &c. Four Vols., cloth, 6s. each. 
Bible Talks about Bible Pictures. Illustrated by Gustave Dok£ and others. 

Large 4to, 35. 

Biblewomen and Nurses. Yearly Volume, 3s. 

Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (Cassell's Illustrated). 4to. 7s. 6d. 

Bujiyan's Pilgrim's Progress. With Illustrations. Popular Edition, 3s. 6d. 

CMld's Bible, The. With 200 Illustrations. Demy 4to, 830 pp. T-^oth Thousand. 
Cheap Edition, ys. 6d. Supe-rior Edition, with 6 Coloured Plates, gilt edges, ids. 6d. 

Child's Life of Christ, The. Complete in One Handsome Volume, with about 

200 Original Illustrations. Cheap Edition, cloth, 7s. 6d. ; or with 6 Coloured Plates, 

cloth, gilt edges, los. 6d. Demy 4to, gilt edges, 21s. 
"Come, ye Children." By Rev. Ben'jamix Waugh. Illustrated. 55. 
Commentary, The New Testament, for English Readers. Edited by the 

Rt. Rev. C. J. Ellicott, D.D., Lord Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol. In Three 

Volumes, 21s. each. 

Vol. 1.— The Pour Gospels. 

Vol. II.— Tlie Acts, Romans, CorintMans, Salatians. 
Vol. III.— The remaining Books of the New Testament. 

Commentary, The Old Testament, for English Readers. Edited by the Rt 

Rev. C. J. Ellicott, D.D., Lord Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol. Complete in 
5 Vols., 2 IS. each. 

VoL I.— Genesis to Numbers. I Vol. III.— Elings I. to Esther. 

VoL II.— Deuteronomy to Samuel H. | V:l. IV.— Job to Isaiah. 

Vol. v.— Jeremiah to MalaeM. 

Dictionary of Religion, The. An Encyclopaedia of Christian and other 
Religious Doctrines, Denominations, Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiastical Terms, History, 
Biography, &c. &c. By the Rev. William Bexham, B.D. Cloth, 21s. ; roxburgh, 25s. 

Dore Bible. With 230 Illustrations by Gustave Dore. Origifial Edition. 
Two Vols., cloth, £ii ; best morocco, gilt edges, £i^. 

Early Days of Christianity, The. By the Ven. Archdeacon Farrar, D.D., F. R.S. 
Library Edition. Two Vols., 24s. ; morocco, £z 2s. 

Popular Edition. Complete in One Volume, cloth, 65. ; cloth, gilt edges, 
73. cd. ; Per^ian morocco, los. 6d. ; tree-calf, 15s. 
Family Prayer-Book, The. Edited by Rev. Canon Garbett, M.A, and Rev. 
S. 2vIartin. Extra crown 4to, cloth, 5s. ; morocco, i8s. 

GeiMe, Cunningham, D.D., Works by :— 

The Holy Land, and the Bible. A Book of Scripfare Illustrations gathered in Palestine. With 

Mao. Tv.o \'oI=. 24s. 
Hours with tbe Bible. Sis Vols. 6s. each. 
Entering on Life. 3s. 6 1. 
Tiae Precious Pro mi ses, ss. 6d. 
Tiie English Keformation. 5s. 
Old Testament Ciiaracters. 6s. 

The Life and Words of Christ. lUustrated Two Vols., doth, 30s. Library Edition. Two 
Vols., cloth, 3CS. Sti<.ie-nts' Edition, Tv;z,\'o\i., Ckeip Editio>:, in One\o1 7s. 6d. 

Glories of the Man of Sorro-wrs, The. Sermons preached at St James's, 

Piccadilly. By the Rev. H. G. Bon.-vvia Hi nt, Mus.D., F.R.S.Edin. 2s. 6d. 
Gospel of Grace, The. By a Lindesie. Cloth, 2s. 6d. 

Helps to Belief A Series of Helpful Manuals on the Religious Difficulties of the 
Day. Edited by the Rev. Teignmouth Shore, M.A., Chaplain in Ordinary to 
the Queen. Cloth, is. each. 



creation. By the Lord Bishop of Carlisle. 
Miracles. By the E,ev. Brownlow Mait- 
land, M.A. 

Prayer. By the Hev. T. Teignmouth Shore, 



THE Morality of the Old Testament. By 
theKev. Newman Smyth, D.D. 



The DiviNirv' of Our Lord. By the Lord 
Bishop of Derry. 
The Atonement. By the Lord Bishop of Peterboroiigh. 



Selections from Cassett <fc Company's Publications. 



"Heart Cliords." A Series of Works by Eminent Divines. Bound in cloth, red 
edges, IS. each. 



My Father. By the Right Rev. Ashton Oxenden, 

late Bishop of Montreal 
My Bible. By the Rt. Rev. W. Boyd Carpenter, 

Bishop of Ripon. 
My Work for G-od. By the Right Rev. Bishop 

Cotterill. 

My Object in Life. By the Van. Archdeacon 
Farrar, D.D. 

My Aspirations. By the Rev. G. Matheson. D.D. 
My Emotional life. By the Rev. Preb. Chad- 
•R-ick, D.D. 

My Body. By the Rev. Prof. W. G. Blaikie, D.D. 



My Sonl. By the Rev. P. B. Power. M. A. 

My Growth, in Divine Ldfe. By the Rev. 
Prebendary Rej-nolds, M.A. 

My Hereafter. By the Very Rev. Dean Bicker- 
stern. 

My Walk with G^d. By the Very Rev. Dean 

Montgomery. 
My Aids to the Divine lafe. By the Very 

Rev. Dean Boyle. 
My Sources of Stren^h. By the Rev. E. E. 

Jenkins. M.A., Secretarj' of the Weslej-an 

Missionarj' Society. 



Holy Land and the Bible, The. A Book of Scripture Illustrations gathered in 
Palestine. By the Rev. Cunningham Geikie, D.D. Two Vols., demy 8vo, 1,120 
pages, with Map. Price 24s. 

"I Must." Short Missionary Bible Readings. By Sophia M. Nugent. 
Enamelled cover, 6d. ; cloth, gilt edges, is. 

Life of Christ, The. By the Yen. Archdeacon Farrar, D.D., F.R.S., Chaplain 
in Ordinary' to the Queen. 

Illustrated Edition, with about 300 Original Illustrations. Extra crown 4to, 
cloth, gilt edges, 21s. ; morocco antique, 42s. 

Library Edition. Two Vols. Cloth, 24s. ; m^orocco, 42s. 

Popular Edition, in One Vol. 8vo, cloth, 6s. ; cloth, gilt edges, 7s. 6d. ; Persian 
morocco, gilt edges, los. 6d. ; tree-calf, 15s. 

Marriage Ring, The. By William Landels, D.D. Bound in white 
leatherette, gilt edges, in box, 6s. ; French morocco, 8s. 6d. 

Moses and Geology ; or, the Harmony of the Bible with Science. By 

the Rev. Samuel Kixxs, Ph.D., F.R.A.S. Illustrated. CJieap Edition, os. 

Protestantism, The History of. By the Rev. J. A. Wylie, LL.D. Containing 
upwards of ooo Original Illustrations. Three Vols., 27s. ; Library- Edition, 30$. 

"Quiver" Yearly Volume, The. With about 600 Original Illustrations and 
Coloured Frontispiece. 7s. 6d. Also Jlonthlj', 6d. 

St. George for England ; and other Sermons preached to Children. Fifth 
Edition. By the Rev. T. Teignmouth Shore, M.A. 5s. 

St Paul, The Life and Work of. By the Ven. Archdeacon Farrar, D.D., 
F.R.S., Chaplain in Ordinary' to the Queen. 
Library Edition. Two Vols., cloth, 24s. ; calf, 42s. 

Illustrated Edition, complete in One Volume, with about 300 Illustrations, 
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Popular Edition. One Volume, 8vo, cloth, 6s. ; cloth, gilt edges, 7s. 6d. ; 
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Secular Life, The Gospel of the. Sermons preached at Oxford. By the Hon. 

W. H. Fremantle, Canon of Canterbury'. CJieap Edition. 2s. 6d. 

Shall We Know One Another ? By the Rt. Rev. J. C. Ryle, D.D., Bishop of 

Liverpool. Ne7v and Enlarged Edition. Cloth limp, is. 

Stromata. By the Ven. Archdeacon Shertngham, M.A. 2s. 6d, 

"Sunday," Its Origin, History, and Present Obligation. By the Ven. Arch- 
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Twilight of Life, The: Words of Counsel and Comfort fer tlie Aged. By 

John Ellerton, M.A. is. 6d. 

Voice of Time, The. By John Stroud. Cloth gilt, is. 



Selections from Cassell & Cojiipany^s Ptihliccdions. 



(g&urattonal tEorka anir ^tuir^nta' Manuals. 

Alphabet, Cassell's Pictorial. Size, 35 inches by 42 J inches. Mounted on 
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Arithmetics, The Modern School. By George Ricks, B.Sc. Lond. With Test 

Cards. (List on application.) 

Book-Keeping. By Theodore Jones. For Schools, 2s. ; or cloth, 3s. For 

THE Million, 2s. ; or cloth, 3s. Books for Jones's System, Ruled Sets of, 2s. 

Chemistry, The Public School. ByJ. H. Anderson, M.A. 2s. 6d. 
Commentary, The New Testament. Edited by Bishop Ellicott. Handy 
Volume Edition. Suitable for School and general use. 



St. Mattliew. 3s. 6d. 
St. Mark. 3s. 
St. Luke. 3s. 6d. 
St. John. 3s. 6d. 

Apostles. 



Romans. 2s. 6d. I Titus, Philemon, Hebrews, 



Corinthians I. and II. 
Galatians, Ephesians, and 

Philippians. 3s. 
Colossians, Thessalonians, 

and Timothy. 3s. 



and J ames. 3s. 
Peter, Jude, and John. 3s. 
The Kevelation. 3s. 
An Introduction to the New 
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Commentary, The Old Testament. Edited by Bishop Ellicott. Handy Volume 

Edition. Suitable for School and general use. 
Genesis. 3s. 6d. | Leviticus. 3s. I Deuteronomy. 2s. 6d. 

Exodus. 3s. I Numbers. 2s. 6d. | 

Copy-Books, Cassell's Graduated. Complete in 18 Books. 2d. each. 
Copy-Books, The Modern School. Complete in 12 Books. 2d. each. 
Drawing Copies, Cassell's "New Standard," Fourteen Books:— 

Books A to F, for Standards \. to IV 2d. each. 

„ G, H, K, L, M, O, for Standards V to VII 3d. each. 

N, P, 4d. each. 

Drawing Copies, CasseU's Modern School Freehand. First Grade, is. ; Second 

Grade, 2s. 

Electricity, Practical. By Prof. W. E. Ayrtox. 7s. 6d. 

Energy and Motion : A Text-Book of Elementary Mechanics. By William 

Paige, M.A. Illustrated, is. 6d. 
English Literature, A First Sketch of, from the Earliest Period to the Present 

Time. By Prof. Henry Morley. 7s. 6d. 
Euclid, CasseU's. Edited by Prof. WALLACE, M.A. is. 
Euclid, The First Four Books of. In paper, 6d. ; cloth, gd. 
French, CasseU's Lessons in. New and Revised Edition. Parts I. and H., each 

2S. 6d. ; complete, 4s. 6d. Key, is. 6d. 
French-English and English-French Dictionary. Entirely New and Enlaj-ged 

Edition. 1,150 pages, 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. 

French Reader, CasseU's Public School. By Guillaume S. Conrad. 2s. 6d. 
Galbraith and Haughton's Scientific Manuals. By the Rev. Prof. Galbraith, 
M.A., and the Rev. Prof. Haughton, M.D., D.C.L. 
Plane Trigonometry. 2s. 6d. 
Euclid. Books I., II., III. 2S. 6d. Books IV., 

v., VI. 2S. 6d. 
Mathematical Tables. 3s. 6d. 
Mechanics. 3s. 6d. 
Natural Philosophy. 3s. 6d. 



Optics. 2s. 6d. 

Hy. 



[ydrostaties. 3s. 6d. 
Astronomy. 5s. 
Steam Engine. 3s. 6d. 

Algebra. Part I., cloth, 2s. 6d. Complete, 7s. 6d. 
Tides and Tidal Currents, with Tidal Cards, 3s. 

Geometry, First Elements of Experimental. By Paul Bert. P ully Illustrated. 

IS. 6d. 

Geometry, Practical Solid. By Major Ross, R.E. 2s. 

German Dictionary, Cassell's New. German-English, English-German. Cloth, 

7s. 6d. ; half-morocco, 9s. 
German of To-Day. By Dr. Heinemaotj. is. 6d. 
German Reading, First Lessons in. By A. Jagst. Illustrated, is. 
Hand and Eye Training. By G. Ricks, B.Sc. Two Vols., with 16 Coloured 

Plates in each Vol. Crown 410, 6s. each. 

Handbook of New Code of Regulations. By John F, Moss. New and Revised 

Edition, is. ; cloth, 2s. 
Historical Cartoons, CasseU's Coloured. Size 45 in. x 35 in. 2s. each. Mounted 

on canvas and varnished, with rollers, 5s. each. (Descriptive pamphlet, 16 pp., id.) 

Historical Course for Schools, CasseU's. Illustrated throughout. I. — Stories 

from English History, is. II. — The Simple Outline of English History, is. 3d. 
III.— The Class History of England, 2S. 6d. 

Latin-EngUsh Dictionary, CasseU's. Thoroughly revised and corrected, and in 
part re-written by J. R. V. Marchant, M.A. 3s. 6d. 



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Latin-English and English-Latin Dictionary. By J. R. Beard, D.D., and C. 
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Latin Primer, The New. By Prof. J. P. Postgate. 2s. 6d. 

Laws of Every-Day Life. For the Use of Schools. By H. O. Arnold- Forster. 

IS. 6d. Presentation Edition, 3s. 6d. 

Lay Texts for the Young, in English and French. By Mrs. Richard 

Strachey. 2s. 6d. 

Little Folks' History of England. By Isa Craig-Knox. Illustrated, is. 6d. 
Making of the Home, The : A Book of Domestic Economy for School and Home 
Use. By Mrs. Samuel A. Barnett. is. 6d. 

Marlborough Books ;— 

Arithmetic Examples. 3s. I French. Exercises, 3s. 6d. 

Arithmetic Rules, is. 6d. | French Grammar. 2s. 6d. 

German Grammar. 3s. 6d. 

Mechanics and Machine Design, Numerical Examples in Practical. By 

R. G. Blaine, M.E. With Diagrams. Cloth, 2s. 6d. 
"Model Joint" Wall Sheets, for Instruction in Manual Training. By S. 
Barter. Eight Sheets, 2s. 6d. each. 

Music, An Elementary Manual of. By Henry Leslie, is. 

Popular Educator, Cassell's New. With Revised Text, New Maps, New Coloured 
Plates, New Type, &c. To be completed in Eight Vols., 5s. each. 

Popular Educator, Cassell's. Complete in Six Vols. , 5s. each. 

Reader, The Citizen. By H. O, Arnold-Forster. is. 6d. 

Reader, The Temperance. By Rev. J. Dennis Hird. Crown 8vo, is. 6d. 

Readers, Cassell's "Higher Class":— "The World's Lumber Room," Illus- 
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Readers, Cassell's Historical. Illustrated throughout, printed on superior paper, 

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Readers, Cassell's Readable. Carefully graduated, extremely iuteresting, and 

Illustrated throughout. {List on application ) 

Readers for Infant Schools, Coloured. Three Books. Each containing 48 

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Readers, The Modern Geographical. Illustrated throughout. {List o?i application.) 

Readers, The Modern School. Illustrated, {List on application.) 

Reading and Spelling Book, Cassell's Illustrated, is. 

School Bank Manual, A. By Agnes Lambert. 6d. 

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Shakspere Reading Book, The, By H. Courthope Bowen, M.A. Illustrated, 

3s. 6d. Also issued in Three Rooks, is. each. 
Shakspere's Plays for School Use, Illustrated. 5 Books. 6d. each. 
Spelling, A Complete Manual of. By J. D, Morell, LL.D, is. 
Technical Educator, Cassell's, Illus'trated throughout. Four Vols. , 5s. each. 
Technical Manuals, Cassell's. Illustrated throughout :— 

Handrailing and Staireasing. 3s. 6d. 
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Technology, Manuals of. Edited by Prof. Ayrton, F.R.S., and Richard 

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The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics, By Prof. 

Hummel. 5s. 
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Design in Textile Fabrics. By T. R. Ashen- 
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Test Cards, Cassell's Combination. In sets, is. each. 

Test Cards, Cassell's Modern School. In sets, is. each. 

^ Copy of Cassell and Company's Complete Catalogue will 

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Selections from Cassell <£• Company's Publications, 



1B0oka for ^oirng p^opk. 

"Little Folks" Half-yearly Volume. Containing 432 pages of Letterpress, with 

Pictures on nearly every page, together with Two Full-page Plates printed in Colours 

and Four Tinted Plates. Coloured boards, 3s. 6d. ; or cloth gilt, gilt edges, 5s. 
Bo-Peep. A Book for the Little Ones. With Original Stories and Verses. 

Illustrated with beautiful Pictures on nearly every page. Yearly Volume. Elegant 

picture boards, 2s. 6d. ; cloth gilt, gilt edges, 3s. 6d. 
Cassell's Pictorial Scrap Book, containing nearly two thousand Pictures beautifully 

printed and handsomely bound in one large volume. Coloured boards, 15s. ; cloth 

lettered, 21s. 

Legends for LioneL New Picture Book by Walter Crane, 5s. 

Flora's Feast. A Masque of Flowers. Penned and Pictured by Walter 

Crane. With 40 pages in Colours. 5s. 
The New Children's Album. Fcap. 4to, 320 pages. Illustrated throughout. 3s. 6d. 
The Tales of the Sixty Mandarins. By P. V. R am as w ami Raju. 5s. 
Gift Books for Young People. By Popular Authors, With Four Original 
Illustrations in each. Cloth gilt, is. 6d. each. 

By 



The Boy Hunters of Kentucky. 

Edward S. Ellis. 
Bed. Peatlier: a Tale of the American 

Frontier. Bv Edward S. Ellis. 
Fritters ; or, " It's a Long Lane that has 



Tri 



no Turning." 

Those who Live in Glass 



louses shouldn't throw Stones. 
The Two Hardcastles. 
Seeking a City. 
Rhoda's Reward. 
Jack Marston's Anchor. 



Frank's Life-Battle. 

Major Monk's Motto; or, "Look Before 

you Leap." 
Tim Thomson's Trial ; or, " AU is not Gold 

that Glitters." 
TTrsula's Stumbling-Bloek. 
Buth's Life -Work; or, "No Pains, no 

Gains." 
Bags a I d Baiibows. 
Unele Willia:.i's Ctiarge. 
tretty Fink b Purpose. 



Books for Young People. Price 2s. 6d. each. 



Heroes of Every-day Life. By Laura Lane. 
Illustrated. 

Decisive Events in History. By Thomas 
Archer. With Original Illustrations. 

The True Bobjnson Crusoes. 

Peeps Abroad for Folks at Home. Illus- 
trated. 



Early Explorers. By Thomas Frost. 

Home Chat with our Young Folks. Illus- 
trated throughout. 

Jungle, Peak, and Plain. Illustrated through- 
out. 

The World's Lumber Boom. By Selina Gaye. 



'Golden Mottoes" Series, The. Each Book containing 208 pages, with Four 

full-page Original Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 2s. each. 



" Nil Desperandum." By the ReV. F. Lang- 
bridge, M.A. 

" Bear and Forbear." By Sarah Pitt. 

" Foremost if I Can." By Helen Atteridge. 



"Honour is my Guide." By Jeanie Hering 

(Mrs. Adams- Acton). 
" Aim at a Sure Ead." By Emily Searchfield. 
" He Conquers who Bndures." By the Author 

of " May Cunningham's Trial," &c. 



The "Cross and Crown" Series. Consisting of Stories founded on incidents 
which occurred during Religious Persecutions of Past Days. With Illustrations in 
each Book. 2s. 6d. each. 



By Fire and Sword: a Story of the 
Huguenots. By Thomas Archer. 

Adam Hepburn's Vow: a Tale of KLLrk 
and Covenant. By Annie S. Swan. 

No. XIII ; or. The Story of the Lost 
Vestal. By Emma Marshall. 



Strong to Suffer. By E. Wynne. 

Heroes of the Indian Empire ; or. Stories 

of Valour and Victory. By Ernest Foster. 
In Letters of Flame : A Story of th .• 

Waldenses. By C. L. Mateaux. 
Through Trial to Triumph. By Madeline 

B. Hunt. 



The World's Workers. A Series of 

Authors, With Portraits printed on a 
Dr. Arnold, of Bugby. By Rose E. Selle. 
The Earl of Shaftesbury. 
Sarah Bobinson, Agnes Weston, and Mrs. 
Meredith. 

Thomas A. Edison and Samuel F. B. 
Morse. 

Mrs. Somerville and Mary Carpenter. 
General Gordon. 
Charles Diekens. 

Sir Titus Salt and George Moore. 

Florence Nightingale, Catherine Marsh, 
Frances Bidley Havergal, Mrs. Ban- 
yard (" L. N. B."). 



New and Original Volumes by Popular 
tint as Frontispiece, is. each. 

Dr. Guthrie, Father Mathew, EUhu Bm-- 

ritt, Joseph Livesey. 
Sir Henry Havelock and Colin Campbell, 

Lord Clyde. 
Abraham Lincoln. 
David Livingstone. 
George Muller and Andrew Beed. 
Biehard Cobden. 
Benjamin Franklin. 
Handel. 

Turner the Artist. 
George and Bobert Stephenson. 



Selections from Cassell Company's Publications. 



Five Shilling Books for Young People. 

gilt, 5s. each. 
ITnder Bayard's Banner. By Henry Frith. 
Th.e Romance of Invention. Byjas. Burnley. 
Tlie Cliampion of Odin ; or. Viking Lite 
in the Days of Old. By J. Fred. Hodgetts. 



With Original Illustrations. Cloth 

Bound by a Spell; or, the Hunted Witeli 

of the Forest. By the Hon. Mrs. Greene. 
The King's Command, A Story for G-lrls. 

By Maggie Symington. 



With Original Illustrations. 



Three and Sixpenny Books for Young People. 

Cloth gilt, 3s. 6d. each. 
Polly : A New-Pashioned Girl. By L. T, 

Meade. 

The Palace Beautiful. By L. T. INIeade. 
"Follow my Leader;" or, the Boys of 

Templeton. By Talbot Baines Reed. 
For Fortune and Glory; a Story of the 

Soudan War. By Lewis Hougfh. 
Thp Cost of a Mistake. By Sarah Pitt. 
A World of Girls : A Story of a School. 

By L. T. Meade. 

Freedom's Sword : A Story of the Days of Wallace and Bruce. By Annie S. Swan. 



On Board the "Esmeralda;" or, Martin 

Leigh's Log. By John C. Hutcheson. 
Lost among White Africans : A Boy's 
Adventures on the Upper Congo. By 
David Ker. 

In Quest of Gold ; or. Under the Whanga 

Falls. By Alfred St. Johnston. 
For Queen and King ; or, the Loyal 

'Prentice. By Henry Frith. 
Perils Afloat and Brigands Ashore. By 
Alfred Ehves. 



The Deerfoot Series. By Edward S. Ellis, Author of " Boy Pioneer Series," 
&c. &c. With Four full-page Illustrations in each Book. Cloth, 2s. 6d. each. 
Hunters of the Ozak. | Camp in the Mountains. 

Last War Trail. 



The "Boy Pioneer" Series. By Edward S. Ellis. With Four Full-page 

Illustrations in each Book. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. each. 
Ned in the Woods. A Tale of Early Days I Ned on the B-iver. A Tale of Indian River 
in the West. | Warfare. 

Ned in the Block House. A Story of Pioneer Life in Kentucky. 



The "Log Cabin" Series. By Edward S. Ellis. With Four FuU-page lUus- 

trations in each. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d. each. 

The Lost Trail. | Camp-Fire and Wigwam. 

Footprints in the Forest. 



The "Great River" Series. (Uniform with the "Log Cabin" Series.) By 
Edward S. Ellis. Illustrated. Crown 8vo, cloth, bevelled boards, 2s. 6d. each. 
Down the Mississippi. | Lost in the Wilds. 

Up the Tapajos: or. Adventures in Brazil. 



Sixpenny Story Books. 

well-known Writers. 
The Smuggler's Cave. 
Little Lizzie. 
The Boat Club. 
Luke Barnieott. 



All Illustrated, and containing Interesting Stories by 



Little Bird. 
Little Pickles. 
The Elehester College 
Boys. 



My First Cruise. 

The Little Peacemaker. 

The Delft Jug. 



Cassell's Picture Story Books. Each containing 60 pages of Pictures and 
Stories, &c. 6d. each. 

Little Talks. 
Bright Stars. 
Nursery Joys. 
Pet's Posy. 
Tiny Tales. 



Daisy's Story Book. 
Dot's Story Book. 
A Nest of Stni-ies. 
Good Night Stories. 
Chats for Small Chatterers. 



Auntie's Stories. 
Birdie's Story Book. 
Little Chimes. 
A Sheaf of Tales. 
Dewdrop Stories. 



Illustrated Books for the Little Ones. Containing interesting Stories. All 



Illustrated, is. each; 
Scrambles and Scrapes. 
Tittle Tattle Tales. 
Wandering Ways. 
Dumb Friends. 
Indoors and Out. 
Some Farm Friends. 



cloth gilt, IS. 6d. 

Those Golden Sands. 
Little Mothers and their 

Children. 
Our Pretty Pets. 
Our Schoolday Hours. 
Creatures Tame. 



Creatures Wild. 
Up and Down the Garden. 
All Scrts Qt Adventures. 
Our Sunday Stories. 
Our Holiday Hours. 



Albums for Children. Price 3s. 6d. each. 

The Chit-chat Album. Illustrated. 

The Album for Home, School, and Play. 
Containing Stories by Popular Authors. Set 
in bold type, and illustrated throughout 



The New Children's Album. Illustrated. 
My Own Album of Animals. Illustrated. 
Picture Album of All Sorts. Illustrated. 
Little Folks' Holiday Album. Illustrated. 



Selections from Cassell <t Cotnpany's Publications, 



Shilling Story Books. All Illustrated, and containing Interesting Stories. 



Seventeen Cats. 
Bunty and tlie Bo vs. 
aiie Heir of Elmdale. 
The Mystery at Shoneliff 

Seuool. 
Claimed ar Last, and Key's 

•±i award. 
Tliorns and Tangles. 



Tlie Cuckoo in tlie Kobin's 
John's Mistake. [Nest. 
Diamonds in the Sand. 
Surly Bob. 

The History of Five Little 

Pitchers. 
The Giant's Cradle. 
Shag and Doll. 



Aunt Lucia's Locket. 
The Magic Mirror. 
The Cost of Revenge. 
Clever Frank. 
Among the Kedskins. 
The Ferryman of BrilL 
Harry Maxwell. 
A Banished Monarch. 



Cassell's Children's Treasuries. 

is profusely Illustrated. Cloth, 



Each Volume contains Stories or Poetry, and 
;. each. 



Cock Kobin, and other Nursery Bhymes. 
The Queen of Hearts. 
Old Mother Hubbard. 
Tuneful Lays for Merry Days. 
Cheerful Songs for Toujig Folks. 
Pretty Poems for Young People. 
The Children's Joy. 



Pretty Pictures and Pleasant Stories. 

Our Picture Book. 

Tales for the Little Ones. 

My Sunday Book of Pictures. 

Sunday G-arland of Pictures and Stories. 

Sunday Readings for Little Folks. 



"Little Folks" Painting Books. ^ 

Water-Colour Painting, is. each. 
Fruits and Blossoms for " Little Folks " 
to Paint. 

The "Little Folks" Illuminating Book. 
Pictures to Paint. 



Text, and Outline Illustrations for 



Pictures to Paint and Texts to Illumi- 
nate (the two above books, handsomely 
bound in cloth), price 2S. 6d. 

The " Little FolKs " Proverb Painting 
Book. Cloth only, 2S. 



Eighteenpenny Story Books. AU 

Wee Willie Winkie. 

Ups and Downs of a Donkey's Life. 

Three Wee Ulster Lassies. 

ITp the Ladder. 

Dick's Hero; and other Stories. 
The Chip Boy. 

Raggles, Baggies, and the Emperor. 
Roses from Thorns. 
Faith's Father. 



d throughout. 

By Land and Sea. 

The Young Berringtons. 

Jeff and Lefc. 

Tom Morris's Error. 

Worth more than Gold. 

"Through Flood-Through Fire;" and 

other Stories. 
The Girl with the Golden Locks. 
Stories of the Olden Time. 



The "World in Pictures" Series. 

A Ramble Round France. 

All the Russias. 

Chats about Germany. 

The Land of the Pyramids (Egypt). 

Peeps into China. 



Illustrated throughout. 2S. 6d. each. 

The Eastern Wonderland (Japan). 
Glimpses of South America. 
Round Africa. 

The Land of Temples (India). 
The Isles of the Pacific. 



Two-Shilling Story Books. All Illustrated. 



stories of the Tower. 
Mr. Burke's Nieces. 
May Cunningham's TriaL 
The Top of the Ladder : 

How to Reach it. 
Little Flotsam. 
Madge and her Friends. 



The caiildren of the Court. 
A Moonbeam Tangle. 
Maid Marjory. 
The 'Saves Cats of the Tip- 

pertons. 
Marion's Two Homes. 
Little Folks' Sunday Book. 



Two Fottrpenny Bits. 

Poor Nelly. 

Tom Heriot. 

Aunt Tabitha's Waifs. 

In Mischief Again. 

Throiigh Peril to Fortune. 

Feggy, and other Tales. 



The Magic Flower Pot. 



School Girls. 



Half-crown Books. 

Little Hin ges. 
Margaret's Enemy. 
Pen's Perplexities. 
Notable Shipwrecks. 
Golden Days. 

Wonders of Common Things. 
At the South Pole. 



Truth will Out. 

Pictures of School Life and Boyhood. 
The Young Man in the Battle of Life. By 

the Rev. Dr. Landels. 
The True Glory of Woman. By the Rev. 

Dr. Landels. 
The Wise Woman. By (^orge Macdonald. 



Soldier and Patriot (George Washington). 



Selections from Cassell & Company's Publications, 



Picture Teacliing Series, Each book 

gilt, coloured edges, 2S. 6d. each. 

Through. Pieture-Land. 
Picture Teaching for Young and Old. 
Scraps of Knowledge for the Little 
Ones. 

Great Lessons from Little Things. 
Woodland Romances. 



Illustrated throughout. Fcap. 4to, cloch 



stories of Girlhood. 

Frisk and his Flock. 

Pussy Tip-Toes' Family. 

The Boy Joiner and Model Maker. 

The Children of Holy Scripture. 



Library of Wonders. Illustrated Gift-books for Boys. Paper is. ; cloth, is. 6d. 

Wonderful Adventures. I Wonderful Balloon Ascents. 

Wonders of Animal Instinct. | Wonders of Bodily Strength and Skill. 

Wonderful Escapes. 



Books for the Little Ones. Fully Ilk 

A Dozen and One; or. The Boys and 
Girls of Polly's Bing. By Mary D. 
Brine. Full of Illustrations, ss. 

The Merry-go-Bound Poems for Children. 
Illustrated througfhout. 5s. 

Khymes for the Young Folk. By William 
Allingham. Beautifully Illustrated. 3s. 5d. 

The Little Doings of some Little Folks. 
By Chatty Cheerful. Illustrated. 5s. 

The Sunday Scrap Book. With One Thou- 
sand Scripture Pictures. Boards, 5s. ; cloth, 
7s. 6d. 

Daisy Dimple's Scrap Book. Containing 

afcout 1,000 Pictures. Cloth g^ilt, 7s. 6d. 
The History Scrap Book. "With nearly 

1,000 EiigravinjJS. 5s. ; cloth, 7s. 6d. 
The Little Folks' Out and About Book. 

By Chatty Cheerful. Illustrated. 55. 
Myself and my Friends. By Olive Patch. 

With numerous Illustrations. Crown 4to. 5s. 
A Parcel of Children. By Olive Patch. With 

numerous Illustrations. Crown 4to. 5s. 
Little Folks' Picture Album. With 168 

Larg-e Pictures. 5s. 
Little Folks' Picture Gallery. With 150 

Illustrations. 5s. 



The Old Fairy Tales. With Original Illus- 
trations. Boards rs. ; cloth, is. 6d. 

My Diary. With Twelve Coloured Plates and 
3^6 Woodcuts. IS. 

Happy Little People. By Olive Patch. With 
lllustratioi s. 5s. 

"Little Folks" Albtun of Music, The. 
Illustrated. 3s. 6d. 

Cheerful Clatter. Nearly One Hundred Full- 
pajre Pictures. 3s. 6d. 

Twilight Fancies. Full of charming Pictures. 
Boards, 2S. 6d. 

HapTDy Go Luc>y. 2s. 

Laisy Blue Eyes. as. 

Good Times, is. 6d. 

Jolly Little Stories, is. 6d. 

Our Littl° Friends, is. 6d. 

Playful Hours, is. 6d. 

Jo vfulDavs. IS. 6d. 

Pleasure for All. is. 6d. 

The Story of Kobin Hood. With Coloured 

Illustrations. 2S. 6d. 
The Pilgrim's Progress. With Coloured 

lUustratit ns. 2S. 6d. 



Books for Boys. 

Ships, Sailors, and the Sea. By R. J. 

Cornewah-Jones. Illustrated. 53. 
Famous Sailors of Foi-mer Times, His- 
tory of the Sea Fathers. By Clements 
Markham. Illustrated. 2s. 6d. 



Modern Explorers. By Thomas Frost. Illus- 
trated. 5s. 

Wild Adventures in Wild Places. By Dr. 
Gordon Stables. M.D., R.N. Illustrated, ss. 



Books for all Children. 

Cassell's Robinson Crusoe. With 100 
striking Illustrations. Cloth, 3s. 6d. ; gilt 
edges, 5s. 

Cassell's Swiss Family Robinson. Illus- 
trated. Cloth, 3s. 6d. ; gilt edges, ss. 

Sunny Spain: Its People and Places, 
with Glimpses of its History. By 
Oiive Paten. Illustrated. 5s. 

Rambles Round London Town. By C. L. 
Mateaux. Illustrated, ss- 

Familiar Friends. By Olive Patch. Illus- 
trated. Cloth gilt, ss. 

Odd Folks at Home. By C. L. Matdaux. 
With nearly 150 Illustrations. 5s. 



Field Friends and Forest Foes. By Olive 
Patch. Profusely Illustrated. 5s. 

Silver Wings and Golden Scales. Illus- 
trated. 5s. 

Tiny Houses and their Builders. Illus- 
trated. 5s. 

Children of all Nations. Their Homes, their 

Schools, their Plaj grounds. Illustrated, ss- 
Aro'ind and about Old England. Illustrated. 

Boards. 3s. 6d. ; cloth, "ilt edge-, ss. 
Paws and claws. Illustrated. Boards, 3s. 6d. ; 

cloth, g-ilt edges, 5s. 
Tim Trumble's " Little Mother." By C L. 

Mateaux. Illustrated, ss. 



CASSELL <fc COMPANY, Limited, Ltidgate ffill, Londori, Paris, Nru) 
York & Melbourne, 



7o/ 



